1. ronald l-bull

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The Traditions of Pluralism in The Pesantren

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Ronald Lukens-Bull

THE TRADITIONS OF PLURALISM,

ACCOMMODATION, AND ANTI-RADICALISM

IN THE PESANTREN COMMUNITY1

Ronald Lukens-BullThe University of North Florida, USA

Abstract: Western media and Western policy makers

sometimes perceive traditional Islamic schools

throughout the Islamic world as a source of radicalism.

The history of pesantren in Indonesia shows this is not

only mistaken but a perspective that leads the West away

from a potential ally in the efforts to create a world of

peaceful coexistence. The mystical traditions of

pesantren form a strong basis from which most

Indonesians have eschewed radical Islamism. These

traditions are rooted in the popular Muslim folklore

surrounding the foundation of Islam in Indonesia. This

paper argues that more recent history shows the

foundations of current debates regarding the

establishment of shari>`ah as the law of the land as wellas some actions of the uharto regime inadvertently

encouraged the growth of radical Islamism. !inally" the

paper concludes that" in order to fully understand the

current situation and the future" more research is

needed. # few starting points are discussed in this

paper.Abstract: Western media and Western policy

makers sometimes perceive traditional Islamic schools

throughout the Islamic world as a source of radicalism.

The history of pesantren in Indonesia shows this not only

be mistaken but a perspective that leads the West away

from a potential ally in the efforts to create a world of

peaceful coexistence. The mystical traditions of

pesantren form a strong basis from which most

Indonesians pesantren have eschewed radical Islamism.

These traditions are rooted in the popular Muslim

1This paper was originally presented at the $Muslim %outh as #gents of &hange&onference'" Malang" Indonesia" ()*(+ ,ovember (--)" sponsored by eiden

/niversity and the Indonesian Ministry of 0eligious #ffairs.


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folklore surrounding the foundation of Islam in

Indonesia. The paper argues that more recent history

shows the foundations of current debates regarding the

establishment of haria as the law of the land as well asthe ways in which the uharto regime inadvertently

encouraged the growth of radical Islamism. !inally" the

paper concludes that in order to fully understand the

current situation and the potential future" more research

is needed. # few starting points are discussed in this

paper.

Keywords:wWalisongo,pesantren, gamelan, wayang.

Introduction

&ontrary to the perceptions of Western media and Westernpolicymakers" traditional Islamic schools in Indonesia are not a

source of radicalism but a source of anti*radicalism and an ally inthe efforts to establish peace and harmony in the world. 2esantren

3Islamic boarding schools4(leaders fre5uently speak about how the

classical tradition brought by the Wali Songo3,ine aints or ,ine

!riends of 6od4 and continued in pesantren through the study of

classical texts called kitab kuning inoculates students from more

radical forms of Islam. In a very real sense" the best answer to

radical Islam is not liberal Islam but conservative classical Islam.This paper takes on four related tasks. The first will be to outline

the development of the pesantren tradition as a tradition ofaccommodation. The second will be to examine the place of

mysticism in the pesantren community. The third will be to explore

the emergence of radical Islamist groups in the context of the ,ew

7rder and the efforts to establish a democratic society after its

collapse. !inally because the end of the ,ew 7rder has meant

changes in Indonesia generally and in the pesantren community

more specifically" the last section will explore possible newdirection for research on these current trends.

(There are 8 9nglish terms that all are close in capture the sense of the meaning ofpesantren" but all fall to fully convey the full meaning: Islamic boarding school"

Islamic seminary" Islamic monastery.

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Ronald Lukens-Bull

A Tradition of Accommodation

Islam first came to Indonesia when Islam and ufism were

indivisible; to be a Muslim was to be a mystic or a sufi.8Indonesia

more than any other Islamic country has maintained this aspect of

classical Islam. #nd within Indonesia" the pesantren community is

responsible for continuing the teachings and practices of classicalIslam. In general" mystical traditions in all religions focus more on

personal piety over social order. Mystics are often more concerned

about how individuals live their lives and how they seek 6od than

they are about having a society that enforces religious ideals. #

focus on personal piety leads to a great acceptance of variation

within a given tradition. uch internal tolerance naturally breeds

tolerance towards those outside the tradition.The development of pesantren in Indonesia cannot be

disassociated from the development of sufi orders. !rom the

beginning" pesantren have served itself as the center of the teachingof sufi sub


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in 18++ &9 3&ommon 9ra4 in order to train muballigh3preachers4 to

further spread Islam in ?ava.B

7ther accounts aver that all the Wali ongo had pesantren"

