1

Introduction

1.1 Geoinformatics and Geographic Information Science

Several terms such as “geomatics,” “geomatic engineering,” and “geoinformatics”are now in common use pertaining to activities generally concerned with geographicinformation. These terms have been adopted primarily to represent the generalapproach that geographic information is collected, managed, modelled, applied,monitored and mapped. Surveying, Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing, Cartography,Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) areimportant components of Geomatics or Geoinformatics.

When GIS became mature as a branch of information technology, the variousdisciplines surrounding it gradually converged to form a particular field of scientificstudy, leading to the proposition of the term “Geographic Information Science”(GIScience). Goodchild (1992) defined geographic information science as the set ofbasic research issues raised by the handling of geographic information. These issuesinclude, for example, the unique characteristics of geographic data, the distinct natureof research that requires geographic problem solving, the interaction betweengeographic information research and related academic disciplines, as well as theimpacts of using geographic information on society. Geographic information scienceaims to provide the theoretical and organizational coherence for the scientific studyof geographic information. It seeks to redefine geographic concepts and their

1Introduction

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Geoinformatics for Environmental Management

applications in the context of GIS. Therefore, Geographic Information Science is notintended as a substitute of GIS in terminology and in practice.

The term GIS has now gained universal acceptance which will be difficult to replaceit with other alternative names. In this book, we use GIS as the acronym of “geographicinformation systems” to denote both the approach and the technology pertaining togeographic information. We use the term with the understanding that GIS not onlyrepresents the skills and procedures for collecting, managing and using geographicinformation, but also entails a comprehensive body of scientific knowledge from whichthese skills and procedures are developed. As we will demonstrate in later chapters,such a liberal view of GIS allows us to provide a balanced treatment of the subjectmatters between concepts and techniques throughout this book.

1.2 Components of GeoinformaticsGeoinformatics, in alternative words, is defined as the science and technology dealingwith the character and structure of spatial information and the infrastructure necessaryfor the optimal use of spatial information. Broadly, the basic components ofGeoinformatics are :

(i) Conventional Mapping(ii) Photogrammetry(iii) Digital Photogrammetry(iv) Remote Sensing(v) Digital Image Processing(vi) Cartography and Automated Cartography(vii) Global Positioning Systems (GPS)(viii) Database Management System(ix) CAD/Digitisation(x) Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

The major functional elements of Geoinformatics are Capturing, Organization,Classification, Qualification, Analysis, Management, Display and dissemination ofspatial information for specific needs of user community.

1.3 Applications of GeoinformaticsSome of the application areas where Geoinformatics can be used with more accurateresults are as follows :

ForestryAgricultureGeology and GeomorphologyTerrain Investigation and EvaluationEnvironmental Studies and impact assessment

3

Introduction

Ground Water investigations, targeting, mapping and managementSurface Water mapping and inventory and drainage systemTransportation Engineering and planningDisaster Management and mitigationLand use planning and land suitabilitySoil mappingOceanography and coastal zone management

The specific applications in each of the above disciplines are provided in the followingsections.

1.3.1 Geoinformatics in ForestryVegetation type and density mapping.Vegetation monitoring and change detection.Wildlife census using TIR Remote Sensing.Wildlife habitat mapping, corridor analysis.Tree height, crown diameter measurements, inventory and stock mapping,regeneration status using Microwave Remote sensing and biomassestimation.Nutrient deficiency, water stress and disease detection and assessing plantvigour.Functional and Structural analysis of vegetation.Fire risk zonation mapping.Biodiversity characterization at landscape level.Mapping areas suitable for afforestation and reforestation.Forest road planning.Estimation of lignin and protein using hyper spectral data.

1.3.2 Geoinformatics in Agriculture

Crop type classification and mapping.Crop condition assessment – crop diseases, insect damage, plant stress,integrating with soil conditions to use as a basis for programmingmicroprocessor controlled equipment such as fertilizer spreaders andirrigators.Crop yield estimation and modelling.Using color infrared aerial photographs to determine plowing plantingprogress, detecting delayed emergence and low plant density, check onstand growth and development through the growing season, check standcondition and acreage to be harvested and total area harvested etc.

