1 joseph conrad phenomenon reconsidered doc. phdr. magdaléna bilá, phd. department of english...

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Joseph Conrad phenomenon Joseph Conrad phenomenon reconsideredreconsidered

Doc. PhDr. Magdaléna Bilá, PhD.Doc. PhDr. Magdaléna Bilá, PhD.Department of English Language & Department of English Language &

Literature, Faculty of Literature, Faculty of ArtsArts, , the the University University of Prešovof Prešov

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Joseph Conrad phenomenon Joseph Conrad phenomenon reconsideredreconsidered

Outline of the lecture:Outline of the lecture: The concept of foreign accent:The concept of foreign accent:

- production based and perceptual - production based and perceptual -“Joseph Conrad phenomenon”-“Joseph Conrad phenomenon”

Acquisition of second language phonology Acquisition of second language phonology (differences between early/infant and late/adult (differences between early/infant and late/adult learners): learners):

- The “Doom Hypothesis”- The “Doom Hypothesis” Further research into acquisition of second Further research into acquisition of second

language phonology: language phonology: - The “Full Access Hypothesis”- The “Full Access Hypothesis”

Current theory of L2 perception, perceptual Current theory of L2 perception, perceptual development, plasticity development, plasticity

Recent research into the areaRecent research into the area

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Foreign accent: production-based and Foreign accent: production-based and perceptual, “Joseph Conrad phenomenon”perceptual, “Joseph Conrad phenomenon”

Foreign accentsForeign accents – “relate to … national – “relate to … national groups speaking the same language” groups speaking the same language” (Major, 2001).(Major, 2001).

“ “Foreign accent - the inability of Foreign accent - the inability of non-native language users to non-native language users to produce the target language with produce the target language with the phonetic accuracy required for the phonetic accuracy required for acceptance by native speakers as acceptance by native speakers as native speech” (Major, 2001)native speech” (Major, 2001)

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The lack of ability The lack of ability inin late/late/adultadult learnerslearners to achieve target like to achieve target like proficiency in pronunciation in an proficiency in pronunciation in an L2 has been labeled as the L2 has been labeled as the ‘Joseph Conrad phenomenon’ by Scovel.by Scovel.

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Perceptual foreign accentPerceptual foreign accent (Strange, 1995; McAllister, (Strange, 1995; McAllister, 1997): 1997): ““Difficulty with which adult listeners Difficulty with which adult listeners perceive the majority of phonetic contrasts that perceive the majority of phonetic contrasts that are not functional in their L1”. are not functional in their L1”.

L2 users’ difficulties in deciphering L2 speech (Garnes L2 users’ difficulties in deciphering L2 speech (Garnes and Bond, In: Celce-Murcia et al, 1996: 222-223):and Bond, In: Celce-Murcia et al, 1996: 222-223):

lack of background knowledge (including cultural lack of background knowledge (including cultural gaps);gaps);

lack of knowledge of the L2 phonology, tendency to lack of knowledge of the L2 phonology, tendency to transfer the rules and features of L1 to L2;transfer the rules and features of L1 to L2;

incomplete knowledge of L2 grammar and vocabulary.incomplete knowledge of L2 grammar and vocabulary.

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Acquisition of second language phonology Acquisition of second language phonology (differences between early/infant and (differences between early/infant and

late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”

Flege (PFlege (Plasticity in Speech Perception, lasticity in Speech Perception, 2005): The “Doom Hypothesis”: 2005): The “Doom Hypothesis”: late/adult learners are unable to late/adult learners are unable to acquire the phonology of a new acquire the phonology of a new language in a native-like manner. language in a native-like manner.

3 sources (Flege, PSP, 2005):3 sources (Flege, PSP, 2005): Linguistic research;Linguistic research; Neurolinguistic research andNeurolinguistic research and Speech research.Speech research.

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late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”

A/ Linguistic research: phonological A/ Linguistic research: phonological grid (Trubetzkoy): L2 phonemes grid (Trubetzkoy): L2 phonemes perceived as phonemes of L1; perceived as phonemes of L1; phonemic features not used phonemic features not used contrastively in learners’ L1 are contrastively in learners’ L1 are difficult or impossible to perceive, to difficult or impossible to perceive, to learn and to produce;learn and to produce;

(Flege, 2005)(Flege, 2005)

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late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis” (Flege, 2005) (Flege, 2005)

B/ neurolinguistic research:B/ neurolinguistic research:Critical Period Hypothesis: Lenneberg Critical Period Hypothesis: Lenneberg

(1969), (1969), aan early advocate: two hypotheses n early advocate: two hypotheses combined: combined:

i/ Chomsky’s LAD Hypothesis (language acquisition i/ Chomsky’s LAD Hypothesis (language acquisition device, i.e. a species specific innate linguistic device, i.e. a species specific innate linguistic capacity supposed to weaken progressively with the capacity supposed to weaken progressively with the onset of puberty) onset of puberty)

ii/ and Penfield’s concept of cerebral dominance ii/ and Penfield’s concept of cerebral dominance (lateralization, i.e. assigning of certain functions to (lateralization, i.e. assigning of certain functions to the different hemispheres of the brain). the different hemispheres of the brain).

