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Chapter 3American Military Policy

1783-1860

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Beginnings of America’s Professional Military

• Theory & Reality in conflict:– Uneven military policy for first 75 years– Militia favored in theory by majority of Americans

• Not supported in reality to fight its wars

• NTL US citizen soldiers held own in early going:– Native American Hostilities => the push westward – War of 1812 (with qualifications)– Mexican War (1846-1847) => (validates USMA)

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Congress & A Peacetime Army• Role of Congress:

– Lip Service paid to theory of “citizen soldier” Militia• But no real support or funding for Militia

– Tacit acceptance of regular Army & officer corps– Congress initially rejects Washington’s Four point program

proposal to establish a small professional standing army– New Constitution allays many of Congress’s concerns

• Washington’s model is finally adopted (with modification)• USMA is established in 1802

• Gradually Officers view service as long life calling:– Result: commit to longer careers – Develop more serious professional outlook– Form close relationships – Institutional identity developed – Military traditions take shape

• Honored by those who follow

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Impact of French Revolution• America ambivalent & divided

– Praised revolutionary ideal vs. deplore radical excesses

• Divided primarily along party & regional lines– Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans for French

• Pro-democracy in line with core party principals

– Hamilton's Federalists for British • Party for law & order of a strong central government

– Official American Government position?

• Neutrality

• Economic impact:– Brits blockade French ports & attack shipping at sea

– French employ Privateers & raiders

– America trades with both & is attacked by both

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Impact of Royal Navy

• British Navy most effective in control of seas– Capture 250 American Merchants trading with France– Force America to agree to British treaty demands

• America promised to comply with British embargo terms• Brits promise to abandon frontier posts they still occupy

• French reaction: seize American ships– America caught in middle (but Brits have upper hand)– 1789-1800: undeclared Quasi-war with French ensues

• Congressional reaction:– Builds 54 warships & makes USN “first line of defense”– Also conducts operations against Barbary Pirates (SW)

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War of 1812

• Background & Overview– Brits inflict greatest harm to US trade & freedom of seas– Embargo Act major failure & very unpopular– Political & regional division (NE vs. SW) on war– Strong British provocation & impressments take toll

• Madison concludes war with Canada necessary– Key way to get Britain’s attention: freedom of the Seas– America very divided and unprepared for war– Congress declares war anyway

• War of 1812 summary (Map overview)=>

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War of 1812 – Map overview

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War of 1812- Northern Theater Strategy

• Strategy formulated for invasion of Canada

Obstacles to executing above strategy?

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Obstacles to Strategy’s Execution

• New England a major obstacle to its execution– No political support for war– No Militia mobilized by NE states for Federal Gov.– NE Militia held for local use only

• West eager for war but lack logistics support– Major challenge:

• Administrative problems

• How to equip, feed, & manage its Militia

• Impact on initial American Operations in North?

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Initial American Operations• Early American operations poorly

supported & executed– Most result in disaster or are aborted – American poor leadership, training, & lack

of coordination among commanders– Courage lacking in some cases

• Gen William Hull surrenders 2000 at Detroit• BG J. Winchester at Battle of Frenchtown

• British repel Americans & go on offensive– Capture Detroit & threaten Michigan &

Ohio river valley– On Niagara Front- mostly stalemate

• Few exceptions to American defeat: – Early US Navy Ops in ocean to protect

American trade & harass Brits– Later in NW: Perry at Put-in-Bay– MG Harrison retook Detroit & defeat Brits

& Tecumseh in Battle of Thames • (Destroyed Brit-Indian alliance)

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Major British Advantage• British Control of the Sea:

– Blockade American Ports for re-supply & reinforcement– British enjoy all above plus transportation & operational support

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British Strategy & Operations• Three major British Offenses

conducted during war:– 1. Attempt from Canada via Lake

Champlain• But U. S. Navy blocks British advance• Commodore Macdonough defeats

British squadron on Lake Champlain• With his LOC threatened, Gen Prevost

orders his Army of 10K to return to Canada

– 2. Chesapeake Offense –• Burn Capitol & White House• Fail to seize key port of Baltimore (US

privateer base)

– 3. Mississippi via New Orleans• Jackson blocks & defeats

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2. British Chesapeake Offense• 24 August Gen Ross, supported by

Admiral Cockburn, attack & defeat American force blocking British advance on Washington at Battle of Bladensburg– Burn Capitol & White House & other public

buildings around Washington & then withdraw

• Ross then moves his Army up Chesapeake to threaten Baltimore– 12 Sep he defeats US force at North Point

• Ross is killed by American sharpshooter

– A 25 hour Naval bombardment of Fort McHeny fails & blocks British Navy advance to support Army’s attack on Baltimore