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Geoinformatics for Environmental Management

1.3.3 Geoinformatics in Geologic and Soil Mapping

Identification of landforms, rock types and rock structure.Mineral resource exploration – surface and near surface deposits.Location of deep potential deposits in combination with geophysical methods.Mapping of lineaments, faults and lithological units.Geobotanical approach to ascertain the availability of nutrients to vegetation.Soil type mapping.Land capability classification by integrating with relevant information.

1.3.4 Geoinformatics in Urban Planning

Identification of landforms, rock types and rock structure.Mapping transportation network – roads, railways and signal points.Mapping transmission lines – electric and telephone.Mapping water pipe and sewage lines.Planning the best possible routes for roads, transmission lines, drainagenetwork, railways etc.Mapping areas suitable for constructing colonies, industries etc.Assessment of environmental impact on major projects.Traffic and parking studies.Urban change detection and growth assessment.

1.3.5 Geoinformatics in Environment

Assessment of natural resources.Study of volcanic eruptions.Estimation of coastal sediments.Watershed modelling and management.Contouring and Leveling - DTM and DEM etc.Forest Resource Management.Saltwater Intrusion Modelling.Water Quality Mapping and Modelling.Solid Waste Management.Industrial Siting.Natural disaster management.Coastal zone management.Urban planning and management.

5

Introduction

1.4 Approache to the Study of GeoinformaticsPeople now study geoinformatics for different purposes. Many students studygeoinformatics simply as an academic pursuit; others study it to prepare for work asa specialist in a rapidly growing industry. There are also practicing professionals invarious fields who study geoinformatics in order to learn a new set of software toolsthat is increasingly used in their workplaces. The basic approache to the study of thissubject and to have a solid understanding of the concepts and techniques, this bookserves the purpose.

Before the 1980s, GIS was a set of relatively obscure computer applications thatwere found only in a small number of government agencies and universities. Althougharticles pertaining to GIS could be found in a wide variety of learned journals ingeography, cartography, computer science, and surveying, opportunities in theacademic study of GIS in general were rather limited (Unwin, 1991). Today, it is hardto find a department of geography, geology, civil engineering and environment whereno GIS course is offered. GIS is also widely taught in programs, in Earth andenvironmental sciences, computer science, business administration, natural resourcesmanagement, urban and regional planning, and civil engineering.

The introduction of GIS into the academic curriculum not only means the additionof a new course of study to the degree programs, it also represents a new way oflooking at geographic data. It has injected new concepts and techniques into traditionalacademic disciplines such as those noted here. In geography, in particular, the adventof GIS has been widely regarded as one of the most significant development sincethe so called quantitative revolution in the 1960s. Given the growing interest amonggeographers in geoinformatics today, it would be hard to contest the proposition thatGIS will be central to the development of geography as an academic discipline.

Until the late 1990s, GIS courses were taught mostly at the undergraduate level asa part of degree programs in geography and other disciplines. Since then manyuniversities started to offer specialist degree programs in GIS at both theundergraduate and post graduate levels (Waters, 1999). These specialised degreecourses generally have a strong academic thrust that makes them distinct fromtechnically oriented GIS programs offered by community colleges and institutes ofvocational training. Although the contents of different programs tend to vary fromone another, the concepts and techniques of Geoinformatics presented in this bookconstitute the fundamental component. Supplementary courses incorporated in mostprograms include traditional spatially oriented fields such as cartography and remotesensing, as well as those fields that GIS relies on in its development, such as computerscience, information systems, statistics, mathematics and cognitive science. Theseprograms prepare students for an academic and research career in geographicinformation science and in different disciplines in science and engineering. They alsoprovide the basic education for students who aspire to become professionalpractitioners in government, business and industry.