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late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis” The underlying idea of the CPH: The underlying idea of the CPH: after after

lateralization of speech centers in the lateralization of speech centers in the brain is complete, the ability to learn L2, brain is complete, the ability to learn L2, especially L2 phonologyespecially L2 phonology, diminishes., diminishes.

Critical Period -Critical Period - "a biologically "a biologically determined period of life during determined period of life during which maximal conditions for which maximal conditions for language acquisition exist"language acquisition exist" (Celce - (Celce - Murcia, Brinton and Goodwin, 1996, p. 15). Murcia, Brinton and Goodwin, 1996, p. 15). No consensus among researchers in terms of No consensus among researchers in terms of delimiting it.delimiting it.

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late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis” Other possible explanation: derives Other possible explanation: derives

from neurology: adults are much less from neurology: adults are much less successful in L2 speech learning successful in L2 speech learning because of because of loss or atrophy of loss or atrophy of neural “plasticity” of brainneural “plasticity” of brain (i.e. (i.e. its ability to change and develop new its ability to change and develop new phonetic categories). phonetic categories).

(Flege, 2005)(Flege, 2005)

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late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis”late/adult learners): The “Doom Hypothesis” C/ Speech research studies: perceptual C/ Speech research studies: perceptual

attunement to L1 during infancy and attunement to L1 during infancy and childhood. An individual who has become childhood. An individual who has become perceptually attuned to their L1:perceptually attuned to their L1:

- incapable of perceiving L1-L2 differences;- incapable of perceiving L1-L2 differences;

- incapable of developing long-term - incapable of developing long-term memory representations for L2 sounds.memory representations for L2 sounds.

(Flege, 2005)(Flege, 2005)

BilBilá – Džambová, 2009: study on accented speech: á – Džambová, 2009: study on accented speech: pauses and emphasis (1/0475/08 Vega project)pauses and emphasis (1/0475/08 Vega project)

Differences between L1 and L2 speakers Differences between L1 and L2 speakers (teacher trainees(teacher trainees – started learning their L2 after – started learning their L2 after pubertypuberty) of English and German:) of English and German:

Total number of pauses;Total number of pauses; Frequency of pauses;Frequency of pauses; Distribution of pauses;Distribution of pauses; Function of pauses;Function of pauses; Inapt emphasis Inapt emphasis and and in L2 subjects´ productions in L2 subjects´ productions More diversity in L2 subjects´productions.More diversity in L2 subjects´productions. 1212

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Further research into acquisition of second Further research into acquisition of second language phonology: The “Full Access Hypothesis”language phonology: The “Full Access Hypothesis”

Further research: early/infant – late/adult learners Further research: early/infant – late/adult learners differences: failed to be satisfactorily explained differences: failed to be satisfactorily explained as arising solely from maturational constraints;as arising solely from maturational constraints;

and some research studies reported native-like and some research studies reported native-like mastery in L2 in late/adult learners:mastery in L2 in late/adult learners:

MAJOR, R.: A Model for Interlanguage Phonology. In: MAJOR, R.: A Model for Interlanguage Phonology. In: Interlanguage Phonology: The Acquisition of a Interlanguage Phonology: The Acquisition of a Second Language Sound SystemSecond Language Sound System. Eds. G. Ioup and S. H. Weinberger. New York: Newbury House, . Eds. G. Ioup and S. H. Weinberger. New York: Newbury House, 1987, p. 101-124:1987, p. 101-124:

Salisbury (1962) and Sorensen (1967) report on some native Salisbury (1962) and Sorensen (1967) report on some native communities (in Papua New Guinea and Northwest communities (in Papua New Guinea and Northwest Amazon): multilingualism is common there since it is a Amazon): multilingualism is common there since it is a desired and necessary skill and members of communities desired and necessary skill and members of communities often learn other languages as adults and reportedly often learn other languages as adults and reportedly achieve target like pronunciation. achieve target like pronunciation.

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NEUFELD, G. G.NEUFELD, G. G.: : On the Acquisition of Prosodic and Articulatory On the Acquisition of Prosodic and Articulatory Features in Adult Language Learning. In: Features in Adult Language Learning. In: Interlanguage Phonology: The Interlanguage Phonology: The Acquisition of a Second Language Sound SystemAcquisition of a Second Language Sound System. Eds. G. Ioup and S. H. . Eds. G. Ioup and S. H.

Weinberger. New York: Newbury House, 1987, p. 321-332.Weinberger. New York: Newbury House, 1987, p. 321-332. : : A program for 3 groups of English speaking A program for 3 groups of English speaking

subjects to learn Japanese, Chinese or Eskimo. subjects to learn Japanese, Chinese or Eskimo. Results: out of the 20 adult subjects (8 males and Results: out of the 20 adult subjects (8 males and 12 females), 12 females), 9: ratings within the range of 9: ratings within the range of ratings usually obtained by L1 speakersratings usually obtained by L1 speakers; 6: ; 6: qualified as near native like speakers and 5 qualified as near native like speakers and 5 performed in the manner one would normally performed in the manner one would normally expect after such a short period of instruction.expect after such a short period of instruction.

