1

Fluid Models

2

GasLiquid

Fluids

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Airframe aerodynamics

Propulsion systems

Inlets / Nozzles

Turbomachinery

Combustion

Ship / submarine hydrodynamics

Hydraulic systems

Tank sloshing

Blood flow

Tides

Two-phase flow• fuel droplets• solids particles

We will concern ourselves with gases – mostly air.

3

Fundamentals

ContinuumConsider fluids in the sense of classical thermodynamics in which a differential element of fluid contains a very large number of molecules. Properties of the fluid (p, T, ,…) are represented by statistical averages rather than behavior of individual molecules.

PhasesA fluid can exist in phases of liquid or gas. A two-phase flow contains both liquid and gas. Solid particles can be suspended in a fluid with the predominant dynamics be governed by the fluid. WIND is only capable of simulating single-phase flow.

EquilibriumTypes of equilibrium include mechanical, thermal, phase, and chemical equilibrium. Classical thermodynamics assumes processes that keep fluids in quasi-equilibrium.

PropertiesProperties define the state of a fluid and are independent of the process used to arrive at the state. Properties are intensive (i.e. pressure) or extensive (i.e. mass).

State PrincipleFor a simple, compressible system consisting of a pure substance (fluid with uniform chemical composition) two properties are sufficient for defining the state of the system.

4

Basic Thermodynamic Properties

Basic fluid properties include:

p, Static Pressure ( lbf/ft2 or N/m2 )

T, Static Temperature (oR or K )

, Static Density ( slug/ft3 or kg/m3 )

c, Acoustic speed ( ft/sec or m/sec )

e, Specific internal energy ( lbf-ft/slug or J/kg )

h, Specific enthalpy ( lbf-ft/slug or J/kg )

cp & cv, Specific heats ( lbf-ft/slug-oR or J/kg-K )

, Ratio of specific heats

WIND: 1 slug = 32.2 lbm

p

eh

e

h

1 ep

s

pc

2

vv T

ec

p

p T

hc

v

p

c

c

5

Perfect Gas

A perfect gas is defined as “A gas where intermolecular forces are negligible”. A gas that is not perfect is called a real gas. Some use the term “real gas effects” for describing high-temperature effects of vibration, dissociation, and chemical reactions associated with high Mach number flows. The suggested term is “high-temperature effects”.

TRp

WIND only simulates perfect gases.

For air, R = 1716 ft lbf / ( slug oR ) = 287 J / ( kg K )

MR

Perfect Gas Equation of State:

, Universal gas constant

M, Molecular weight

6

Mixtures of Perfect Gases

A gas may be a mixture of other gases. A mixture of several species of perfect gases is still a perfect gas. The composition of a gas mixture is defined by the mass fraction, ci

where mi is the mass of species i and m is the total mass of all species. One condition for a mixture with ns species is that

The molecular weight, M, of the mixture is determined as

11

ns

iic

ns

i i

i

Mc

M

1

1

ii

i m

mc

MR

7

Partial Pressures

Perfect gas equation of state applies to each species to determine the partial pressure of species i, pi

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures states that

Note also that

TRp iii

ns

iipp

1

ns

ii

1

ns

iii RcR

1

8

Specific Enthalpy & cp

The specific enthalpy for a gas mixture is determined as

where for each species

The hfi is the specific enthalpy of formation of species i at the reference temperature Tref. The cpi is the specific heat, which is defined using a polynomial

ns

iii hch

1

T

T

pfi

ref

iidTchh

K

k

kk

i

p TaR

ci

i

0

9

Transport Properties

The transport properties of a fluid are coefficients in physical modelsthat govern the “transport” of

1) molecular kinetic energy: , molecular viscosity

2) thermal energy: k, thermal conductivity

3) mass: Dij, binary diffusion

10

Sutherland’s Formula

Sutherland’s formula computes the coefficient of molecular viscosity for an perfect gas with fixed composition as a function of temperature

Where C1 and C2 are constants.

2

2/3

1 CT

TC

WIND uses C1 = 2.269578E-08 slug / (ft-s-oR1/2) and C2 = 216.0 oR.

11

Thermal Conductivity

The definition of the Prandtl number

is used to compute the coefficient of thermal conductivity, k

where the Prandtl number is considered a constant. Thus k is only a

k

cpPr

Prpc

k

WIND uses Pr = 0.72.