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Geoinformatics for Environmental Management

1.5 Geoinformatics ProductsThe history of the topological data structure provides a typical example of how GIShas become less special. It was originally devised to solve two related problemsassociated with the digital representation of a certain type of map commonly found inenvironmental and resource management, and it is not surprising that these turn outto be the most successful areas for the nascent Geomatics industry (Prasad M., 2002).

Economies of scale underlie all of today’s information technologies. The internetis successful because its packet technology can be used for any type of informationirrespective of its meaning, and a single packet might contain codes for text, numbers,music, or images. Digital technology is successful because its binary alphabet canbe adapted, using simple coding systems, to represent virtually anything. As a resultthe unit costs of digital technology are low, and falling lower.

1.5.1 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

MapInfo released Version7 with new features of direct reading of maps in ESRI shapeformat and enhanced object editing and processing tools. Notable amongst thembeing support for the Geographic Markup Language (GML). ESRI launched ArcView8.2, with features of two new optional ArcGIS extensions: ArcGIS Publisher and ArcGISStreetMap. ArcGIS Publisher allows GIS users and data suppliers to easily publishand share electronic maps locally, over networks, or via the Internet. Autodesk Map 6had key additions of functionalities to annotate objects-display textual values andexpressions without the need to run a separate query, created highly precise mapsusing coordinate geometry (COGO) input, simplified topology capabilities and facilitiesto create, edit, and manipulate multiloop mapping polygons. The GeoMedia5 fromIntergraph had features-improvement on aggregation, functional attributes, dynamicbuffer zones, grids, improved text and user-defined line styles. The GeoConcept V5had strong points like object-oriented environment, better ergonomics and openarchitecture with an engine common to all the product range. The Idrisi32 R2 fromClark Labs included an HDF reader and import/export routines for ERDAS Imagine‘.img’ files and ER Mapper ‘.ers’ files. Geomatica Version 8.2 from PCI Geomaticsoffered web tools, added spatial analysis functions and 3D stereo feature editing /extraction capabilities. Some of the new functionalities added in the ERDAS IMAGINEV8.6 are Spectral Analysis tool for Hyper Spectral image processing and ESRIGeodatabase support. Able Software came with new release for raster to vectorconversion R2V version 5.0.3 that includes attributes like creation of polygon featuresfrom polylines. Surfer 8 from Golden Software promises better rendering of 3D featuresand raster overlaying.

7

Introduction

Hitachi Software Global Technology launched Any*GIS, an enterprise GIS platform,AltaMap4 from GeoMicro provides a collection of OLE/COM objects for building GISapplications with key features of light weight ActiveX control. Caris launched GEMM4.0, which includes a geology symbol template for digitizer tablets(Sanjay Kumar, 2002).

The new kid on the block was RaveGeo, a vector database storage format, whichprovides new display methods for opening large vector data files. It is designed forenvironments ranging from handheld devices to workstations. GeoExpress fromLizardTech, enables one to create, disseminate, and access digital imagery, provideslossless encoding and compression, preserving images with pixel-for-pixel fidelity.

1.5.2 Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing segment was relatively quiet, with companies focusing attention moreon the delivery and market consolidation. DigitalGlobe commenced the commercialoperation for its Quickbird 61cm imagery; this was suitably matched with restructuringof prices for IKONOS 1m imageries. National Remote Sensing Agency, India, (NRSA)with its PAN 5.8m data of IRS continued its flat approach oblivion to the changingequation, with no new scheme or price restructuring to sustain the customer base.

Spot 5 which was placed successfully in orbit the distribution data will be throughDigitalGlobe in the U.S. and ImageONE in Japan. SPOT 5’s High Resolution Geometric(HRG) sensors will provide improved 2.5 meter and 5 meter resolution imagery overwide swaths (up to 60 x 120 km). High Resolution Stereo (HRS) instrument can nowdo large area “strip mapping” with stereo imagery.

