ArousalArousal

Arousal.

Definition – “The level of readiness to perform.”

-The motivation of a performer to direct behaviour in a particular manner.

-Arousal can affect performers both positively and negatively.

-It can also affect the performer physiologically (somatic) – e.g. increase in sweating/heart rate or psychologically (cognitive) e.g. thought process.

-The level of arousal is controlled by R.A.S. (The reticular activating system).

-The R.A.S. identifies the amount of stimulation which enters the body and initiates a suitable response.

-The R.A.S. consists of a number of brain cells situated in the brain stem.

-A performer should be able to control arousal levels to maintain an optimum level.

-This ensures that decision making and concentration are not negatively affected.

The Drive Theory of Arousal.

-The Drive Theory suggests a linear relationship between arousal and performance.

-Promoted in 1943 by Hull.

-Hull stated that as the level of arousal increases so too does the level of performance.

-Spence and Spence took the drive theory to another level and stated that:

-As arousal levels increase the performers’ dominant habit/response would become evident.

P=f (HxD)

Where:

P= Performance

F= Function

H= Dominant Habit

D= Drive/Arousal

-Spence and Spence suggested that arousal effects are linked to:

-The nature of the task.

-The experience of the performer involved.

-Therefore, as arousal increases:

-An experienced performer would complete a skill well because he/she has a well learnt dominant habit.

BUT

-An inexperienced performer would complete a skill less well because he/she does not have a well learnt dominant habit.

-A dominant habit can be defined as “the typical behaviour pattern of an individual in the execution of a task”.

-Drive theory is closely linked to Social Facilitation.

-Social Facilitation is the “influence of the presence of others on performance”.

-This influence may be positive (experienced performers).

-Or negative (inexperienced performers).

-The main criticism of drive theory is that it does not explain why highly skilled performers sometimes make mistakes in highly pressurised situations e.g. a professional footballer missing a penalty.

-The drive theory does not distinguish between different types of arousal e.g. somatic (physiological) or cognitive (psychological).

Inverted U Theory.

-The Inverted U theory of arousal was suggested in 1908 by Yerkes and Dodson.

-The Inverted U theory suggests an optimal arousal level for maximum performance.

-The Inverted U theory works better than the Drive theory in explaining why more experienced performers can make mistakes/perform poorly.

-Over arousal results in over stimulation of the brain which affects the control of skilled motor responses and decision making.

-This over stimulation takes up some of the processing capacity of the brain with self doubt/unnecessary information.

-This affects the quality of skill delivery.

-Different arousal levels may be required for different skills/situations within an activity e.g. a hockey player may have to make a tackle (high arousal) and immediately after take a penalty shot (low arousal).

Factors to consider when determining the Optimum level of Arousal.

The Nature of the task.-Complex/fine skills require a lower level of arousal e.g. snooker/archery/darts/putting.

-Gross/simple skills require a higher level of arousal e.g. weightlifting/shot putting/rugby

Skill level of the Performer.

-Experienced performers can cope better at higher arousal levels than beginners.

-For example, a novice footballer may become over aroused when faced with a defender because he/she needs all their concentration to be focused on basic skills.

-A more experienced player is able to execute skills under pressure.

The Personality of the Performer.

-More extrovert performers seem to cope with higher arousal levels better than introvert performers.

The Disadvantage of the Inverted U theory.

-The Inverted U theory fails to explain how a performer may be over aroused during performance yet still recover to compete effectively.

The Zone of Optimal Functioning.

-In 1980, Hanin, proposed that performers have a zone of optimal functioning (in the zone).

-The zone of optimal functioning is an extension of the Inverted U theory and suggest that there is an optimal area of maximum attention focus as opposed to a point of optimal arousal.

-Every performer will have his or her own individual zone of optimal functioning.

-The zone of optimal functioning differs according to the task and the individual i.e. a fine control task requires a low arousal zone e.g. archery shot.

-A gross control task requires a high arousal zone e.g. rugby tackle.

AdvantagesAdvantages-Movements become effortless.-Movements become effortless.

-Quick decision making.-Quick decision making.

-Total Control.-Total Control.

-Correct cue selection.-Correct cue selection.

-Focused on task.-Focused on task.

-Not distracted by -Not distracted by audience/opposition.audience/opposition.

-A feeling of calm despite -A feeling of calm despite pressure.pressure.

-A belief in a positive result.-A belief in a positive result.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages-Does not differentiate -Does not differentiate

between cognitive and between cognitive and somatic anxiety.somatic anxiety.

-Some investigators have -Some investigators have shown that there is no shown that there is no significant difference in significant difference in performance whether performance whether performers are in or out of performers are in or out of their zone.their zone.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Zone of Optimal Functioning.

The Catastrophe Theory.

-The Catastrophe theory was suggested by Hardy and Frazey in 1987.

-The Catastrophe theory has some similarities to the Inverted U theory.

-The Catastrophe theory states that increased cognitive arousal will improve performance up to a given optimal point.

An example of Catastrophe theory from Sport.

1. -In a training situation, a gymnast may have a low level of arousal and perform routines perfectly.

2. -In competition he/she may become over aroused.

3. -This causes a reduction in performance levels, decision making is detrimentally affected and mistakes are made.

4. -The gymnast may recover, return to an optimal level of arousal and performance will improve.

5. -OR, the gymnast’s level of arousal may continue to rise, performance deteriorates further and a Catastrophe ensues.

Peak Flow Experience.

Definition – “A state in which performance is at its highest level, achieved effortlessly, without thought and in complete confidence.”

-Peak flow experience suggests that the experience of “being in the zone” is achieved best when the level of the task involved is appropriate to the performer’s level of skill.

-A performer who is face with a task that he/she believes is beyond their capability would become anxious.

-If the task is too easy for the performer they would become bored and de-motivated.

-Peak flow is achieved when skilled performers are given a task that is just beyond their capability.

-As performers improve a coach can?