1 edm 6210 education policy and society tsang wing-kwong rm. 416, ext. 6922 pong suet-ling rm. 417,...

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EDM 6210 EDM 6210

Education Policy and SocietyEducation Policy and Society

Tsang Wing-kwongTsang Wing-kwongRm. 416, Ext. 6922Rm. 416, Ext. 6922

Pong Suet-lingPong Suet-lingRm. 417, Ext. 6974Rm. 417, Ext. 6974

http://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~wktsanghttp://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~wktsang

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Why Education Policy and Society?

■ 2010年 10月 14日

要聞 > 要聞

中學設基本法校內試

校長有讚有彈家長憂死背法律

【明報專訊】施政報告建議整合現時德育、公民教育和國民教育課程，在

2013/14學年開始會正名為獨立的「德育及國民教育」學科，更要求增加課時

教授《基本法》，並設校內試作考核，教育局會建立基本法試題庫供學校使

用。有校長擔心增加基本法課程加重教師壓力，家長亦指措施要求學生死背

基本法條文，失去學習趣味。

網上試題庫教材供下載

現時一般學校已有不少國民教育活動，零星散佈於課外活動和周會聚會，

教育局邀請課程發展議會檢視中小學德育及公民教育課程架構後，昨在施政

報告中建議於 2013/14年把課程「升格」為獨立「學科」，並增加教授《基本

法》時數及設校內考試，但不會成為文憑試科目。教育局會編制《基本法》

試題庫及教材套，供學校安排學生上網或下載考題後應試。

中小生獲資助參加交流

報告又建議擴大內地交流團，提出全港中小學生，一生都有一次機會獲半

價資助參與交流團。「薪火相傳」計劃亦於 2015/16起增 4000個名額，與志

願團體合辦更多內地交流活動。準教師也會獲政府資助到內地參加專業研習

班，了解國情。

福建中學（小西灣）校長黃均瑜對新措施表示歡迎，他表示以往非官方機

構舉行較輕鬆的基本法推廣，包括舊曲新詞、問答比賽等吸引少數人參加，

台灣等地的國民教育則較理直氣壯，學校會定期升國旗、唱國歌，他說﹕「現

在回歸 13年，學校是時候推行規範化的國民教育，在乎推行方法是否能軟硬

■ 2010年 10月 24日 (日)

法政隨筆余若薇

國民教育不等於公民教育

近年來，施政報告對教育的著墨不多，但總有一段提到國民教育，每年投

放大量資源。

今年施政報告中，不單有 5段提到國民教育，所佔篇幅更長，牽涉資源更

多，而且第 161段更提到將來中小學原有的公民教育會改為獨立的「德育及

國民教育科」。立法會議員多番追問，這是否必修科？為何沒有任何諮詢？

是誰的決定？是否政治決定？教育局官員一概沒有答案。

到內地交流，認識國情，關心祖國絕對正確，但國民教育絕不能代替公民

教育，國民與公民只差一字，但作為公民既要了解國情，亦應具國際視野，

懂得如何做個地球村的良好公民 global citizen。公民教育著重公民責任與權

利，維護天賦人權自由，著重個人與社會關係，這與施政報告所指以內地交

流來「加強對國民身分的認同，體會兩地同根同心、血脈相連」是兩碼子的

事。

何況，政府推的國民教育，目的是教導學生政治正確，報喜不報憂，只需

歌頌中國經濟崛起，而無需正視政權貪污腐敗。例如學生參觀上海世博，便

要交功課，文章題目是﹕「2010上海世博會改變世界的一項偉大發明」，學

生都要學會歌功頌德。至於劉曉波以言入罪，被判入獄 11年，即使榮獲諾貝

爾和平獎，也只好如特首一般「不予置評」，這正是公民教育講求言論自由

與國民教育只要政治正確的最大分別。

香港為何要實行「一國兩制」而非一國一制？這當然意味香港的原有制度，

以及自由、人權、法治等核心價值，有值得保留的理由。為政者視教育為「洗

腦」的手段，利用學生滿足其政治任務，這實在是港人的可悲。

■ 2010年 11月 2日 (二)

法政隨筆李柱銘

倒模教育要不得

特首曾蔭權在今年施政報告中，提出要加強國民教育，預計於二零一三／

一四學年，獨立推行德育及國民教育科。這個建議旋即在社會上、議會內惹

起激烈討論，因大家認為這項莫名其妙的教育政策，顯然具政治目的。

何以莫名其妙呢？其實公眾也認同特區應推行國民教育，但以此取代公民

教育，則政治洗腦意味甚濃。公民教育是要讓學生以宏觀角度，了解身為社

會以至地球的一員，需要負上的權利和責任，與認識人權、自由等世界性價

值觀。至於對於自身國家認識、身份認同的國民教育，則單單屬公民教育的

一部份，萬萬不可凌駕於公民教育之上。

何況，近年特區推行的國民教育，取向以歌功頌德為主，僅讓學生著眼於

國家的豐功偉業，而交流團亦只到繁榮的城市，刻意以偏概全，學生根本不

能全面了解國家的實際情況。就連真實國情，學生也只能一知半解，究竟這

樣的國民教育，欲培養出怎樣的國民呢？

筆者認為特區政府推行這種不鼓勵獨立思考、批判思維的國民教育，目的

顯然是要培育便於管治的盲目愛國者。負責推銷政策的教育局局長孫明揚

指，國民教育應涵蓋國家千年文化。既非中史科，那他看來是要藉此在學生

心裡，確立並延續國家千年都沒有民主的思想，並承傳忠君愛國的理念，演

化成忠黨愛國，國民必須奉黨意如同聖旨，乖乖聽話。

2010年 11月 09日

觀點黃均瑜

國民教育走進課堂仍然是禁忌嗎？

【明報專訊】

每當特區政府建議加強國民教育，總會招來謾罵與批評。今年施政報告提出「進一步加強國民教育內容，使這個課題成為獨立的『德育及國民教育科』」，社會上隨即出現反對論調。本來，香港社會言論自由，各人都有表達意見的自由和空間，但如果論點來來去去都離不開「洗腦論」和「狹隘論」，那麼，這只顯示出香港儘管已經回歸了13 年，不少事物雖然都在開放、在進步，但在某些論者心目中，國民教育似乎依然停留了在歷史某一時空。