• “Our flag was still there…” Francis Scott Key

• Failure to seize key port of Baltimore enabled continued operation by privateers

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3. Mississippi via New Orleans• 50 British ships & 5300 troops

arrive 13 Dec 1814 off New Orleans gulf coast from Jamaica– Troops disembark to barges & land on

the Gulf coast– To get to New Orleans Brits must get

past Jackson’s defenses south of city• British attack Jackson’s well

fortified position & are repulsed– After several initial engagements Brit

General Pakenham launches assault on Jan 1815 against main defense on East & a secondary attack on West side held by Gen David Morgan

– Americans block & repulse British– British suffer 2000 CAS to 70 US

• Treaty of Ghent had officially ends war six weeks before– Why do Brits decide to end the War?

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Decision to End War of 1812

• Brits end war soon after Napoleon defeated

– Lake Champlain Offensive turned back by USN– Brits conclude they can’t win decisively

• Wellington: “Americans have no ‘center of gravity’”

– Most important: Napoleon defeated-• “Causi bellum” eliminated

• Peace settlement (Treaty of Ghent)– Status quo antebellum (?)– Only real losers in War of 1812?

• Impact of war on American Military?

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Post War Lessons Learned for Military

• American Army & Navy status now secured

• NTL- Several flaws revealed as a result of war:– For Defense of Nation- Militia system is unreliable– Regular Army better, but still plagued by problems

• Poor leadership during early stages of war identified

• Admin & logistic support deficient

• War Department require major overhaul

• As result: Nation makes first serious attempt to reform its Armed Forces=>

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Early Attempts at Professionalism• Primary job of Military after 1815:

– Frontier constabulary (primarily out West)

• Strategic purpose of military: (IAW Congress’ priorities)– 1. Defend Nation from invasion=> strong but small Navy

• Considered adequate for the job

– 2. Establish fortification system along coast & inlets• Objective: Delay invaders until Militia formed and deployed

• Debate continues: Militia vs. standing Army:– SECWAR John C. Calhoun’s proposed reforms:

• Standing regular Army => proposed Cardre system

• Army of 6313 readily expandable to 11,558 Officers & men

• Peacetime Units at half strength => doubled in size of war

• Employ Federal Volunteers and 288 Officers to fill out billets

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Reform’s Impact on Officer Corp

• Army life becomes more stable– Officers view army more as a career & remain longer– Take their profession of arms more seriously– Military competence improves as it’s professionalized

• U. S. Military Academy revived and reformed– Established standards and traditions– Captain Thayer responsible for key reforms

• Acts as first superintendent=> 4 year curriculum– Emphasis on Engineering and Math

• Established Cadet ranks to stress leadership

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Other Professional Trends

• Other indicators of a more professional institution:– More efficient Bureau system established

• Also adopted the Navy

– Mid-grade professional military schools• Arty at Fort Monroe & Infantry at Fort Leavenworth

– Professional Journals on Tactics & equip. reform• Opened debate on how to improve Army (later Navy)

• Military support for Nation’s economic expansion:– Indian pacification out West– Distracts from professional development– Deepen harbors, survey turnpikes, Charts & Navaids, exploration

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Military Professionalism & Politics

• Military professionalism from political standpoint:– Regular Army still suspect in eyes of many Americans

– Firm belief that any patriot can lead an army prevails

• Theoretical vice actual support for militia continues– Poor uniform training, weapons, equipment

– Lack of adequate funding support from the states

• Volunteer Militia form to fill void but lack basic support– Clubs and fraternal associations built around martial ceremony– Mostly dash but potential source of manpower in emergency

• De facto reliance on small regular force in reality– Citizen soldiers supplement regular army manpower– Old attitude prevails: patriots just as capable as pros

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Mexican War - Map Overview

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Mexican War (U.S. Strategy)

• Project Military power into North Mexico– Concentrate on areas coveted by Polk admin– Occupy California and New Mexico– Hold Northern Mexican provinces as “bargain chips”– Impose settlement on Mexico favorable to U.S.

• Aims of above strategy proved difficult to achieve– Required modification=> shift center of gravity south

• Also domestic politics intrudes into American FP– Democrats and Southern region of U.S. for war– Whigs & anti-slave Democrats of NE against war– Slavery becomes the underlying issue of Mexican War

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Northern Campaign

• Gen Taylor crosses Rio Grande & captures Matamoras– Ordered by Polk to Monterrey

• Suffers heavy casualties

– Accepts 8 week Truce but forced by Polk to abrogate it

• By Dec 1846 Americans control Northern Mexico– Including California and New

Mexico– Mexican reaction?– Refuse to give in – Recall American strategic aim?