which is supported by a few published sources.CDespite that none ofthe Wali ongo pesantren have survived to present day" all

pesantrensare their intellectual descendents and all kyaisare seen as

inheritors of the role of the Wali ongo which is fre5uentlymentioned in pesantren circles. There are few leaders who do claim

to be descendants of one of the Wali ongo.Those men and those

who affiliate themselves with them are drawing specific connections

between themselves and the archetypes of kyai" the Wali ongo.E

everal of the Wali ongo are known for making

accommodations with local culture. pecifically" they are known fortheir use of wayang3shadow puppet theatre4. 7ne way this was done

was by reinterpreting the Findu epics. !or example" in the

Mahabarata" #red human forms in the ?avanese wayang puppets reflect the

influence of Islam which discourages the artistic representation of

the human form. The Wali ongo are also known for incorporating

the gamelan 3percussion orchestra4" the slit gong" and the beduk3large drum4 into the call for prayer. The purported logic was that by

using sounds that people already associate with large gatherings"

people would be more interested in attending the prayers.

#nother keyWali ongo is unan Gudus" who is said to haveoriginated the wayanggolek" the three*dimensional wooden puppet

show and for building the Gudus mos5ue. The cultural

accommodation of the Wali ongo is further celebrated in a story

that describes how because the residents of Gudus were

B#bdul 6hofir" et al." Sketsa Pondok Pesantren !aporan "asil Studi andEksperimentasi Pondok Pesantren di #awa Timur 3Malang: !akultas Tarbiyah I#I,

unan #mpel" 1+A(4.

CMahmud %unus" Se$arah Pendidikan %slam din%ndonesia 3?akarta: Mutiara"1+)+4" p. (1).

E0onald ukens*@ull"& Peaceful #ihad 'egotiating %dentity and (odernity in(uslim #a)a. 3,ew %ork: 2algrave McMillian" (--C4" pp. 1*E.

C


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Ronald Lukens-Bull

predominately Findu. unan Gudus built his mos5ue to resemble a

Findu temple and forbade his followers from eating beef. To this

day" the Gudus area" now predominately Muslim" is known for the

fact that the inhabitants do not eat beef but favor water buffalo.The Wali ongo" Gali


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provides a sense of balance and direction in an often confusing

modern world.

6us Ishom+ of Tebu Ireng said that tas}awwuf 3#: mysticism"ufism4 is central in moral education. Fe expounded that in Islam

there is a $triangle' of mae it./ihprovides the believers with guidelines on how to

live right and perform good works. ince good works" alone" are

empty if the motivation is impure" tas}awwuf is needed to instillmoral and ethical values in believers. The association of ufism andethics in the Indonesian pesantren may be traced to a single highly

influential Islamic thinker" namely al*6ha>a>li>. #l*6ha>a>li> isfamous for his sober mysticism" which balanced theology and

tasawwuf and his extensive works on ethics. The use and study of

al*6ha>a>li>=s works that are abundant in the pesantren worldassociate mysticism and ethics. In history and legend as well"

mysticism came to Indonesia through the Wali ongo" the nine

saints who responsible for bringing Islam to the archipelago.The Wali ongo have great mystical feats attributed to them.

unan Gali


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Ronald Lukens-Bull

without getting wet and even be in tow places at once. What is

important here is the perceived power of mystical believes and

practices.

Mysticism as Source of Tolerance#n important episode out of the Wali ongo legends is the story

of yaikh iti ?enar. yaikh iti ?inar was one of the nine but he

taught the unorthodox notion that since 6od is one" there was no

separation between himself and 6od and that he was therefore 6od.

Fe was summarily executed; not for being incorrect in his assertion"but for teaching something that would confuse the common believer.

While at first glance" this seems to be a story of intolerance; it is not.

This tale emphasi>ed the importance of balancing the normative and

mystical dimensions of Islam. This means contrary to the opinionsof salafi Muslims and other modernists who are known for

destroying graves" the classical Islam found in pesantren allows

room for the mystical practices of both the adept and the commoner

as long they do not interfere with the basic articles of faith.