高唱「洗腦論」

無疑侮辱同儕專業水平

回歸以來，香港政府一直倚重非政府機構推動國民教育，自己則扮演撥款者的角色，好處是不同機構可以舉辦不同類型的活動，形式靈活多樣。但不足之處是不夠規範化，各有各表述，不能保證每個學生均受到相同的教育。如今將國民教育列入正規課程，能夠補足過往的缺失。

國民教育走進課堂，同時也反映了教師對國民教育的看法。香港的教師都受過高等教育和專業訓練，如果論者擔心出現「洗腦」的情况，無疑是對本港教育工作者投以不信任的一票，認定教師將會不辨是非、盲目地向學生灌輸思想。更難令人信服的是，連一些教育界領袖也高唱「洗腦論」，這無疑是侮辱了同儕的專業水平。要知道，專業不是靠別人賜予的，必須靠業界自強，如果連業界也妄自菲薄，豈不悲哉？論者一方面期望教師培養學生獨立思考，另一方面卻擔心教師黑白不分，這豈非精神分裂？

2010年 11月 09日

觀點黃均瑜

國民教育走進課堂仍然是禁忌嗎？

……

事實上，推動愛國並不等於否定中國有落後和不足之處，國家政府的工作報告也不迴避這些問題。正因為看到國家仍有落後與不足，才有施展抱負的空間。論者怪罪國民教育沒有高唱國家的黑暗面，其實國家的負面信息媒體每日都會有，自不需我們代勞。關鍵是所有結論都應該在相對充分的正面和反面理由支持下才能作出。

因此，在作出價值判斷的過程中，全部正面或全部負面的信息無助於學生對事物作出正確的判斷。最重要是通過親身接觸，通過資訊與數據的蒐集，讓學生自己作出結論。如果發現國家現况未如理想，那麼，立志推動國家發展，才是國民教育的成果。

在過去一段很長的日子裏，在課室推動國民教育是一種禁忌，如今回歸了 13 年，這禁忌仍要保留嗎？

作者是香港教育工作者聯會主席

2010年 11月 18日

觀點池卓龍

國民教育應走出課堂——反思母校黃均瑜校長的話

【明報專訊】

今年施政報告宣布加強國民教育，筆者翌日在報章中指出，國民教育應了解中國社會最真實的一面，絕非單單安排學生參加交流團到中國主要城市興盛一面。依賴學生到冠冕堂皇的內地社會參觀，絕非交流原意，反而只會令到學生對香港制度產生自卑感。我認為推動國民教育是應當理直氣壯做的事，但國民教育絕不應情緒化，反而是讓學生透徹了解家國國情，另一方面反思國民身分。事隔不久，母校校長黃均瑜隨即撰文指謾罵與批評國民教育者論點離不開「洗腦論」和「狹隘論」，文章提出擔心國民教育「洗腦」者是向教育工作者投不信任一票，「認定教師將會不辨是非、盲目地向學生灌輸思想」。

我從不反對公民教育，然而公民教育早已包括自由民主等普世價值在內，實情與國民教育無異，反之視野更廣。我們又何須再增加一科「德育與國民教育科」呢？

灌輸知識與獨立思考

作為黃校長的過氣學生，我深深感受到所謂的國民教育，就是單一灌輸家國觀念—— 「有國才有家」，未有帶領學生為國家的發展作反思批判。過去多年母校一直將國家的正面事件誇大，令到同學對國民身分增加認同，因身為中國人而感到自豪和鼓舞。令我印象深刻的，就是每學年剛開始不久就借用「九一八事變」來宣傳民族主義；待到學期完結之際，卻對「六四事件」隻字不提。是其是、非其非，國民教育應該教導學生分清是非黑白，並非情緒化來觸動學生神經。只可惜黃校長的觀點卻是「國家的負面信息媒體每日都有，自不需我們代勞」，那麼套用同一邏輯，國家的正面消息也「自不需我們代勞」，不是嗎？用最簡單的邏輯來分辨是非，充分說明「期望教師培養學生

■ 2011年 1月 3日 (一)