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Bongaerts, van Summeren, Bongaerts, van Summeren, Planken Planken and Schils (1997): and Schils (1997): Age and ultimate Age and ultimate Attainment in the Pronunciation of a Attainment in the Pronunciation of a Foreign Language. In:Foreign Language. In: Studies in Second Studies in Second Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition, vol. 19, 1997, no. 4, , vol. 19, 1997, no. 4, pp. 447-465.pp. 447-465.

Extremely successful speakers of English Extremely successful speakers of English

(L1: Dutch): (L1: Dutch): contributing factors: contributing factors: learner learner characteristics or training environment. characteristics or training environment.

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PPurely biological factors may not be sufficient to urely biological factors may not be sufficient to account for adult performance in L2 acquisition:account for adult performance in L2 acquisition:

Neufeld (1987): the CPH does not clarify why some Neufeld (1987): the CPH does not clarify why some adults are capable of achieving (relatively) native adults are capable of achieving (relatively) native like proficiency;like proficiency;

Neufeld (1987): the differences between adults and Neufeld (1987): the differences between adults and children: children: psychological factors and learner psychological factors and learner characteristics: characteristics: due to due to affective factorsaffective factors (psychological disposition toward the target (psychological disposition toward the target language and its culture) and language and its culture) and language learning language learning strategiesstrategies. .

Bongaerts: Bongaerts: learnerlearner characteristicscharacteristics and and learninglearning environmentenvironment – favorable factors in enhancing – favorable factors in enhancing native-like proficiency in pronunciation.native-like proficiency in pronunciation.

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Research studies into the Research studies into the perception of foreign-accented perception of foreign-accented speech reveal that adults retain speech reveal that adults retain some ability to perceive non-native some ability to perceive non-native contrasts, store them in memory contrasts, store them in memory and can even reproduce them and can even reproduce them (after a period of exposure).(after a period of exposure).

PSP (2005)PSP (2005)

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Flege (1984; In: Flege, PSP 2005):Flege (1984; In: Flege, PSP 2005):

Subjects: monolingual L1 English speaking adults;Subjects: monolingual L1 English speaking adults; Stimuli: in pairs (one uttered by a native English speaker Stimuli: in pairs (one uttered by a native English speaker

and one by a native French speaker). Listeners’ task: and one by a native French speaker). Listeners’ task: choose “foreign”choose “foreign” speaker speaker. The results. The results:: native English adults native English adults could spot within-category differences.could spot within-category differences.

Flege & Hammond : Non-distinctive phonetic differences between language varieties. Flege & Hammond : Non-distinctive phonetic differences between language varieties. Studies Studies

in Second Lang. Acquisin Second Lang. Acquis. 5, 1-17. . 5, 1-17. 1982; In: Flege, PSP 2005): 1982; In: Flege, PSP 2005):

Subjects: 1Subjects: 1stst year college students attending English classes year college students attending English classes taught by Spanish accented English teachers; production taught by Spanish accented English teachers; production task: imitate Spanish accented speech (acoustic analysis task: imitate Spanish accented speech (acoustic analysis proved they could spot between category differences).proved they could spot between category differences).

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Full Access HypothesisFull Access Hypothesis

Full Access HypothesisFull Access Hypothesis:: “ “the processes and devices that control the processes and devices that control

successful L1 speech acquisition—including successful L1 speech acquisition—including the ability to develop new phonetic the ability to develop new phonetic categories— remain intact across the life categories— remain intact across the life span”span” (Flege, PSP 2005)- (Flege, PSP 2005)- brain retains its brain retains its plasticityplasticity, , i.e. ability to change even at i.e. ability to change even at adult ageadult age

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Current theory of L2 perception, Current theory of L2 perception, phonological development, plasticityphonological development, plasticity

Researchers at the Researchers at the Acoustical Society of Acoustical Society of America (ASA)America (ASA) presented (June 2003) the presented (June 2003) the results of their results of their brain imaging studies and brain imaging studies and clinical experimentsclinical experiments that reveal how the L1 we that reveal how the L1 we acquire acquire distorts the perception of any distorts the perception of any subsequent L2 sound systemsubsequent L2 sound system. .

Researchers at Researchers at Boston UniversityBoston University (Guenther): a (Guenther): a neural network modelneural network model:: how phonetic how phonetic categories develop in cortex: After neurons categories develop in cortex: After neurons correctly distinguish the phonemes of a certain correctly distinguish the phonemes of a certain language, they language, they reorganizereorganize and become and become sensitive only to between category sensitive only to between category differences, i.e. contrasts that are differences, i.e. contrasts that are functional in the language acquired. functional in the language acquired.