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Scott’s Campaign (1847)• US Grand Strategic aim: find & seize Mexico’s center of gravity • General Winfield Scott’s campaign in South:

– Scott lands 14K Army + 300 USMC at Veracruz & captures it– Then marches 225 miles thru Sierra Madre to capture Mexico City

• (the new designated Mexican center of gravity)

• Effective tactics & innovation employed:– Meticulous planning of professional USMA officer corps pays off– Coordinated amphibious landing- surf boats built and used IAW plan– “Combat loaded” equipment saves time– Landing at Veracruz unopposed & falls after brief siege

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Battle of Cerro Gordo• From Veracruz on to Mexico

City:– 40 miles inland to west Army

encounters Sierra Madre• Rugged, rocky & difficult path -

perfect for enemy to interdict

– Santa Anna blocks Scott’s path – Scott’s engineers recon & search

for way around to enemy rear

• Brief but sharp battle ensues-> Mexicans fall back in disorder– Santa Anna falls back in

disarray – later to hold another defensive choke point along route

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Prelude to Final Assaults

• Following delay to accommodate departure of 7 Regiments– Volunteer enlistments up & insist on returning home

• Scott continues on to Mexico City following delay – Again encounters enemy’s attempt to block his path– Innovative tactics work around blocking attempts– Replay of Cerro Gordo again and again

• Close in on primary objective with confidence– Army at its best and most effective to date

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Final Assault- Mexico City

• Scott continues his advance into Mexico City

• Bombards then assaults Chapultepec Castle– Mexican cadets try to defend– Enemy battery is captured

• City falls 14 Sept 1847– 11k US defeat 30K Mexicans – Defeat well entrenched troops

• Modified strategy validated– Center of gravity finally identified

• Major political impact– US victory forces negotiations– Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• CA, NM, AZ to US

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Results, Lessons Learned, & significance• Important “firsts” for American military forces:

– Power projection abroad – success• Mobilize and maintain Army in foreign country

– Key role of US Navy• Transport, support, & re-supply (like Brits during 1812-14)

• Troops acquitted themselves well– Defeat larger force; acted with courage– Officer leadership displayed (especially USMA grads)– West Point training & development paid off

• Especially Evident during Scott’s campaign• Tactically flexibility & innovation of officer engineers

• Total American causalities: 7700 Dead – (6800 to disease/900 KIAs)

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New Technological Developments & Adaptations

• New energy invention application (sea & land):– Steam Engine applied to potential military use– Railroad & Steamship

• (Expand trade & shorten time for transportation)

– Problems to overcome: ($, fuel, maintenance, payload)• Inefficient use of energy & Vulnerability (paddlewheel)

• Advances in Naval Artillery:– Dahlgren’s 11” muzzle load smooth bore:– Modified coke bottle shape (absorb blast)

• Fired shell (wood) or solid shot

– Critical intermediate step on way to rifled arty– Trend: cannon on steamships (tactical link established)

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Ordnance & Weapons Advances

• Improvements in Army ordnance & weapons:– Percussion cap –eliminated priming– Rifled Musket – improved accuracy & range– Minnie ball – solves problem of loading rifle quickly

• Army adopts rifled musket by mid-1850s– Ignores tactical implications of increased range/fire rate– Would pay heavy price as a result during Civil War

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American Strategic Thought

• American Strategic Thought & its limitations:– Dennis Hart Mahon & West Point’s Napoleon Club

• (Jomini’s “cookbook”)

– Fortified active defense strategy & tactics • (then counterattack)

– Developed future leaders of Civil War (Hallack & others)

• “Keep troops concentrated & alert for surprise”

• Practical focus of most mid 19th century Military Officers:– Day to day nitty-gritty details of military tactics & equipment

– Strategic Thought left to future strategist

• (especially for Navy in late 19th century (A. T. Mahan)

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Overall Assessment• Gradual progress toward standing Army:

– Focus: pacify western frontier & Indians out West

• For War: fill out Army with volunteers (Mexican War)– Established coastal fortifications & defend coasts

• Delay invader to permit time to mobilize

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Overall Assessment- 2• Technological improvements achieved:

– Land: officers prepared to exploit railroads• To be applied successfully by Confederates at First Bull Run

– Adapted rifled musket with Minie ball

• Tactical Implications:– Army failed to appreciate tactical implications of rifle

• Smooth bore musket vs. rifled musket with Minie ball

• 100 vice 400 yard range with higher rate of fire

• Kill zone increased by factor of 4 = higher casualties– Especially without tactical adjustment to assault methods

• At Sea: Steamships fitted w/Dahlgren’s cannon mod.– Transition link to bigger long range rifled guns on ships