三言堂吳志森

「對傳媒做多點工夫」

名校王老師，參加北京國情研習班，高官接見，率先發言，不知是否「接

近權力亢奮症候群」發作，一開口，就語無倫次。

王老師用流利普通話，先大讚香港國民教育做得不錯，在升旗禮和奏國歌

時表現得很有禮儀，話鋒一轉，先批評香港學生的「國民意識」不夠紮實：

「香港學生一個很大的通病，就是說，當中國發生好的事情、正面的事情

的時候，譬如說奧運呀世博呀，國民意識就非常強，會感到自豪是一個中國

人。但是當一聽到負面消息，尤其香港媒體比較喜歡發放負面消息，國民意

識又會慢慢的減弱，好像一加強就突然間又減弱。」

接著，又批評香港的傳媒：「國家發生一些重大的事件，部份香港的傳媒

也做了很多工作。但港澳辦能不能夠在媒體上面做多一點工夫，讓大家不要

只報負面的消息。我相信會對國民教育的推行應該會有很大幫助。」

報章把王老師的樣子登了出來，是一幀開學禮照片，老師看來相當年輕，

不應該是抱殘守缺食古不化之輩，倒有興趣知道，「管傳媒」的想法，是怎

樣培養出來的呢？是土產、外來，還是證明了回歸後國民教育的威力？

先不分析老師發言內容的謬誤。我把王老師的發言放上網，反應當然強烈，

我選的部份迴響，已算相當理性：

「言下之意，就是 Propaganda了」；「乜都可以學，千祈唔好學內地報喜

唔報憂嘅新聞工作作風」；「你偉大祖國唔出 D負面嘢，港媒又點會報道你，

不如賴人哋逼你做 D負面嘢啦，好冇？」；「那要先請這位王老師解釋一下

何謂『做多一點工夫』？是要向傳媒加強宣傳抑或要整頓打壓……？」；「除

文匯大公外，所有報紙查封，電視只播新聞聯播，學校每天早上學習三個袋

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2010年 11月 18日 (四)

要聞 > 要聞

直資校混帳審計轟十罪

真道書院校長涉千萬校款置業

【明報專訊】現時家長對直資學校趨之若鶩，寧願節衣縮食也甘願為子女

繳付巨額學費，不過，審計署深入調查全港直資學校後發現「十宗罪」，每

年豪花數以億元計學費收入作非教學用途，包括有學校一擲 7100萬元投資股

票，另一方面卻剋扣學生獎學金，侵吞慈善籌款收入和公帑利息等。

據了解，將軍澳香港華人基督教聯會真道書院涉及花費千萬元購入物業作

宿舍、繞過校董會招待 1000名內地校長到港培訓、沒有公開聘請員工「3宗

罪」。本報記者昨在真道書院門外，向校方查詢求證，但至晚上仍未獲回應。

該校職員向記者表示，丘日謙校長仍須理解審計報告內容，暫不會回應事件。

涉買樓校長﹕暫不回應

現時全港有 72所直資學校，共有近 7萬學生入讀，以全年學費平均約 4萬

元計算，每年學費收入估計多達 28億元，連同 24.2億元政府資助，每年總額

近 53億元。審計署昨發表審計報告，指出全港 72所直資學校在行政和帳目

上存在嚴重問題（詳見附表）。教育局表示接納報告，日後加強監察直資學

校，必要時向違規學校發警告信，甚至終止直資學校資格。

教局﹕倘嚴重取消資格

據了解，在十宗罪中，將軍澳香港華人基督教聯會真道書院涉及購買物業、

胡亂花費、任人唯親等。該校在 2006至 09年間，動用 1000萬元學費及捐款

等收入購買 3項物業，其中一個物業，在未經校董會批准下，於 2006年 8月

以校監及校長名義註冊買入，校方在 7個月後、即 2007年 3月才獲校董會事

後批准，校董會一直要求將該物業盡快移交校董會，但至今仍未移交。報告


■ 2010年 11月 18日 (四)

社評‧ 筆陣 > 社評

直資學校管治帳目混亂執法部門應查箇中流弊

【明報專訊】審計署審查全港 72所直資學校，發現其中一些的管治及行政

混亂，特別是從部分學校帳目所見，有把學生當作搖錢樹之嫌，也有學生被

當作提款機，不但違反了教育局的規定，其性質情節可能已經涉及違法。情

况顯示，部分直資學校辜負了按特殊政策辦學的初衷，教育局監管不力也難

辭其咎；我們認為家長和公衆有知情權，教育局應該公開有不當情况學校的

名單，並全面檢討直資計劃；為了重建直資學校的名聲，執法部門（例如廉

政公署）應該介入調查，揪出害群之馬，徹底整頓直資學校的流弊。

審計署發現部分直資學校

把學生當作搖錢樹

2008/09學年，直資學校獲公帑津貼約 25億元，另外從學生收取了約 28億

元學費，這是一個涉及 53億元的「產業」，若管理不善，對於約 6.4萬名學

生的福祉會構成損害。審計署的審查，據知就文件所見，很多直資學校都有

這樣那樣的問題，而審計署對其中 4所中學的實地審查，發現都有不當情况，

包括有校長在校董會不知情下，動用學校儲備買樓，就是在實地審查時發現

的。

審計署發現直資學校的不當情况，都與金錢有關，使人擔心直資學校在教

育局監管不力之下，流弊叢生，腐蝕了教育界。問題的性質，大致可分為 3

類：變相斂財、學校儲備運用不當、涉嫌牟取私利。

變相斂財方面，審計署發現，2008/09學年，有 14間直資學校向教育局申

請加學費時，誇大赤字預算等，獲准加學費，年度終結時，其中 8所學校的

實際儲備較預測儲備超出 1倍以上，例如有學校預測儲備 450萬元，結果實

際儲備 3170萬元，超出逾 6倍；另外 3所學校，則由預測赤字變為盈餘，例

■ 2010年 12月 26日

我的老師：男拔今日只有富貴餐

【明報專訊】

名校和屋邨中學我也讀過，中一至中五，我在一間屋邨中學念書，會考後以理科二十九分的成績轉到拔萃男書院讀預科。名校教育不是優質的保證，名校學生也不全是天賦異稟、優秀出眾，正如英國讀中學的不少精英，連在機場過聖誕也熬不住，證明溫室中長大的小花，完全經不起大風雪的考驗，但我慶幸兩種學校都讀過，見識兩者的分別。