ENVISAT launched by the European Space Agency in March 2002, is providingmeasurements of atmosphere, ocean, land and ice. ENVISAT data supports earthscience research. DigitalGlobe M5 System, setup in association with Ball Aerospaceand Technologies Corporation, plans to launch Remote Sensing system M5, scheduledto be operational in early 2006. The M5 constellation will consist of four satellites,each of which will collect five-meter resolution multi-spectral data over a 185 kilometer-wide area. The first M5 satellite is scheduled to be operation in the first quarter of2006, and all four by the third quarter of 2007. M5’s off-nadir pointing capability –collecting images from an angle – will give DigitalGlobe, the ability to revisit any pointon the Earth’s surface multiple times per day, providing a valuable resource ofinformation for time-sensitive applications.

1.5.3 Mobile Mapping

Year 2k2 also saw the increased interest about mobile mapping technology amongstthe user segment. Still treading with caution and not any landslide sale of M2 productto vindicate the absolute faith of the community in this technology. IntelliWhereOnDemand by Intergraph, ESRI’s ArcPad and MapX Mobile from MapInfo’s GIS forhand helds were some of the Mobile Mapping products released.

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Geoinformatics for Environmental Management

1.6 Legal ImplicationsGIS methodology using digitized maps is now changing the way digital spatial dataare used, revised and assessed. Maps as tangible property and as tools are capableof good and harm. Maps as property raise issues of intellectual property generallyand copyright in particular whereas maps as tools raise liability issues especiallywhen the data in them are erroneous. Both these issues are interrelated as theirinterpretations lead to a legal conundrum, maps as factual compilations are incapableof copyright protection whereas courts require them as ‘facts’ for evidence (GeorgeCho, 2002).

In the future it is expected that most litigation in this context will revolve aroundGeographic Information Systems products and spatial data, its collection, analysis,use and third-party use. More often the GIS professional will be in court either as awitness to the development and application of a spatial database or as an expertwitness.

1.6.1 Restricted Maps

The very classification of a map as ‘restricted’ evokes a fearful response from thecustodians of these documents. It was not very long ago that the GIS data usercommunity heard of a Crime Branch of India (CBI) inquiry in context with the digitizationof some restricted maps by a private agency for a Governmental project. None of uswould like to be scapegoats for some untimely mishap, which may suggest the use ofinformation from ‘restricted’ maps (Samant. H, 2002).

A recent addition to data acquisition is the advent of GRACE, which facilitatesgeoid measurements up to centimeter accuracy. This leads one to doubt the sanctityof the restriction of the Everest Ellipsoid parameters by Survey of India (Sol). Studentsof Earth Sciences perennially face the problem of data restriction. This results in abiased selection of research project work sites. Further many students in ouruniversities spend almost 80% of their research time in just acquiring data.

1.6.2 Burning Issues

Some of the burning issues confronting us as GIS professionals, include (i) protectionfor data in a global context (ii) the issues of liability in geographic information scienceand (iii) the protection of personal privacy in a geographic databases. We needto think seriously about these when we next print a map from our Geoinformaticstechnology.

1.7 Data : The Soul of Research

The integrity of any research endeavor is no better than the integrity of the data,namely, thematic data, topographic data, field data and other collateral data. By andlarge they can be defined as measurements, observations or any other primary productof an act of research. Such product provides a factual basis for interference,

9

Introduction

conclusions and publications. On them depends the integrity of research and it’susefulness to the society. However, empirical research need not involve primary datacollection. Till, that is the case, and the scale is small, the academicians canappropriately procure it. But, the deterrents occur when many researchers use datacollected by others to conduct new analyses-secondary analyses-designed to answertheir own research questions. The major advantage of secondary analysis is that itallows a researcher to bypass the time consuming and costly steps of sample selection,data collection and initial data processing. Besides, what is the need too? Moreover,why should the data be duplicated, especially when existing data elsewhere ensuresaccuracy, like, the remote sensing agencies where :

Large area coverage facilitates local, regional, national and global surveys.Continuous observations are conducted for disaster mapping andassessment.Periodic monitoring of environmental resources like land, water, agriculture,etc., is regularly conducted.All weather viewing capability is available.Procurement of fully computer compatible data, ensuring fast and accurateresults is possible along with analog and digital images of the inaccessibleregions.