12

Wilke’s Law

Wilke’s Law computes the transport properties and k for a mixture

where ij is the inter-collisional parameter

ns

ins

j ijj

ii

x

x

11

ns

ins

j ijj

ii

x

kxk

11

24/12/12/1

118

1

i

j

j

i

j

iij M

M

M

M

13

Diffusion

The coefficient of diffusion for a binary mixture of two species i and j of dilute gases is provided by the Chapman-Enskog formula

where the effective diffusion collision integral factor is

For the mixture of gases,

ijijjiij p

T

dMMD

2/3

2

1110018583.0

2145.0 5.0

11

DDij

TTij

T

TTD

jiij ddd 2

1

ns

ij ij

j

iim

D

XXD 1

14

Air

Air is the most common gas (default gas) used in CFD simulations with WIND. Air is a mixture of mostly nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) with other trace gases (Argon, water vapor).

Usually assume air to have a fixed composition with constant R, , cp, and cv, which is assuming air behaving as an calorically (ideal) perfect gas.

Simulations with hypersonic Mach numbers and higher temperatures (>1440 oR) involve changes in the energy states and composition of air. The relations for a mixture of perfect gases need to be used and models for the chemical reactions need to be used to determine the thermodynamic and transport properties.

15

Air (continued)

The behavior of air with temperature can be summarized as

T < 1440 oR. Air behaves as a calorically perfect gas.

T > 1440 oR. Vibrational energy states of molecules become significant and the specific heats become a function of temperature. Air behaves as a thermally perfect gas.

T > 4500 oR. Air chemically reacts to dissociate O2 to form atomic oxygen O.

T > 7200 oR. Air chemically reacts to dissociate N2 to form atomic oxygen N.

T > 16200 oR. Both N and O begin to ionize to form a plasma.

The above temperatures assume the air pressure is 1 atm. If the the air pressure is lower, the on-set temperatures (except the 1440 oR) will be lower, and vice versa. Once air chemically reacts, the chemical composition (species) of the air mixture will need to be tracked and the chemical reactions modeled.

16

Gas Models

The following gas models provide specific relations for the thermodynamic properties ( p, T, , h, e, … ) and the transport properties ( , k, D ):

Constant Property Fluid

Calorically Perfect (Ideal) Gas

Thermally Perfect Gas

Equilibrium Chemistry

Finite-Rate Chemistry

17

Constant Property Fluid Model

• Composition remains constant.

• Specific heats cp and cv are constant, maybe the same, c.

• Molecular viscosity and thermal conductivity k are constant.

• Density may be constant (incompressible).

• Used for simulating liquid flow.

18

Calorically Perfect Gas Model

• Ideally Perfect (Ideal) Gas

• Composition remains constant, thus R is constant.

• Assumes the specific heats cp and cv are constant

• Given and e,

• Molecular viscosity is computed using Sutherland’s formula

• Thermal conductivity k computed assuming a constant Prandtl number, Pr.

v

p

c

c

e

h1

R

cp 1

R

cv

1 ep R

pT

This model is the default model and is probably used 95-99% of time for WIND applications.

19

Thermally Perfect Gas Model

• Vibrational energy modes of gas molecules are significant.

• Composition is frozen, and so, gas constant, R, remain constant.

• Specific heats cp and cv are functions of static temperature, T.

• Given and e,

• Molecular viscosity is computed using Sutherland’s formula

• Thermal conductivity k computed assuming a constant Prandtl number, Pr.

1 ep R

pT

K

k

kk

p TaR

c

0

T

T

pref

ref

dTTchh

e

h

Rcc pv

20

Equilibrium Chemistry Model

The equilibrium chemistry model considers changes in the chemical composition; however, the chemical reactions are assumed to happen instantaneously such that the flow remains in local thermodynamic and chemical equilibrium.

• Chemical composition varies, but is a function of two properties (p, T)

• Curve fits (Liu & Vinokur) are available for thermodynamic and transport properties.

• Applicable when fluid motion time scale is much greater than chemical reaction time scale.

• For air, chemical reactions occur above 4500 oR (2500 K).

21

Finite-Rate Chemistry Model

The finite-rate chemistry model considers changes in chemical composition when the time scales of chemical reactions are comparable or greater with the fluid motion time scale. Requires the specification of the chemical reactions in the model

ai and bi are the stoichiometric mole numbers of the reactants and products of species i, respectively.

Each species has a continuity equation that must be solved as part of the system of conservation equation.

n

iii

b

fn

iii Xb

K

K

Xa11

i

ii M

cX

TKETCK n

f /exp e

fb K

KK

Next