文莊曉陽圖陳淑安

會考放榜轉校那一天，也是我第一次來到男拔萃，原來市區也有這麼大的校園，長長的馬路沒有盡頭。副校長Mark Rosario 告訴我：「你想讀純數組，但你的附加數學沒有 A（我考 B03），你只可以去生物組了，你讀不讀？」

「讀！生物組也讀。」心想：反正我也不想做工程師，不讀純數也沒有關係。當年生物班還有另一名陳姓同學插班，但陳同學大概不習慣由頭適應新環境，不到一個月便轉回到他的母校讀預科，我們也沒有繼續聯絡了。據知，陳同學高級會考成績也相當優秀，成功升讀港大醫學院。

論教育質素，拔萃跟屋邨學校並沒有大分別，兩間學校都有好老師及成績優秀的學生，但學生對學校的歸屬感和投入有天淵之別了。在男拔萃，每逢早會大聲唱校歌也不用害羞，因為旁邊的同學往往比你更大聲。

回顧十年學生階層背景單一

當年的拔萃照顧草根階層，窮學生可以在校內享用廉價午餐，同學也沒有階級觀念，大家可以打成一片，他們的知識和視野也很廣，從他們身上學到很多東西，而我人生第一次坐 Benz 也是在男拔萃的日

■ 2011年 1月 5日 (三)

教育心語

直資學校都貴族化？

直資學校屢受批評，認為這些學校都在貴族化，助長社會不平等。我不同

意。

直資計劃自 1988年提出後，辦學團體逐漸願意辦直資學校，主要是希望以

學費作額外資源，辦一些有特色的學校，如關注學生的體藝發展、語文水平、

國際視野等。這些學校由零開始，並非甚麼名校。學費方面，我當校長時一

直維持在每年一萬元左右，其他直資校的學費也相近，這樣的水平很難說是

「拒絕窮苦學生就讀」。

然而，「傳統名校」轉投直資，只是近六七年的事。這些學校不愁生源，

因此可以把學費定在 4萬元以上。轉直資後他們更可以不參加派位，自行收

生，令家長的選擇不是更多，而是更少，我看這才是擔心「直資學校貴族化」

的焦點。

上述一萬元學費的直資校經營不易，除非學校不再堅持理想，完全以津校

模式運作，否則任何特色，例如多聘老師，較優質的設施維修，都要由「學

費」支付。此外，一所新校由開始到有穩定的教職員隊伍，總要好幾年，但

老師薪金隨年資上升，5年前一萬元學費可平衡收支，5年後不可能。但一萬

元加 5000元就是 50%，相比下 4萬元學費的學校若加 5000元學費，就只是

12.5%。當然，傳媒還會稱前者是「狂加」學費。

應否讓直資校存在，還是要限制所謂傳統名校轉直資，我看是兩個不同的

問題。假如真的取消了直資制度，直資學校將光榮結業，但傳統名校還會是

傳統名校，入不到的就別無選擇，要想辦法進入更昂貴的國際學校去了。

■ 2010年 11月 29日

e Emily 李光知

直資風波掀出階級矛盾孫公功力再受考驗

【明報專訊】

自審計署長揭發直資學校帳目混亂後，輿論焦點均放在帳目與監管不嚴的問題上；不過，立法會教育界代表張文光提醒筆者，觀乎不少直資名校根本很少甚至沒有發出獎學金，今次的審計報告牽引出一個更深層次的社會矛盾——不少分屬傳統名校的直資中學，根本沒有履行轉制之初，信誓旦旦承諾會透過獎學金來確保基層子弟仍有機會接受最好教育這一條，令香港社會以往那種不論貧富，青年人起跑點大致相同的核心價值在一夜之間消失了。今日便要出席立法會帳目委員會聆訊的教育局長孫明揚，其拆彈能力將面臨嚴峻考驗。

現時直資學校的收費架構，已偏離一般家庭可承擔的水平。有資深教育界人士向筆者指出，現行直資學費有兩個「怪」現象，第一是不少直資小學的學費竟高過一條龍升讀的直資中學！按筆者查看的資料，其中一間著名直資男校，中一的全年學費為 3.3 萬元，但附屬小學的全年學費則高達 4 萬元，較中學高兩成。

理論上，中學的教師薪酬、課程資源甚至實驗室設備開支也應高出小學不少，怎可能小學的學費會高過中學？有教育界人士提醒筆者，一些名牌直資小學看準的，便是學校坐擁一條龍優勢，只要家長願付鈔，便可保子女未來 10 多年升學無憂，因此這個學費架構，說穿了是按家長需求而訂的「市場價」，與實際開銷無關。

另一個怪現象，是部分直資學校的學費升幅已超乎通脹。有教育圈人士指出，香港的整體通脹每年約以 3％上升，但審計報告卻揭出，部分直資學校一年的學費加幅達 25％，個別直資學校的每年學費高達 6 萬元，即每月 5000 元，相當於一個基層家庭的全部收入。從這兩個現象，加上審計報告揭出學校涉及剋扣助學金或無批出足夠學費資助等漏洞，足見直資學校只會愈來愈「中產化」。

筆者就以上兩個現象向張文光查詢，他慨嘆直資政策的演變，已由最

■ 2010年 12月 05日

周日話題

名校教了我什麼—女校生的反思

【明報專訊】

直資名校被揭發一大堆混帳，那部古老幻燈片機就在我的腦袋開動不斷重播我的中學校園片段，晃眼已是十多年前的泛黃舊事。

我的母校，是港島區一家有逾百年歷史的女校，人稱「老牌名校」、「貴族學校」。我曾經為自己能夠入讀這樣的名校感到無比自豪，因為我們一班女生，既能說流利英語、又懂得吃西餐禮儀、亦能夠淡定自信於人前表現自己，根本唔將隔籬學校著旗袍紮孖辮的四眼妹放在眼內。

