1 information processing module 21 qr code for 21 22 sg 2
TRANSCRIPT
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Information
Processing
Module 21
QR code for 21 22 SG
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Memory OverviewEncoding: Getting Information In How We Encode What We Encode
Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Working/Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues
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Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.
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Studying Memory: Information Processing
Models
Keyboard(Encoding)
Disk(Storage)
Monitor(Retrieval)
Sequential Process How Memory Works Nova
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Basic Memory Processes
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Information Processing Model
Three Stages of Memory
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Modifications to the Three-Stage Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.
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Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active
processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information
retrieved from long-term memory
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Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
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Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen to you.
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Effortful Processing
Committing novel information to
memory requires effort.
Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
Spencer G
rant/ Photo E
dit
© B
ananastock/ Alam
y
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Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF
GEK XOZHermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
http://ww
w.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
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Rehearsal
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on
Day 1,the fewer
repetitions were required to
remember them on Day 2.
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Memory Effects
1. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.
2. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.
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Encoding: Serial Position Effect
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What We Encode Overview
1. Encoding by meaning2. Encoding by images3. Encoding by organization
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Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with
what we already know or imagine.
Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better
recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.
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Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially
when combined with semantic encoding.
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
Both photos: H
o/AP Photo
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Encoding
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Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in
aiding memory.
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Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide
them into categories and subcategories.
Organizing Information for Encoding
1. Chunking2. Hierarchies
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Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together
and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
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Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
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Encoding: Chunking Organized information is more easily recalled
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Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided
into categories and subcategories.
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Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
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Storage: Retaining Information Overview
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown
below:SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
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Sensory Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
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Whole Report
The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.
R G TF M QL Z S
50 ms (1/20 second)
“Recall”R T M Z
(44% recall)
Sperling (1960)
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Partial Report
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”J R S
(100% recall)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally
thought.
50 ms (1/20 second)
S X TJ R SP K Y
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Time Delay
“Recall”N _ _
(33% recall)
TimeDelay
50 ms (1/20 second)
A D IN L VO G H
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
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Sensory Memory
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
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40
60
80
Perc
en
t R
ecog
niz
ed
0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00
Time (Seconds)
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Sensory Memories
Iconic0.5 sec. long
Echoic3-4 sec. long
Hepatic< 1 sec. long
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
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Working Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
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Working Memory Capacity
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two(1956).
George Miller
M U T G I K T L R S Y P
Ready?
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Chunking
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by
“chunking.”
FBI TWA CIA IBMBut you didn’t know that you can handle 4
chunks
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Duration
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by
manipulating rehearsal.
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
CHJMKTHIJ547
547544541…
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Working Memory Duration
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Long-Term Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
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Long-Term Memory
Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. E
rwin/ Photo R
esearchers
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Memory Feats
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Memory Stores Quick Look
FeatureSensoryMemory
Working Memory
LTM
Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic
Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large
Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years
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Synaptic Changes
In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from
neurons increased after conditioning.P
hoto: Scientific A
merican
Link to Aplysia at nova
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Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in neurotransmitter
release or receptors on the receiving neuron
indicates strengthening of synapses.
Both P
hotos: From
N. T
oni et al., Nature, 402, N
ov. 25 1999. Courtesy of D
ominique M
uller
Link to Memory in action at Nova 3:07
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Stress Hormones & MemoryFlashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Scott Barbour/ G
etty Images
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Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know
and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual
does not know or declare what she knows.
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Changing lanes…
• Activity
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Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbicsystem that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield &
Nicolson archives
Clive Wearing at AM
Clive on YT
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Fig. 7-23, p. 286
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No New Memories
Amnesias
AnterogradeAmnesia
(HM)
Retrograde amnesia
Surgery
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered
everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this
anterograde amnesia.
Memory Intact
How memory works at Nova 10:15
Memory intact
Surgery
No old memories
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Clive Wearing 1 13:12Most recent Clive 7:01
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Memory Formation in Anterograde Amnesia:HM got better and better at the mirror tracing task, but he didn’t remember doing it.
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Implicit & Explicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that aredeclarative (explicit), but he can form newmemories that are procedural (implicit).
CBA
Towers of Hanoi Link
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Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the
memory store.
Spanky’s Yearbook A
rchive
Spanky’s Yearbook A
rchive
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Recognition
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.)1. Name the capital of
France.
a. Brusselsb. Romec. Londond. Paris
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Recall
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the
blank test requires recall.)
1. The capital of Louisiana is ______.
New Orleans….
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Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These
associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
Fire Truck
truck
red
fire
heatsmoke
smellwater
hose
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Information is retrieved from memory through spreading activation
Semantic Networks
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Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must
first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.
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Memory Test #1• Memorize the following words (List 1)
• read, pages, letters, school, study, reading, stories, sheets, cover, pen, pencil, magazine, paper, words
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Memory Test #1• Now…write down any words from the
following list which were on the List 1:
• house, pencil, apple, shoe, book, flag, rock, train, ocean, hill, music, water, glass, school
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Memory Test #1• Did you say that "book" was on list 1? Only
pencil and school were on list 1.
• Why do so many people think “book” was on List 1?
• In a study conducted at Washington University, 82 percent of the time students remembered seeing words that shared a theme say, insects but were not on the original lists.
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Memory Test #2• Memorize the following words (List 1)
• sheets, pillow, mattress, blanket, comfortable, room, dream, lay, chair, rest, tired, night, dark, time
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Memory Test #2• Now…write down any words from the
following list which were on the List 1:
• door, tree, eye, song, pillow, juice, orange, radio, rain, car, sleep, cat, dream, eat
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Memory Test #2• Did you say that "sleep" was on list 1? Only
pillow and dream were on List 1• Why do so many people think “sleep” was on
List 1?• Constructive Memory • This is an example of a false memory. Using
semantic encoding is good, but it can lead to semantic errors. Many people get a “false positive” error when a word shows up in List 2 that is semantically similar to many words in List 1.
• That huge percentage of error (82%) is especially remarkable when compared to the 75 percent correct memory for words that were actually on the list! In other words, mindbugs
can be powerful enough to produce greater recollection of things that didn't occur than of things that did occur.
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Context Effects
You remember more when in the same context as the learning.
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more
words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McC
onnaughey/ Photo Researchers
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Context EffectsAfter learning to move a mobile by kicking,
infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context (Rovee-Collier, 1993).
Courtesy of C
arolyn Rovee-C
ollier, R
utgers University
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Déjà VuDéjà Vu means “I've experienced this
before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of
an earlier similar experience. ©
The N
ew Y
orker Collection, 1990. L
eo Cullum
from
cartoonbank.com. A
ll Rights R
eserved
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Retrieving Incomplete Knowledge
• Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon– “The answer is on the tip-of-my-tongue… It
starts with Q….”
• Feeling-of-knowing Experience – If you don’t know the answer, how likely is it that you could recognize the answer? People are good at this. They “know it” but can’t retrieve it.
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Moods and Memories
State-dependent memory: We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
Our memories are mood-congruent.Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
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EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY(7th Edition in Modules)
David Myers
PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad, Garber
editsHenderson State
University
Worth Publishers, © 2008