In case there are other agencies in particular research field that have alreadyprocured and analyzed data to a certain extent, then no need emerges for itsreplication. The researcher can thus concentrate on the conceptual and practicalproblems of data analysis interpretation and reporting. Like, for instance in the caseof land use studies, the following agencies can be a few sources of information.

1.7.1 Sources of Information

Revenue records compiled by the Directorate / Bureau of Economics andStatistics.Topographical maps from the Survey of India.Land use Atlas from National Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO).Soil Survey Organization (NBSS & LUP AND AIS&LUS) generate soil andland capability maps.National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), with access to both analog anddigital data.

The question that arises is that if an academic researcher is aware of the dataaccess problems then what is the issue? The main issue is data sharing which canonly be approached through the bureaucratic maze of procedures enshrined ingovernment rule books. The data generating departments overlook the socialcommitment of an academician and are unmindful of the serious hurdles that come in

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Geoinformatics for Environmental Management

his way. What purpose does the data generated by the funds collected by the commonman’s money serve? Somewhere the procedure of accruing data is a hurdle, whereasin others the lack of finances, despite educational concessions, becomes a cause(Seema M. Parihar, 2002). Academic community can definitely become a successfuldata provider if individual researchers collaborate in contributing towards commongoals. In contrast when an academician works in isolation, the society loses thebenefits of improving and thus we remain unheard in policy forums.

As IT awareness increases, GIS will also become more and more mass based.The right to Spatial Information should be recognized as a fundamental part of theright to information. In fact, if the market becomes truly demanding and lively, then itwill take care of access to information, whether or not the government has a policy.Market needs to play a key role in influencing policy. People who intent to misuseinformation get it by whatever means. The sufferers are the genuine users. In fact,we need to look at the issue of stimulating demand rather than getting too obsessedwith policy. Information markets are still not fully developed (Amitabha Pande, 2002).

1.8 Geoinformatics and Environmental Modelling

Geoinformatics are not well designed for handling either time or the interactions ofcontinuously changing variables. By contrast, environmental models have beeneffective for many years at handling time and variable interactions – especially systems-based models-but such models rarely include spatial information either for the purposeof analysis or even for the display of their results. The ongoing challenge has beento integrate these two vastly different approaches that seek to provide anunderstanding of our environment.

Both GIS and environmental modeling are relatively new areas of research thathave made extraordinary progress in the last few decades. Both are likely to make asignificant impact on how we can manage our scarce and dwindling resources. Usingthese tools, and integrating these approaches with the analysis of socioeconomicsystems, we should be able to stem the tide of environmental degradation and pollutionand protect endangered habitats.

1.8.1 Developments in Environmental Modelling

Four developments were of particular importance. First, there are the conceptualinnovations in overlay modelling popularized by Ian McHarg (1969). Clarke (1999)describes the original contributions of Jacqueline Tyrwhitt to this methodology. Steinitzet al. (1976) provide a complete history of the map overlay approach and suggestthat the first explicit discussion of the overlay technique despite McHarg’s impliedstatement that his first use of the method had been novel (McHarg, 1996). Tomlinson(1999,) explains that it was his company, Spartan Air Services of Ottawa, that in 1962first proposed computerizing the overlay methodology.

11

Introduction

Second was the development of the idea that modelling as opposed to ‘meredescription’ was an informative approach that would provide useful insights. Thethird development involved the introduction of analytical and empirical approachesas an aid in understanding geographical and environmental data. The fourthdevelopment was the rise of systems thinking. These four areas were developedlargely independently of each other and there was, in addition, a significant divideseparating research contributions and communications among nations.