The capacity of cortex to discriminate within The capacity of cortex to discriminate within category differences (non-functional contrasts) category differences (non-functional contrasts) diminishes. diminishes.

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Current theory of L2 perception, Current theory of L2 perception, phonological development, plasticity Current phonological development, plasticity Current

theory of L2 perceptiontheory of L2 perception Iverson et al. Iverson et al. at at UCLUCL (2005) (2005): “: “acquiring one's acquiring one's

native language phoneme categories native language phoneme categories ALTERS PERCEPTIONALTERS PERCEPTION so that individuals so that individuals become more sensitive to between- than become more sensitive to between- than within-category differences for L1 within-category differences for L1 phonemes; i.e. phonemes; i.e. human auditory system gets human auditory system gets tuned up to be especially sensitive to the tuned up to be especially sensitive to the details critical in our L1details critical in our L1””..

When trying to learn another language, those When trying to learn another language, those tunings may prove to be inappropriate and tunings may prove to be inappropriate and interfere with one’s ability to learn new interfere with one’s ability to learn new categories – “Joseph Conrad phenomenon”.categories – “Joseph Conrad phenomenon”.

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theory of L2 perceptiontheory of L2 perception

Paul IVERSON, Patricia K. KUHL, Paul IVERSON, Patricia K. KUHL, Reiko AKAHANE-YAMADA, Eugen Reiko AKAHANE-YAMADA, Eugen DIESCH, Yoh'ich TOHKURA, Andreas DIESCH, Yoh'ich TOHKURA, Andreas KETTERMANN, and Claudia SIEBERT: KETTERMANN, and Claudia SIEBERT: A perceptual interference account of A perceptual interference account of acquisition difficulties for nonnative acquisition difficulties for nonnative phonemes. In. Speech, Hearing and phonemes. In. Speech, Hearing and Language: work in progress, Volume Language: work in progress, Volume 13: 107-118:13: 107-118:

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theory of L2 perceptiontheory of L2 perception Maps of the human hearing apparatus: the Maps of the human hearing apparatus: the

input of synthesized sounds that extend input of synthesized sounds that extend over the continuum between the American over the continuum between the American English phonemes /ra/ and /la/; English phonemes /ra/ and /la/;

The English, German and Japanese The English, German and Japanese subjects - instructed to identify each subjects - instructed to identify each phoneme and to provide quality ratings. phoneme and to provide quality ratings.

The outcome: a map (our experience with The outcome: a map (our experience with language distorts what we suppose we language distorts what we suppose we hear): different perceptual patterns in hear): different perceptual patterns in Japanese listeners.Japanese listeners.

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Paul IVERSON, Patricia K. KUHL, Reiko AKAHANE-YAMADA, Eugen DIESCH, Paul IVERSON, Patricia K. KUHL, Reiko AKAHANE-YAMADA, Eugen DIESCH, Yoh'ich TOHKURA, Andreas KETTERMANN, and Claudia SIEBERT: A perceptual Yoh'ich TOHKURA, Andreas KETTERMANN, and Claudia SIEBERT: A perceptual

interference account of acquisition difficulties for nonnative phonemes. In. interference account of acquisition difficulties for nonnative phonemes. In. Speech, Hearing and Language: work in progress, Volume 13: 107-118:Speech, Hearing and Language: work in progress, Volume 13: 107-118:

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Current theory of L2 perception, perceptual Current theory of L2 perception, perceptual development, plasticity Current theory of L2 development, plasticity Current theory of L2

perceptionperception (Iverson et al. and Kuhl) (Iverson et al. and Kuhl)Infants: born with the capability of learning any Infants: born with the capability of learning any

language; language general pattern of perception; due language; language general pattern of perception; due to exposure to speech during childhood: to exposure to speech during childhood:

changes in perceptual processing:changes in perceptual processing:

These changes interfere with the acquisition of L2:These changes interfere with the acquisition of L2: the L2 speech: the L2 speech: difficult to segmentdifficult to segment into words and into words and

phonemes, phonemes, different phonemesdifferent phonemes in the second language - sound in the second language - sound

as if they are as if they are the same as L1 phonemesthe same as L1 phonemes. . Inappropriate perceptual processing: second language Inappropriate perceptual processing: second language

productionproduction affected: the affected: the motor articulationsmotor articulations of L2 of L2 difficult to reproduce.difficult to reproduce.

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perceptionperception (Iverson et al. and Kuhl)(Iverson et al. and Kuhl)What is the core of the transition from a language-general What is the core of the transition from a language-general

to a language-specific pattern of perception?to a language-specific pattern of perception?

Early research: Early research: newborn infants are innately endowed newborn infants are innately endowed with a universal set of phonetic feature detectorswith a universal set of phonetic feature detectors

Due to maturation and lack of use: Due to maturation and lack of use: atrophyatrophy - - adults adults eventually develop language specific phonetic feature eventually develop language specific phonetic feature detectorsdetectors..