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Overall Assessment- 3

• USMA & professional schools established:– Thayer reforms of 1820s improve officer quality

• Professional officer corps emerges:– Begin to think of Army as calling – Officers view their profession as a career:

• Think more about military art & science as result

• Problems would remain:– Militia declined after 1815

• Attempts to fill gap with volunteer Militias & martial clubs

– Amateur tradition alive & well for Americans:• Civilian sentiment persisted over standing regular army• Civil War would test amateur tradition & theory to the limit• Anybody can lead men in combat (At least until first shot fired)

Next Assignment: The Civil War

Back-up Slides

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Forming Peacetime Military (1783-1846)

• Factors Pro & Con for peacetime military:– Federalists Party support strong central government– Requires strong professional National force

• Washington’s Four point program proposal:– 1. Establish small regular Army– 2. Establish Militia under Federal Government control

• Two tiers: Ready Volunteers and Common Militia

– 3. Establish arsenals & armament factories– 4. Establish Military Academies to foster military science

• Congressional Response:– Rejects Hamilton’s endorsement & disbands Continental Army– Forms First American Regiment (700 Militia with 1 yr

enlistments)

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Washington’s Model Prevails

• Washington’s model shaped US land force by early 1800s– Still limited Federal control over militia– No volunteer or Federal Select militia act passed

• Result:=> emergency requires 90 day mobilization– Also no uniform Federal standards imposed on militia– Impact- State Militias suffer:

• Training, organization, regulations, equipment

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U. S. Constitution to the Rescue

• Constitution’s impact- solves problem:– Eliminates weak confederation government– Article #1 gives Congress power over military

• Alleviates Congress’ concern of Presidential power– Divided power between Congress & President

• Checks and Balances & Division of Authority

– Congress given most explicit power to control military• (see section 8 of Article 1 of Constitution)

– Reserves control of Militia to the States (not Feds)

• Congress established system of arsenals & arms– 1802: U. S. Military Academy established

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Mexican War (Prelude) • Background: U.S. Foreign

Policy- manifest destiny– Goal: all of North America

• Louisiana Purchase from Napoleon

• Florida from Spain• Oregon Territory split with

Brits in 1849 compromise

• US long covets southwest owned by Mexico– Opportunity presents itself– After Texas Revolution=>– Texans apply for statehood– Annexed by US in 1845

• Impact on US/Mex relations?

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Mexican War (US Plans, & Preparation)• American Plans & Prep much improved since 1812

– President Polk directs MG Taylor to deploy to south Texas border – CA Agents, Freemont scouts, & US Navy also pre-position – Take strategic positions on, around, and off West Coast of CA:

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Mexican War (Battle of Palo Alto- May 1946)• Disposition of forces:

– Zac Taylor with 2300 vs. Arista with 6000

– Offsetting Mexican numbers: • Strong leadership of professional officer corps (USMA)

• Mexican assaults w/smooth bore muskets & bronze cannon

• Versus American cannon fire from fortified position

• Battle Execution:– Arista makes two failed frontal attacks then withdraws

– Mexican cavalry attempts to flank American position

– Piecemeal attacks allows Taylor to shift forces to plug holes via tactical LOCs

– Taylor’s Arty in strong defensive positions suppress assaults & Arista withdraws his forces

• Battle damage assessment (BDA):– American hold field at cost of 200 causalities

– Mexicans withdraw after suffering 1600 casualties (cas.)

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Battle of Buena Vista (1847)

• Meanwhile Santa Anna returns from exile in Cuba– Assumes CINC, then Mexican Presidency

– Taylor establishes defensive position with 5K troops at Buena Vista

– Santa Anna attacks 22-23 Feb 1847

• Taylor employs shuttle tactics on interior lines – Again- Plugs holes made by assaulting Mexicans

attacking with smooth bore muskets

– Americans hold as a result of their effective use of cannon direct fire against attackers

– Santa Anna withdraws w/2K cas. vs .700 US cas.

• Strategic significance of Buena Vista ??? – Was this battle consistent with achieving U.S. aim?

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Final Assaults

• Scott commences operations w/recon to probe– Search vulnerable points in Santa

Anna’s defenses

– Employs tactical surprise (deploys arty across Pedregal)

• Scott opens attack w/effective field arty bombardment– Shocks Mexican infantry & attacks

flanks

– Exploits gaps in enemy defenses

• Any exception to this tactical approach?

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Battle of Molino del Ray

• Notable exception: – Battle of Molino del Ray

• Frontal assault cost Scott 25% casualties- high cost victory– American self confidence

& individual courage carry day

– Also Mexican infantry armed with older muskets

• Less range and slower rate of fire