1.8.2 The System Approach of Modelling

The second attempt of define the nascent GIScience discipline mentioned by Goodchildet al. (1999) is that of the U.S.-based University Consortium for Geographic InformationScience (UCGIS). In 1996 ten topics are defined : 1. spatial data acquisition andintegration 2. distributed computing 3. extensions to geographic representation4. cognition of geographic information 5. interoperability of geographic information6. scale 7. spatial analysis in a GIS environment 8. the future of the spatial informationinfrastructure 9. uncertainty in spatial data and GIS-based analysis and 10. GIS andsociety. In 1998 each of these topics are refined into a series of “white papers,”available at http:/ www.ucgis.org/research98.html and now under reconsideration.

Besides spatial dependence, environmental GIS and often present other difficulties.In much environmental modeling a digital elevation model (DEM) is used. Elevation isuseful as an independent variable in its own right for such environmental analyses ashabitat modeling, but it can also be used to calculate other independent variablessuch as slope and aspect. Slope, like variables that represent percentages, is aconstrained distribution (values must fall within the range 0 to 90 degrees) and aspectis an example of a variable that forms a circular distribution (values go from 0 to 360and then back to 0 degrees). Few statistics texts address the problem of calculatingstatistics for such variables, although Burt and Barber (1996) provide one exceptionwhile Zar (1999) provides another in a through and comprehensive review of descriptiveand inferential statistics and associated significance tests for this type of data.

1.8.3 Need of Environmental DataEnvironmental data are needed for one or more of the following reasons(Harmancioglue 1998, Varma, 1996):

(i) To identify the nature, trends and anomalies and characteristics ofenvironmental processes in order to better understand of these processes.

(ii) To assess the effects of natural and human-made factors upon the generaltrends in environmental processes.

(iii) To evaluate the effectiveness of pollution control measures.(iv) To assess the appropriateness of environmental quality standards.(v) To assure compliance with established quality standards and enforcement

of quality control measures.

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Geoinformatics for Environmental Management

(vi) To conduct environmental impact assessment.(vii) To monitor and assess the general quality of the environment at regional to

global scales.(viii) To develop, calibrate and validate models of environmental processes.

1.8.4 Environmental Data Collection Efforts

The availability of appropriate and adequate environmental data and the full extractionof information from collected data, are important concerns. In the past, many datacollection efforts are local in nature to meet the objectives of environmental impactassessments for projects, monitoring environmental resources for compliance andenforcement purposes, or for modeling problems at the local level. With the evolutionand broadening of environmental problems, the nature and type of data requirementshave changed and newer data collection efforts have been undertaken. Moreover,environmental data need to be collected in a way that facilitates understanding theinterrelationships and interactions among various earth resources during anenvironmental disaster (natural or human-made). There is a need to integrateinformation on all resources of the Earth so that we become “information rich” and notjust “data rich”.

Spatio-temporal data are collected primarily by means of field surveying,instrumentation, photogrammetry and remote sensing. Field data collection usingsampling, surveying and/or GPS instruments may be required for gathering geospatialinformation. Such field work can help fill gaps in existing data, provide ground referenceinformation for use in calibrating remote sensing instruments, for processing andinterpreting remote sensing data and in the establishment of ground control(Pickles, 1995). Field surveying techniques involve the use of precise electronicdistance measuring equipment and/or GPS features in the landscape. Instrumentationplaced in the field to measure environmental phenomena are increasingly self-supporting with their own solar power and ability to automatically transmit data readingsvia satellite relay to a reception point for processing and archiving. Weatherinstruments, seismographs and stream gauges are examples of telemeteredequipment. Photogrammetry, the process of using remote sensing imagery to createa precise stereo model and compile geometrically accurate map products, has evolvedinto a digital process that uses soft-copy input. Remote sensing includes airborneand satellite imaging systems, both passive and active. Aerial photography is a passiveairborne source of remote sensing data, whereas, light detection and ranging (LIDAR)and interferometric synthetic aperature radar (IFSAR) technologies employ an activesignal to obtain information about the environment. Similarly, multispectral scannerson-board satellites are passive sensors, however, radar systems are an active sourceof data.