This early conception of perceptual development - This early conception of perceptual development - falsefalse::

Infants’ perceptual abilities: Infants’ perceptual abilities: auditory processing, not innate auditory processing, not innate linguistic structureslinguistic structures; ;

Adults: Adults: retain the ability to detect some non-native retain the ability to detect some non-native phonemes to which they have had little exposurephonemes to which they have had little exposure, and , and lose the ability to distinguish some non-native lose the ability to distinguish some non-native phonemes to which they have been exposed in the phonemes to which they have been exposed in the allophonic variation of their native languageallophonic variation of their native language (Example: r/l (Example: r/l differences in Japanese and Chinese speakers).differences in Japanese and Chinese speakers).

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perceptionperception (Iverson et al. and Kuhl)(Iverson et al. and Kuhl)

The initial perceptual abilities of infants The initial perceptual abilities of infants ARE ACTIVELY CHANGED BY ARE ACTIVELY CHANGED BY LANGUAGE EXPOSURE: LANGUAGE EXPOSURE:

Their ability to differentiate within-Their ability to differentiate within-category differences for L1 category differences for L1 phonemes diminishesphonemes diminishes..

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perceptionperception (Iverson et al. and Kuhl)(Iverson et al. and Kuhl)

Which levels of processing are Which levels of processing are changed by language exposure during changed by language exposure during infant L1 acquisition?infant L1 acquisition?

IversonIverson (2005) (2005): More recent evidence: : More recent evidence:

language exposure may language exposure may AFFECT AFFECT AUDITORY PROCESSINGAUDITORY PROCESSING. .

These perceptual changes: prior to These perceptual changes: prior to the recognition or categorization of the recognition or categorization of speech in terms of higher level speech in terms of higher level linguistic unitslinguistic units..

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perceptionperception (Iverson et al. and Kuhl)(Iverson et al. and Kuhl) Kuhl’s hypothesis (1998; 2000): the Kuhl’s hypothesis (1998; 2000): the CP for CP for

language acquisitionlanguage acquisition results more from results more from the interference of PREVIOUS the interference of PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE than from AGEEXPERIENCE than from AGE..

Adults: Adults: NEURALLY COMMITTEDNEURALLY COMMITTED (Kuhl, 2000) (Kuhl, 2000) to a particular network structure (underlying to a particular network structure (underlying phonological representation – cortical phonological representation – cortical representations) for decoding language, more representations) for decoding language, more due to this type of due to this type of perceptual interference perceptual interference than to any maturational constraintsthan to any maturational constraints..

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theory of L2 perceptiontheory of L2 perception THE DECLINE IN SECOND THE DECLINE IN SECOND

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ABILITIES FROM CHILDHOOD ABILITIES FROM CHILDHOOD THROUGH PUBERTY THROUGH PUBERTY

A PROGRESSIVELY STRONGER A PROGRESSIVELY STRONGER

NEURAL COMMITTMENT TO ONE'S NEURAL COMMITTMENT TO ONE'S NATIVE LANGUAGE NATIVE LANGUAGE (Kuhl, 2000).(Kuhl, 2000).

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Even though an adult learning a second language could be Even though an adult learning a second language could be exposed to the same ACOUSTIC DISTRIBUTION of speech exposed to the same ACOUSTIC DISTRIBUTION of speech

sounds as an infant learning the same language, the sounds as an infant learning the same language, the AUDITORY DISTRIBUTION of those sounds would be different AUDITORY DISTRIBUTION of those sounds would be different

for an adult due to prior perceptual changes.for an adult due to prior perceptual changes.

Acoustic distribution

Auditory distribution in an infant

Auditory distribution inan adult (Joseph Conrad)

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Current view of phonological learningCurrent view of phonological learning

(McAllister, 1997: 206)(McAllister, 1997: 206):: THE CURRENT VIEW THE CURRENT VIEW OF L2 PHONOLOGICAL LEARNING: OF L2 PHONOLOGICAL LEARNING:

““THE KEY TO THE MASTERY OF L2 SPEECH IS THE THE KEY TO THE MASTERY OF L2 SPEECH IS THE

SUCCESSFUL RESTRUCTURING OF THE L1 SUCCESSFUL RESTRUCTURING OF THE L1

CATEGORICAL SYSTEM AND THE RESULTING CATEGORICAL SYSTEM AND THE RESULTING

PERCEPTUAL RE-CATEGORIZATION OF THE PERCEPTUAL RE-CATEGORIZATION OF THE

ARRANGEMENT OF ACOUSTIC INPUT STIMULI THAT ARRANGEMENT OF ACOUSTIC INPUT STIMULI THAT

FIT THE PHONETIC CATEGORIES OF THE TARGET FIT THE PHONETIC CATEGORIES OF THE TARGET

LANGUAGE”.LANGUAGE”.

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Current view of phonological learningCurrent view of phonological learning

L2 learners:L2 learners: Change their auditory processing of L2 speechChange their auditory processing of L2 speech

(= perceptual re-categorization);(= perceptual re-categorization); Build new underlying categoriesBuild new underlying categories (cortical (cortical

representations)representations) for L2 sounds for L2 sounds, i.e. a new , i.e. a new network structurenetwork structure (= restructuring of L1 (= restructuring of L1 categorical system).categorical system).