直至我做了記者，我才發現，所謂名校生獨有的自信、傲氣，還有世故、現實，跟那隻只懂呱呱叫的井底之蛙，沒太大分別。

文蘆葦

八九六四那年，我在鰂魚涌一間街坊中文小學讀小五。我是班長，自發貼了大堆剪報，發起同學手纏黑布。翌年六四 1 周年如是，我還記得我們和班主任一起哭。

1991 年，我被派到那所名女校升中一，班主任比我更興奮，我卻戰戰兢兢。

我被編入全級最 top 的 A 班，噩夢開始——老師上課全講雞腸我聽唔明、英文堂默生字我無個寫得出、原校小學升上來的個個都已埋堆唔受我玩，和我一樣的外來生全班只有五六人，她們不是半唐番就是英文小學出身，來自中文小學的好像只我一個。

同窗：我唔想自己中文咁叻

中文堂，成為我的避難所，也是我唯一找回點點信心的課堂。可惜，

■ 2010年 12月 12日

回應名校女生

名校又教了我什麼？

【明報專訊】

編按：上期刊出蘆葦〈名校教了我什麼——女校生的反思〉一文，在網絡世界引來了巨大迴響，無數的 likes/dislikes，編輯部亦收到一些回應文章，有來自前名校生，也有來自家長。本欄將陸續刊出一些有裨益於討論和認識直資制度以至於香港現行教育制度的文章，歡迎投稿。

時移世易，報紙看罷了就掉，有了互聯網和 facebook，一篇「有趣」的文章就會不斷流傳。在新聞紙上看到蘆葦小姐疾書力數母校，最後得出「家長不要麻目追求名牌」的結論，起初也不以為然，但幾日來見 FB 上不斷有朋友讚好，亦有昔日同學簡單回應「黐線！」，才暗暗一驚，原來直資學校的糊塗帳，已被算到所有「（傳統）名校」的孩子頭上，FB 一百幾十字，怎夠解釋？

文可名

據教育局網頁指出，直接資助計劃於 91 年 9 月開始實行。據《二○一○/一一學年直接資助學校名單》，現時全港一共有 84 間直資中、小學，「傳統名校」從來也沒有定義，但以筆者曾身在其中的認知，數來也不到 10 間，佔名單不多於 12%。翻查資料，蘆葦小姐的港島區女校，亦是在 2004 年轉直資（請恕筆者用簡單邏輯計算她的年齡），89 年讀小五的她，應該早已畢業了。先不說直資牽涉校政的監管與無王管責任誰屬，反正蘆葦小姐本人十多年前的經歷（怨氣？），其實與現時社會對直資學校討論，牽不上半點關係。而她以偏概全的得出所有「名校」（直資校？）名不副實、教育理念歪曲的結論，直指「名校最成功的，是它大批倒模生產一個個典型香港人——實際、精叻、識上位、識表現自己。

但更深層的價值——真、善、美，名校又教了幾多？這是每個名校生都應思考的問題。」這等於我手執一件名牌次貨，就跟你說「質素很

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““In 1943, Sir Fred Clark, Director of the Institute of EdIn 1943, Sir Fred Clark, Director of the Institute of Education, argued the case for the apporintment of a soucation, argued the case for the apporintment of a sociologist to a chair in education on the ground that thciologist to a chair in education on the ground that the ‘uneasy awareness, now so widespread and yet so e ‘uneasy awareness, now so widespread and yet so ill-defined, that great changes in the social order and ill-defined, that great changes in the social order and the inter-play of social forces are already in progressthe inter-play of social forces are already in progress’ meant that ‘the educational theory and educational ’ meant that ‘the educational theory and educational policy that take no account of these will be not only policy that take no account of these will be not only blind but positively harmful’ (Sir Fred Clarke Archive, blind but positively harmful’ (Sir Fred Clarke Archive, Institute of Education, March 1943).” (Whitty, 2000, p.Institute of Education, March 1943).” (Whitty, 2000, p. 2059) 2059)

9


• Empirical policy issuesEmpirical policy issues– Why fine-toning MOI controversy?Why fine-toning MOI controversy?– Why DSS elitism controversy?Why DSS elitism controversy?– Why education for nationality controversy?Why education for nationality controversy?

• Issues of boundness and embeddedness of educatIssues of boundness and embeddedness of education policyion policy

– The contextual embeddedness in policy making and implThe contextual embeddedness in policy making and implementationementation

• Embeddness at macro-level: social, economic, political and Embeddness at macro-level: social, economic, political and cultural contextscultural contexts

• Embeddness at meso-level: Institutional and organizational Embeddness at meso-level: Institutional and organizational contextscontexts

– The boundedness of rationality in policy designThe boundedness of rationality in policy design• Degree of omniscience in education policy Degree of omniscience in education policy

• Degree of omnipotence in education policy Degree of omnipotence in education policy

• Degree of omnipresence in education policy Degree of omnipresence in education policy

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Sociology of Education Policy of What ?

• Epistemological constituents of the course Epistemological constituents of the course – Policy studies in educationPolicy studies in education– Sociology of educationSociology of education– Sociology of education policySociology of education policy

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What Education Policy and Society ?

• Ways to Synthesis the Field of the Sociology of EducWays to Synthesis the Field of the Sociology of Educationation

– In terms of theoretical perspectives, e.g. Functionalism, conIn terms of theoretical perspectives, e.g. Functionalism, conflict theories, interpretive perspective, post-modernism, etc. flict theories, interpretive perspective, post-modernism, etc.