13

Introduction

Digital data is also created by the process of converting existing maps or graphicdocuments into an appropriate digital form using digitizing or scanning methods(Clarke, 1997; Hohl, 1998; Jackson & Woodsford, 1991) for details on digitizing andscanning. Data conversion is still an important task in GIS projects and constitutes amajor portion of the cost and time of projects. Map conversion projects need to payattention to scale, level of generalization, datum, coordinate system, projection, dataof source and accuracy (Fisher, 1991) for spatial data sources and data problems.(Flowerdew, 1991) for spatial data integration (Hohl, 1998) for discussion of dataconversion.

1.9 A Tour of the Contents

No matter what approach a student wishes to follow when studying Geoinformatics,there is a set of core concepts and techniques that he/she must fully understand andmaster (Fig. 1.1). The primary purpose of this book is to provide students the conceptsand techniques fundamental to studying Geoinformatics from different perspectivesand its applications to environmental management. The contents of the book havebeen designed with the needs of beginning students and Geomatics professionals inmind. Accordingly the contents of this book is divided into two major parts. The firstpart, that is, from chapters 2 through 9 covers the basics of Geoinformatics. Thispart also includes the introduction (chapter 1) which provides the broad general viewof geoinformatics. The second part of this book deals with various applications ofgeoinformatics for environmental management along with specific case studies, in 10chapters from chapter 10 to chapter 19.

Photogrammetry

Remote Sensing Global PositioningSystems

GeodesyMap

ProjectionsGeographicInformation

Systems

Fig. 1.1 Concepts and Techniques of Geoinformatics

Chapter 2 discusses the concepts of surveying technology including datums andreference systems, classification of surveying methods, stages in surveying, planimetry

Cartography SurveyingTechnology

Geoinformatics

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Geoinformatics for Environmental Management

and height control by traverse method, plain table surveying methods and moderntrends in surveying and mapping. Chapter 3 examines the cartographic principleswith details of cartographic symbolization and generalization. Cartographic design,thematic and digital cartographic principles are also discussed in this chapter. Thehistory of photogrammetric engineering, classification of aerial photograph,components and types of aerial cameras, photographic scale and geometry alongwith stereo photogrammetric principles and ground control, aerial triangulation arepresented in chapter 4. Chapter 5 highlights remote sensing physics and techniques,remote sensing platforms and sensors. Chapter 6 describes the geodetic surveyingprinciples and mathematical aspects of ellipsoid, expressions for gravity and potentialand measurement of gravity on earth are discussed under Geodesy. An emphasis isalso given to the conceptual design of satellite geodesy in this chapter.

Chapter 7 describes various components of global positioning system, creation ofnew data from GPS readings along with the GPS data capture for GIS. Chapter 8discusses the concepts of map projections including co-ordinate systems, re-projectionsystem, common map projections such as transverse meracator and UniversalTransverse Meracator (UTM) along with the related parameters. Chapter 9 focusesfundamentals and roots of GIS, definitions and its terminology, theoretical models ofGIS, various data models and GIS operations along with broad view of applications.

The second part of this book starts from 10th chapter and it considers the ForestResource Management and large variety of data products that use the various methodsforest resource surveys for its effective management. Chapter 11 deals with thewatershed management and saltwater intrusion modeling is presented in chapter 12.Water quality mapping and modeling which is very new area of research is clearlydiscussed in chapter 13. Chapter 14 gives an overview on solid waste managementand also describes different selection criteria for selecting suitable sites for solidwaste dumping using specially designed and developed decision support system.Chapter 15 and 16 stresses both concept and practice of geoinformatics applicationsto landslides and pipeline alignment surveys respectively. Potential fishing zonemapping and urban planning and management explained and presented inchapters 17 and 18.

This book emphasizes both concept and applications of geoinformatics forenvironment management. Geoinformatics concept explain the purpose and objectivesof operations and the interrelationship among these operations. For most geomaticsusers GIS is a problem solving tool (Wright etal 1997). To apply the tool correctly andefficiently the GIS user must become proficient in using the tools of geoinformatics.