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Motivation (definition)

‘… those psychological processes that cause the arousal, the direction, and the persistence

of voluntary actions that are goal directed.”

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Motivation Theories

Need Theories

Herzberg Two-Factor Theory

Cognitive Process Theories

Behavioral Theory

Job Characteristics Model

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Need (or Content) Theories

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

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Maslow’s theory

A Deprivation Theory

An Orderly Hierarchy

No Retreat

Made in America

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Deprivation Theory

Person can descend hierarchy

Satisfaction-Progression

Frustration-Regression

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Satisfiers

Dissatisfiers

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McClelland’s Theory

Achievement

Power socialized personalized

Affiliation

Individually Unique

A Profile of Needs

Socially Acquired

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Alderfer’sERG Theory

Maslow’sNeed Hierarchy

Content Theories of Motivation

Self-Actualization

EsteemEsteem

BelongingnessBelongingness

SafetySafety

PhysiologicalPhysiological

Growth

RelatednessRelatedness

ExistenceExistence

Herzberg’sTheory

Motivators

HygienesHygienes

Need forAchievement

Need forNeed forPowerPower

Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation

McClelland’sLearned Needs

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Process theories

Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory

Goal Setting

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E-to-PExpectancy

P-to-OExpectancy

OutcomesOutcomes& Valences& Valences

Outcome 1Outcome 1+ or -+ or -

EffortEffort PerformancePerformance

Outcome 3Outcome 3+ or -+ or -

Outcome 2Outcome 2+ or -+ or -

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Terms Probability Expectancy Instrumentality Valence Effort to Performance Performance to Outcome

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Expectancy Issues

Multiple outcomes are likely

Perception of outcome values determine choice

It is a multiplicative model (zero is significant)

Blockages possible from individual and organization

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Expectancy Theory in Practice

Increasing the E-to-P expectancy training, selection, resources, clarify roles,

provide coaching and feedback

Increasing the P-to-O expectancy Measure performance accurately, explain how

rewards are based on past performance

Increasing outcome valences Use valued rewards, individualize rewards,

minimize countervalent outcomes

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Equity theory

I/O = I/O

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Equity theory:An exchange theory

Equity Terms: Individual Referent Other (comparison) Ratio Inputs Outcomes

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Responses to Inequity

Change Inputs

Change Outcomes

Cognitively Distort own I/O

Withdraw

Acting on Other

Change Referent (comparison) Other

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SpecificSpecific

Effective Goal Setting

Results-orientedResults-oriented

ChallengingChallenging

CommitmentCommitment

ParticipationParticipation

TaskTaskEffortEffort

TaskTaskPerformancePerformance

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HighHigh

Tas

k P

erfo

rman

ceT

ask

Per

form

ance

LowLow ModerateModerate ChallengingChallenging ImpossibleImpossible

Area ofArea ofOptimalOptimal

GoalGoalDifficultyDifficulty

Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance

Goal Difficulty

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Rewards –are typically based on:

Membership & Seniority

Job Status Internal & External equity

Competency Skill-based pay

Task Performance

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Performance-Based Rewards

Individual:- piece rate - commissions- merit pay - bonuses:

Team- gainsharing - bonuses

Organizational- profit sharing- ESOP (employee owned)

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The Trouble with Rewards

Rewards Punish

Rewards rupture relationships

Rewards ignore reasons

Rewards discourage risk-taking

Rewards undermine intrinsic motivation

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Therefore….

Measure Performance Carefully

Ensure that Rewards are Relevant

Use Team Rewards

Ensure that rewards are valued

Watch for unintended consequences

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WorkWorkmotivationmotivation

GrowthGrowthsatisfactionsatisfaction

GeneralGeneralsatisfactionsatisfaction

WorkWorkeffectivenesseffectiveness

Job Characteristics Model

FeedbackFeedbackfrom jobfrom job

KnowledgeKnowledgeof resultsof results

Skill varietySkill variety

Task identityTask identity

Task significanceTask significanceMeaningfulnessMeaningfulness

AutonomyAutonomy ResponsibilityResponsibility

IndividualIndividualdifferencesdifferences

CriticalCriticalPsychologicalPsychological

StatesStatesCore JobCore Job

CharacteristicsCharacteristics OutcomesOutcomes

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Examples of Job Re-Design

Job Rotation

Job Enlargement

Job Enrichment

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Reasons for Job Rotation

Increases motivation through skill variety

Fewer repetitive strain injuries

Creates multi-skilled work force

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Job Enrichment Strategies

Empowering employees giving employees more autonomy feeling of control and self-efficacy

Forming natural work units completing an entire task assigning employees to specific clients

Establishing client relationships employees put in direct contact with clients

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Obstacles to Job Design

Difficult to accurately measure job characteristics

More team than individual job design

Resistance to change

Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and specialization

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PersonalPersonalGoal SettingGoal Setting

Elements of Self-Leadership

ConstructiveConstructiveThought PatternsThought Patterns

DesigningDesigningNatural RewardsNatural Rewards

Self-Self-MonitoringMonitoring

Self-Self-ReinforcementReinforcement

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Albert Ellis’s Fallacies –bad self-talk

Fallacy of Perfection

Fallacy of Approval

Fallacy of Should

Fallacy of Overgeneralization

Fallacy of Causation

Fallacy of Helplessness

Fallacy of Catastrophic Expectations