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Recent research into the area Recent research into the area

Ongoing discussion:Ongoing discussion: Which linguistic, psychological Which linguistic, psychological

and social factors influence the and social factors influence the success or failure of an L2 learner success or failure of an L2 learner in this restructuring process?in this restructuring process?

What are the causes of inter-What are the causes of inter-subject variability ?subject variability ?(see also Flege, (see also Flege, PSP 2005).PSP 2005).

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Recent research into the areaRecent research into the areaThe effect of a number of The effect of a number of language and language and lleaearnrner er variables of the perception of non-native phonemic variables of the perception of non-native phonemic contrastscontrasts: :

the learner’s length of exposure to L2the learner’s length of exposure to L2initial age of acquisition (AOA)initial age of acquisition (AOA)degree of ongoing use of L1degree of ongoing use of L1inherent ‘skill’ in language acquisitioninherent ‘skill’ in language acquisitionthe phonological status of L2 sounds in the learner’s L1 the phonological status of L2 sounds in the learner’s L1 (e.g., Best, 2001) (e.g., Best, 2001) the inherent acoustic salience of L2 sounds, (Ortega-the inherent acoustic salience of L2 sounds, (Ortega-Llebaria, Faulkner & Hazan, PSP: 2005). Llebaria, Faulkner & Hazan, PSP: 2005).

Learner variables: cross-language research has Learner variables: cross-language research has emphasized the emphasized the initial age of L2 acquisitioninitial age of L2 acquisition and and amount of exposure to L2amount of exposure to L2 as determining factors in as determining factors in the ability to perceive and produce a foreign the ability to perceive and produce a foreign languagelanguage (B. G. Evans and P. Iverson (UCL): Plasticity in speech production and perception: A study of accent change in (B. G. Evans and P. Iverson (UCL): Plasticity in speech production and perception: A study of accent change in young adults (PSP 2005)young adults (PSP 2005) Speech, Hearing and Language: work in progress. Volume 14, 2002, pSpeech, Hearing and Language: work in progress. Volume 14, 2002, pp.p.18-3818-38).).

BilBiláá, 2005: , 2005: Study on Study on percperceeption of impoverished ption of impoverished reduced input through ‘reduced input through ‘gated speechgated speech’’

Shockey (2002): AShockey (2002): A natural speech recording in which natural speech recording in which the time-domain waveform is ‘gated’ so that only a the time-domain waveform is ‘gated’ so that only a fraction of 50 ms of the signal is heard by the fraction of 50 ms of the signal is heard by the listeners, the duration of this gated fraction is listeners, the duration of this gated fraction is progressively increased to a point at which the progressively increased to a point at which the signal is likely to be unfailingly identified by L1 signal is likely to be unfailingly identified by L1 listenerslisteners..

The presThe preseented graph illustrates the statistical nted graph illustrates the statistical analysis analysis (correspondence analysis) (correspondence analysis) showing the showing the relationship between the AOA (age at which the relationship between the AOA (age at which the subjects subjects -1-1stst year ELT trainees year ELT trainees started learning started learning their their L2 – English) and the number of words they L2 – English) and the number of words they identified in the last gate (total number of words: identified in the last gate (total number of words: 10)10)..

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The subjects who started to The subjects who started to learn L2 at an earlier age learn L2 at an earlier age performed better.performed better.

Impossible to interpret: Impossible to interpret: 3 (10-11 yrs):3 (10-11 yrs): explanation: may have studied explanation: may have studied English at secondary schools as false English at secondary schools as false beginners (questionnaire)beginners (questionnaire)

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AAge of acquisitionge of acquisition and perceptual performance and perceptual performance 2 (6-9 yrs): 6-9 words2 (6-9 yrs): 6-9 words

3 (10-11 yrs): impossible to interpret3 (10-11 yrs): impossible to interpret 4 (12-15 yrs): 4-5 words 4 (12-15 yrs): 4-5 words

2D g raf řádkových a s loupc. souřadnic; D imenze: 1 x 2

Vstupní tab. ( řádky x s l.) : 3 x 11

Standardizace: Profily řádků a s loupců

Ř ád.souř . Sloup.sou.

2

3

4

0

1

2

3

45

6

7

8

9

10

-1,5 -1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0

D imenze 1; Vl. čís lo: ,23483 (69,92% inerce )

-1,0

-0,8

-0,6

-0,4

-0,2

0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

Dim

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The presThe preseented graph illustrates the nted graph illustrates the statistical analysis statistical analysis (correspondence (correspondence analysis) analysis) showing the relationship showing the relationship between the LOR (length of residence in between the LOR (length of residence in an L2 country) and the number of words an L2 country) and the number of words the subjects identified in the last gate the subjects identified in the last gate (total number of words: 10)(total number of words: 10)..