• Kababel and Halsey (1977)Kababel and Halsey (1977)

• Sadovnik (2007)Sadovnik (2007)

• Apple et al. (2009)Apple et al. (2009)

– In terms of empirical areas, e.g. studies of education institutIn terms of empirical areas, e.g. studies of education institution, school organization, higher education, classroom interaion, school organization, higher education, classroom interaction, curriculum, schoolteachers, etc.ction, curriculum, schoolteachers, etc.

• Apple (1999) Apple (1999)

• Ball (1997 & 2008) Ball (1997 & 2008)

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What Education Policy and Society ?

• Ways to Synthesis the Field of the Sociology of EdWays to Synthesis the Field of the Sociology of Educationucation

– In terms of themes, context, location and time:In terms of themes, context, location and time:• Roger Dale (2001)Roger Dale (2001)

• Whitty (1997) Whitty (1997)

• Halsey et al. (1996)Halsey et al. (1996)

• Lauder et al. (2006)Lauder et al. (2006)

• Apple et al. (2010)Apple et al. (2010)

• Rizvi and Lingard (2010) Rizvi and Lingard (2010)

13

A Framework Synthesizing the Development of

the Sociology of Education • Dale characterizes the trajectory of the Dale characterizes the trajectory of the

development of the field into three components or development of the field into three components or forces. They are forces. They are

– Dominant theme, Dominant theme, – Context, and Context, and – LocationLocation

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the Sociology of Education • Dominant themeDominant theme: Two prominent themes have end: Two prominent themes have end

eavored through the history of the field. Sociologiseavored through the history of the field. Sociologists of different theoretical orientations may charactets of different theoretical orientations may characterize them with different terminologies and put their rize them with different terminologies and put their emphasis on them. emphasis on them.

– Emile Durkhiem’s dual functionsEmile Durkhiem’s dual functions of modern education of modern education• Social necessity of homogeneity: Organic solidarity aSocial necessity of homogeneity: Organic solidarity a

nd integrationnd integration• Social necessity of diversity: Division of labor Social necessity of diversity: Division of labor

15

““Each society sets up a certain idea of man, of what he should bEach society sets up a certain idea of man, of what he should be, as much from the intellectual point of view as the physical and e, as much from the intellectual point of view as the physical and moral; that this ideal is, to a degree, the moral; that this ideal is, to a degree, the samesame for all the citizens; for all the citizens; that beyond a certain point it becomes that beyond a certain point it becomes differentiateddifferentiated according t according to the particular milieux that every society contains in its structuro the particular milieux that every society contains in its structure. It is this ideal, at the same time one and various, that is the foce. It is this ideal, at the same time one and various, that is the focus of education. Its function, then, is to arouse in the child: (1) a us of education. Its function, then, is to arouse in the child: (1) a certain number of physical and mental states that the certain number of physical and mental states that the societysociety to to which he belongs considers should not be lacking in any of its mwhich he belongs considers should not be lacking in any of its members; (2) certain physical and mental states that the embers; (2) certain physical and mental states that the particular particular social groupsocial group (caste, class, family, profession) considers, equally, (caste, class, family, profession) considers, equally, ought to be found among all those who make it up. …Society can ought to be found among all those who make it up. …Society can survive only if there exists among its members a sufficient degresurvive only if there exists among its members a sufficient degree of e of homogeneityhomogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces this ho; education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child, from the beginning, the essential mogeneity by fixing in the child, from the beginning, the essential similarities that collective life demands. But on the other hand, wisimilarities that collective life demands. But on the other hand, without a certain thout a certain diversitydiversity all co-operation would be impossible; ed all co-operation would be impossible; education assures the persistence of this necessary diversity by beucation assures the persistence of this necessary diversity by being itself diversified and specialized.” (Durkheim, 2006/1911, p. 7ing itself diversified and specialized.” (Durkheim, 2006/1911, p. 79-80)9-80)

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the Sociology of Education • Dominant theme: Two prominent themes have endDominant theme: Two prominent themes have end

eavored through the history of the field. Sociologiseavored through the history of the field. Sociologists of different theoretical orientations may charactets of different theoretical orientations may characterize them with different terminologies and put their rize them with different terminologies and put their emphasis on them. emphasis on them.

– Emile Durkhiem’s dual functions of modern educationEmile Durkhiem’s dual functions of modern education• Social necessity of homogeneity: Organic solidarity and intSocial necessity of homogeneity: Organic solidarity and int

egrationegration

• Social necessity of diversity: Division of labor Social necessity of diversity: Division of labor

– Martin Carnoy and Henry Levin’s dual roleMartin Carnoy and Henry Levin’s dual role of schooling i of schooling in capitalist-democratic staten capitalist-democratic state

• Preparation for citizens in democratic statePreparation for citizens in democratic state

• Preparation for workers in capitalist economyPreparation for workers in capitalist economy

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““The schools are an The schools are an arena of conflictarena of conflict because they have the because they have the duadual rolel role of preparing of preparing workersworkers and and citizenscitizens. The preparation required . The preparation required for citizenship in a democratic society based on equal opportunitfor citizenship in a democratic society based on equal opportunity and human rights is often incompatible with the preparation ney and human rights is often incompatible with the preparation needed for job performance in a corporate system of work. One the eded for job performance in a corporate system of work. One the one hand, schools must one hand, schools must train citizenstrain citizens to know their rights under t to know their rights under the law as well as their obligations to exercise these rights throughe law as well as their obligations to exercise these rights through political participation. On the other, schools must h political participation. On the other, schools must train workerstrain workers with the skills and personality characteristics that enable them to with the skills and personality characteristics that enable them to function in an authoritarian work regime. This requires a negatiofunction in an authoritarian work regime. This requires a negation of the very political rights that make for good citizens.” (Carnoy n of the very political rights that make for good citizens.” (Carnoy and Levin, 1985, p. 257) and Levin, 1985, p. 257)

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the Sociology of Education • Dominant theme: Dominant theme:

– Roger Dale dual project of modernityRoger Dale dual project of modernity• Education as part of the project of Education as part of the project of enlightenmentenlightenment, i.e. the , i.e. the

project of emancipation of human potentials and reasonsproject of emancipation of human potentials and reasons

• Education as part of the project of redemption and Education as part of the project of redemption and rectification of the rectification of the negative side of enlightenmentnegative side of enlightenment (Dialectic (Dialectic of Enlightenment), e.g. inequality and injustice in education of Enlightenment), e.g. inequality and injustice in education and/or other human conditionsand/or other human conditions

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the Sociology of Education • Dominant theme: Dominant theme:

– To summarizeTo summarize, the dualism in the educational theme of , the dualism in the educational theme of modern societymodern society

• To nurture To nurture social homogeneitysocial homogeneity and constituting and constituting social social integrationintegration among future members of a society within the among future members of a society within the imperative of the modern nation-state, more specifically of imperative of the modern nation-state, more specifically of the liberal-democratic state. This imperative is built on the the liberal-democratic state. This imperative is built on the ideal of ideal of universal equality of all reasoning citizensuniversal equality of all reasoning citizens..

• To nurture To nurture social diversitysocial diversity and constituting and constituting social division social division of laborof labor among future members of society within the among future members of society within the imperative of capitalist economy. This capitalistic imperative of capitalist economy. This capitalistic imperative is operated under imperative is operated under the rules of competition, the rules of competition, inequality or even the institution of stratification.inequality or even the institution of stratification.

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the Sociology of Education • LocationLocation: The field of sociology of education has been : The field of sociology of education has been

inhabited predominantly by academics working in inhabited predominantly by academics working in teacher training institutes or researchers in policy teacher training institutes or researchers in policy studies agencies. These locations of the practitioners of studies agencies. These locations of the practitioners of the filed imprinted their marks on the development of the the filed imprinted their marks on the development of the field.field.

– This location feature of the field has salient effect on its This location feature of the field has salient effect on its researchers' orientation. The filed is by nature an researchers' orientation. The filed is by nature an applied applied fieldfield and embedded in the practice of teacher education and embedded in the practice of teacher education and the process of education policy formation.and the process of education policy formation.

– On the one hand, some of its researchers have oriented On the one hand, some of its researchers have oriented their research efforts to their research efforts to pedagogical practicespedagogical practices in in classrooms and classrooms and administrative practicesadministrative practices in school in school organizations.organizations.

– On the other hand, some other practitioners of the filed On the other hand, some other practitioners of the filed have concentrated their research endeavors on have concentrated their research endeavors on policy policy studies in educationstudies in education..

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the Sociology of Education • ContextContext: The changes in the : The changes in the empirical contextsempirical contexts, in , in

which the practices of education, schooling and which the practices of education, schooling and instruction take place, have also affected the instruction take place, have also affected the development of the field significantly. They have not development of the field significantly. They have not only shaped the research agendas and themes of only shaped the research agendas and themes of the field but also the practical climates of the the field but also the practical climates of the locations, in which its practitioners work.locations, in which its practitioners work.

– The institutionalization of modern schooling systemThe institutionalization of modern schooling system: In the : In the nineteenth century Europe and then the first half of the nineteenth century Europe and then the first half of the twentieth century in most of the developing countries, the twentieth century in most of the developing countries, the development of the national-compulsory education system development of the national-compulsory education system was defined as the project of constituting the complex was defined as the project of constituting the complex division of labor and human capitals for industrial division of labor and human capitals for industrial societies and building the organic solidarity for the societies and building the organic solidarity for the modern societies.modern societies.

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the Sociology of Education • Context:Context:

– The optimism of progressive education and equalization prThe optimism of progressive education and equalization projectoject: The policyscape of post-WWII welfare state had elicit: The policyscape of post-WWII welfare state had elicited a number of research projects and policies claiming to ed a number of research projects and policies claiming to equalizing social disparity with equality of educational oppequalizing social disparity with equality of educational opportunities. ortunities.

• James Coleman's research on Equality of Opportunity in the James Coleman's research on Equality of Opportunity in the US in the 1960s.US in the 1960s.

• A.H. Halsey's project Educational Priority Area Project in the A.H. Halsey's project Educational Priority Area Project in the UK in the 1970s.UK in the 1970s.

• Desegregation school and busing policy in the US in the 1960Desegregation school and busing policy in the US in the 1960s.s.

• Comprehensive school movement in the UK in the 1960s.Comprehensive school movement in the UK in the 1960s.

• Compensatory and remedial education in developed countrieCompensatory and remedial education in developed countriess

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– The pessimism and criticism of the radical theoristsThe pessimism and criticism of the radical theorists: In co: In connection with to the radical student movements in Western nnection with to the radical student movements in Western countries, the discursive theme of the field shifted to more countries, the discursive theme of the field shifted to more critical or even cynical toward the egalitarian project and pcritical or even cynical toward the egalitarian project and progressive education in the 1970s.rogressive education in the 1970s.