The subjects who experienced a The subjects who experienced a prolonged stay in an L2 country prolonged stay in an L2 country performed better.performed better.

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Recent research into the areaRecent research into the area Bilá, 2005: Bilá, 2005: 3 - several months: 8-10 words3 - several months: 8-10 words 4 – a year: 0-3 or 7-9 words4 – a year: 0-3 or 7-9 words 5 – several years: 8-10 words.5 – several years: 8-10 words.

2D g raf řádkových a s loupc. souřadnic; D imenze: 1 x 2

Vstupní tab. ( řádky x s l.) : 3 x 11

Standardizace: Profily řádků a s loupců

Ř ád.souř . Sloup.sou.

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4

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8

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D imenze 1; Vl. čís lo: ,58212 (74,23% inerce )

-1,0

-0,8

-0,6

-0,4

-0,2

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4141

Recent research into the Recent research into the area: PSP 2005area: PSP 2005

THE STUDIES PRESENTED AT PSP workshop THE STUDIES PRESENTED AT PSP workshop (2005): (2005):

THE ADULT PERCEPTUAL SYSTEM MAY BE MORE THE ADULT PERCEPTUAL SYSTEM MAY BE MORE PLASTIC THAN FORMERLY THOUGHT: even PLASTIC THAN FORMERLY THOUGHT: even adults can build new cortical representationsadults can build new cortical representations..

FURTHER INSIGHT INTO:FURTHER INSIGHT INTO: A/ THE EFFECT OF SOME LINGUISTIC, A/ THE EFFECT OF SOME LINGUISTIC,

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS ON ACQUISITION OF L2 PHONOLOGY AND ON ACQUISITION OF L2 PHONOLOGY AND

B/ POSSIBLE CAUSES OF INB/ POSSIBLE CAUSES OF INTTERSUBJECT ERSUBJECT VARIABILITY.VARIABILITY.

4242

Recent research: PSP 2005Recent research: PSP 2005 Patricia K. Kuhl University of Washington, Barbara Conboy Patricia K. Kuhl University of Washington, Barbara Conboy

University of Washington: University of Washington: Infants' brain and behavioral Infants' brain and behavioral responses to speech: Implications for the Critical Period.responses to speech: Implications for the Critical Period.

Results: (a) a negative correlation between infants' early Results: (a) a negative correlation between infants' early native versus nonnative phonetic discrimination skills, and native versus nonnative phonetic discrimination skills, and (b) that native- and nonnative-phonetic discrimination skills (b) that native- and nonnative-phonetic discrimination skills at 7.5 months differentially predict future language ability. at 7.5 months differentially predict future language ability.

Better native-language discrimination at 7.5 months Better native-language discrimination at 7.5 months

predicts accelerated later language abilities, predicts accelerated later language abilities, whereas better nonnative-language discrimination at whereas better nonnative-language discrimination at 7.5 months predicts reduced later language abilities.7.5 months predicts reduced later language abilities.

4343

PSP 2005PSP 2005:B. G. Evans and P. Iverson (UCL): Plasticity in :B. G. Evans and P. Iverson (UCL): Plasticity in

speech production and perception: A study of accent change in young speech production and perception: A study of accent change in young adults. In: adults. In: Speech, Hearing and Language: work in progress. Volume 14, Speech, Hearing and Language: work in progress. Volume 14,

2002, pp.18-38; In: 2002, pp.18-38; In: PSP 2005: 71PSP 2005: 71.. Subjects changed their spoken accent Subjects changed their spoken accent

after experience of attending university. after experience of attending university. Changes: linked to Changes: linked to exposure and to exposure and to sociolinguistic factors (motivation to fit sociolinguistic factors (motivation to fit in with their university community). in with their university community).

Implications for cross-language research: Implications for cross-language research: the age and amount of exposure as the age and amount of exposure as determining factors in the ability to determining factors in the ability to perceive and produce a foreign language perceive and produce a foreign language (Flege et al., 1999). (Flege et al., 1999).

But But llosing one’s accent may also be osing one’s accent may also be affected by one’s willingness to be affected by one’s willingness to be identified as a member of the same culture identified as a member of the same culture as a native speaker of that language.as a native speaker of that language.

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Lengthy periods of auditory trainingLengthy periods of auditory training, , as long as as long as appropriate methodsappropriate methods are are

used: used: identification tasks with identification tasks with feedback;feedback;

use of a diversity of materials from use of a diversity of materials from multiple speakersmultiple speakers..

Engagement with the training task - Engagement with the training task - critically importantcritically important ((providing the maximum providing the maximum challenge for a given individual and challenge for a given individual and targeting that challenge towards specific targeting that challenge towards specific tasks).tasks).

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Recent research: PSP 2005Recent research: PSP 2005 Much Much inter-subject variabilityinter-subject variability in L2 learners in L2 learners, , especially late especially late

learnerslearners (e.g., Hazan et al. 2002); many different explanations (e.g., Hazan et al. 2002); many different explanations

offered but poorly understoodoffered but poorly understood..

What causes variation in individual performance? What causes variation in individual performance?

Auditory acuity, language learning aptitude, phonological short-term memory,

identification with L2 culture, native speaker input, total input, musical ability, bilingual balance, language dominance,

amount of L1 use, gender, L1, anxiety, integrative motivation, instrumental motivation, strength of concern for pronunciation,

introversion, age, mimicry ability

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Most inter-subject variability: due to variation in the Most inter-subject variability: due to variation in the quantity and/or quality of L2 input received: quantity and/or quality of L2 input received: “If L2 “If L2 learners strongly motivated to speak L2 well - receive much learners strongly motivated to speak L2 well - receive much native-speaker input. Maybe what are thought of as native-speaker input. Maybe what are thought of as “motivational” differences are really “motivational” differences are really input differences” input differences” Flege (PSP 2005: 1-20)Flege (PSP 2005: 1-20)..

My comment: If L2 learners are strongly motivated to attain My comment: If L2 learners are strongly motivated to attain a good command of L2, a good command of L2, they will seek to be exposed to they will seek to be exposed to L2 in question and, consequently, receive an L2 in question and, consequently, receive an abundance of native-speaker input abundance of native-speaker input and and use it in a use it in a way (personal engagement) that will contribute to way (personal engagement) that will contribute to learning (intake)learning (intake). .

Bilinguals: Bilinguals: reduced degree of L1 activation - reduced L1- L2 reduced degree of L1 activation - reduced L1- L2 interference interference (Flege, PSP 2005).(Flege, PSP 2005).

Most rMost recent research ecent research into the areainto the area

NeuroImageNeuroImage , 46 (2009) 226–240 , 46 (2009) 226–240 Neural signatures of phonetic learning in Neural signatures of phonetic learning in

adulthood: A magnetoencephalography studyadulthood: A magnetoencephalography study Yang Zhang, Patricia K. Kuhl , Toshiaki Yang Zhang, Patricia K. Kuhl , Toshiaki

Imada, Paul Iverson, John Pruitt , Erica B. Imada, Paul Iverson, John Pruitt , Erica B. Stevens , Masaki Kawakatsu, Yoh'ichi Stevens , Masaki Kawakatsu, Yoh'ichi Tohkura, Iku Nemoto Tohkura, Iku Nemoto

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Neural signatures of phonetic learning in adulthood: Neural signatures of phonetic learning in adulthood: A magnetoencephalography studyA magnetoencephalography study

Underlying assumption: application of Underlying assumption: application of principles of L1 learning: IDS (infant directed principles of L1 learning: IDS (infant directed speech or speech or “motherese”)“motherese”)

Use of Use of magnetoencephalographymagnetoencephalography (MEG) – (MEG) – brain images -- brain images -- to study perceptual learning to study perceptual learning

A training software program: based on the A training software program: based on the principles of infant phonetic learning principles of infant phonetic learning (systematic acoustic exaggeration, multi-talker (systematic acoustic exaggeration, multi-talker variability, visible articulation, and adaptive variability, visible articulation, and adaptive listeninglistening – immitation of motherese – immitation of motherese). ).

4848

Recent researchRecent research

The program: intended to help Japanese The program: intended to help Japanese listeners utilize an acoustic dimension relevant listeners utilize an acoustic dimension relevant for phonemic categorization of /r–l/ in English for phonemic categorization of /r–l/ in English (for Japanese subjects – allophones, i.e. within (for Japanese subjects – allophones, i.e. within category differences with regard to their L2).category differences with regard to their L2).

Results: Results: significant identification significant identification improvementimprovement over 12 hours of training and over 12 hours of training and positive transfer of skills to novel stimulipositive transfer of skills to novel stimuli..

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Recent researchRecent research

Important outcome: not only focus on key Important outcome: not only focus on key features of the material but also to overcome features of the material but also to overcome neural commitment, i.e. prior learning.neural commitment, i.e. prior learning.

Therefore: important – development of Therefore: important – development of methods.methods.

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5151

ConclusionConclusion

Good news: Good news: Biology (age) is not a destiny and given Biology (age) is not a destiny and given appropriate stimulus the brain can be retrainedappropriate stimulus the brain can be retrained (Flege, (Flege, 2005; Iverson et al., 20052005; Iverson et al., 2005, 2009, 2009) - ) -

How? How? Exposure/ manipulating the input by using the Exposure/ manipulating the input by using the principles of L1 acquisition (exaggerated input, a variety principles of L1 acquisition (exaggerated input, a variety of input, providing visible articulation cues), trainingof input, providing visible articulation cues), training: : appropriate methods and stimuli are used, personal appropriate methods and stimuli are used, personal engagementengagement..

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ConclusionConclusion

““It is possible to teach the old It is possible to teach the old Joseph Conrad new Joseph Conrad new (pronunciation) tricks”(pronunciation) tricks”..

1 joseph conrad phenomenon reconsidered doc. phdr. magdaléna bilá, phd. department of english...

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