• Reproduction theories proposed by Pierre Bourdieu, Bowles Reproduction theories proposed by Pierre Bourdieu, Bowles and Gintis,… and Gintis,…

• The resistance theories advocated by Michael Apple, Paul WilThe resistance theories advocated by Michael Apple, Paul Willis, Henry Giroux, …lis, Henry Giroux, …

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– The instrumental-economicism the liberalistic-competition The instrumental-economicism the liberalistic-competition statesstates: :

• A series of transformations of the 1980s, such as A series of transformations of the 1980s, such as – coming into power of the neo-liberal and neo-conservative governcoming into power of the neo-liberal and neo-conservative govern

ments in many Western countries in the late 1970s and the early 1ments in many Western countries in the late 1970s and the early 1980s;980s;

– the rise of global-informational economy in the late 1970s and the the rise of global-informational economy in the late 1970s and the early 1980s; and early 1980s; and

– the advent of global-informational culture in the late 1980s and earthe advent of global-informational culture in the late 1980s and early 1990s.ly 1990s.

• In response to these fundamental transformations, the contexIn response to these fundamental transformations, the contexts of education policy in many developed countries have undts of education policy in many developed countries have undergone fundamental changes. ergone fundamental changes.

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– The instrumental-economicism the liberalistic-competition The instrumental-economicism the liberalistic-competition states: states:

• Lauder et al. (2006) have synthesized these transformations intLauder et al. (2006) have synthesized these transformations into two trendso two trends

– IndividualizationIndividualization: It refers to the social-differentiation process in th: It refers to the social-differentiation process in the late-modern or even post-modern society. It consists “first, the die late-modern or even post-modern society. It consists “first, the disembedding of industrial society ways of life and second, the re-esembedding of industrial society ways of life and second, the re-embedding of new ones, in which the individuals must produce, stambedding of new ones, in which the individuals must produce, stage and cobble together their biographies themselves.” (Beck, 1997; ge and cobble together their biographies themselves.” (Beck, 1997; quoted in Lauder et al, 2006, p.21)quoted in Lauder et al, 2006, p.21)

– GlobalizationGlobalization: It refers to the social-integration process in the late-: It refers to the social-integration process in the late-modern or postmodern society. It “is really about the transformatiomodern or postmodern society. It “is really about the transformation of space and time. I would define it as action at distance, and relan of space and time. I would define it as action at distance, and relate its growth over recent years to the development of means of instte its growth over recent years to the development of means of instantaneous global communication and mass transportation.” (Giddantaneous global communication and mass transportation.” (Giddens, 1994, p. 22) It refers to the “time-space compression” processens, 1994, p. 22) It refers to the “time-space compression” processes “that so revolutionize the objective qualities of space and time tes “that so revolutionize the objective qualities of space and time that we are force to alter … how we represent the world to ourselvehat we are force to alter … how we represent the world to ourselves.” (Harvey, 1989, p. 240)s.” (Harvey, 1989, p. 240)

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Educational System

Social DifferentiationSocial Integration

18000-1940Modern stateformation

1950s-1970sContradiction of welfare state

1980s-1990sNeo-liberal state

1990s-2000sGlobal-competition state

2010sPost-liberal era

Constitution of massive, universal, compulsory and state-controlled schooling system as institutional means for citizenship building and human capital accumulation

Constitution of egalitarian schooling system as policy instrument of implementing progressive and compensatory education to rectify socio-economic inequalities

Rolling back the of egalitarian policy and reinstating neo-liberal and new-conservative education policy as means to enhance freedom of choice and accountability

Elevating neo-liberal and new-conservative education policy to global-competition scale

Beginning to reinstate regulations to global-market fundamentalism in financial sector. And what would become of the policyscape of education

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The Organizing Themes of the Course

• Education policies as Education policies as projects of social differentiatiprojects of social differentiationon of modern economyof modern economy

– Conceptions of social differentiation, inequality and stratifiConceptions of social differentiation, inequality and stratificationcation

– Education policies in the context and process of class struEducation policies in the context and process of class structuration of capitalismcturation of capitalism

– Education policies in the context of the class formation of Education policies in the context of the class formation of capitalismcapitalism

– Education policies in the context of the “post-class” societEducation policies in the context of the “post-class” societyy

– Education polices as project of social equalization Education polices as project of social equalization

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• Education policies as Education policies as projects of social integration projects of social integration of modern stateof modern state

– Conceptions of state, nation, and citizenshipConceptions of state, nation, and citizenship– Education policies in the context of state formationEducation policies in the context of state formation– Education policies in the context of nation buildingEducation policies in the context of nation building– Education policies in the context of citizenship Education policies in the context of citizenship

developmentdevelopment– Education policies in the context of global citizenshipEducation policies in the context of global citizenship

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• Education policies as Education policies as projects of social integration projects of social integration of modern stateof modern state

– Conceptions of state, nation, and citizenshipConceptions of state, nation, and citizenship– Education policies in the context of state formationEducation policies in the context of state formation– Education policies in the context of nation buildingEducation policies in the context of nation building– Education policies in the context of citizenship Education policies in the context of citizenship

developmentdevelopment– Education policies in the context of global citizenshipEducation policies in the context of global citizenship

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• Education policies as project of competition state Education policies as project of competition state reflexively confronting reflexively confronting the phenomenon of the phenomenon of globalizationglobalization

– Education policy in the context of globalizing class Education policy in the context of globalizing class position and identity position and identity

– Education policy in the context of globalizing citizenship Education policy in the context of globalizing citizenship and nationalityand nationality

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• Education policies as project of constituting the Education policies as project of constituting the lifelifeworld of schoolteachersworld of schoolteachers

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Lecture 1Lecture 1Sociology of Education Policy: Definition of the Field Sociology of Education Policy: Definition of the Field

END

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