#lthough not universally true" there is strong tendency for

mystical traditions to enhance tolerance. !irst and foremost"mystical traditions allow the logical possibility of more than one

may to be faithful. In the Indonesian context" mystical practice

acknowledges and allows a wide range of practices including saint=sgrave pilgrimage 3*iarah4" ritual meals 3slametan4" and the use of

amulets. 7n the other hand" modernists have discouraged many of

these practices even to the extent of destroying graveyards. While it

may be true that common people 3wong cilik4 may become confused

3from an orthodox point of view4 and pray to the saints" or propitiate

spirits during aslametan" various kyaishave repeatedly told me that

it is critical to embrace these practices. 7nly by embracing thepractices of the common person" can religious leaders bring them

into a fuller and more correct understanding. 6reater tolerancewithin a religion opens the logical possibility of greater tolerance

between religions.# clear lesson from the Wali ongo legends is Indonesia=s long

history on emphasi>ing personal piety and personal responsibility.

Debates within the Islamic community regarding the relationship

with the government began shortly after the establishment of the


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0epublic of Indonesia" when there was a great debate about whether

or not Muslims could accept a secular government.

Jakarta !arter and S!ari>"a! S!a>ri>#a! $aw

The first draft of the 2reamble of 1+BC &onstitution" known asthe ?akarta &harter 3Piagam #akarta4" re5uired all Muslim to follow

Islamic law 3shari>àhha>riah4.1-The $seven words' that granted

such a re5uirement were deleted by the panel of nine writers" eight

of whom were Muslims" including Wahid Fasyim of Tebu Ireng.11

This action established the 0epublic of Indonesia as a secular state.1(

This was contrary to the hopes of many ùlama>0s for the creationof an Indonesian Islamic tate 3'egara %slam %ndonesia4 when the

0epublic was born.

18

2eriodically" the specter of the ?akarta &harter raises its head andgives rise to much debate. Fowever" even the leadership of the

Islamist*leaning Dewan Dakwah acknowledges that the issue of an

Islamic state is over and that pluralism will remain the basis of

Indonesian society. !urther" they argued that even if shari>àhha>ri>ah law could be put into practice" the rights of theminorities have to be defended. !urther they stated" $Islamic aw is

for Muslims" but not for non*Muslims. Muslims who do not want to

1-Deliar ,oer"&dministration of %slam in %ndonesia3Ithaca: &ornell ModernIndonesia 2ro


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Ronald Lukens-Bull

fast or pray is another problem that must be addressed'.1BFowever"

they made it perfectly clear that people cannot be forced to do these

things. In fact" the s}u>rah that states that there must be nocompulsion in religion is widely cited. Instead" Muslims have to be

convinced to carry out `iba>dahthrough da1kwahand teaching.The ongoing effort to establish shari>`ahha>riahlaw not only

in Indonesia but throughout the Islamic world is a defining

characteristic of Islamism" including the specific subset of Islamism

often referred to as radicalism or radical Islamism. In the context of

Indonesian Islam" radical Islamism is one of the factors that

challenges the tradition of tolerance and pluralism.

%istorical Ji!adThe concept of holy war was invoked a number of times in the

history of Indonesian Islam. There were numerous rebellions which

used Islamic symbols to motivate and mobili>e the masses including

the &ilegon #ffair"1C the ?ava War led by 2rince Diponegoro"1Eand

the War for Independence. Many nineteenth century rebellions were

led by kyais. Kyais and their santri were very much involved in

Indonesia=s struggle for independence. In the written and oral

histories of many pesantren is an accounting of the role played by its

personnel during the war. !or example" Fasyim #sy=ari of TebuIreng is said to have re


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Indonesian Muslims are given to violent ed' the political parties by

reducing the number of political parties to 1 functional group and (

$Kopposition'Kparties and re5uired all mass*based organi>ation to

accept 2ancasila as their sole philosophical basis. Therefore 222" theparty into which all the Islamic parties were folded" could not be

proclaimed itself as Islamic.1+ Fowever" it used the ka0bah as its

symbol and was seen as the Islamic party by many conservative

Muslims. This also led ,/ and Muhammadiyah" the largest mass

social organi>ations" whose combined membership tops more thanC- million mainstream Muslims(- to shift their focus to religious

and social activities or as ,/ considered it a return to their roots.(1

0adicalism is a by*product of the democrati>ation of the

political system. Fowever for most Indonesian Muslims" radicalism

1)0i>al ukma" $Indonesia and the &hallenge of 0adical Islam after 7ctober 1("'inGumar 0amakrishna and ee eng Tan 3eds.4"&fter 3ali The Threat of

Terrorism in Southeast &sia 3ingapore: Institute of Defence and trategic tudies",anyang Technological /niversity" (--84" pp. 8B8" 8C-.

1A Ibid."p. 8B8.

1+ Ibid."p. 8BB.

(-Tatik . Fafid>" $#ssessing Indonesia=s Lulnerability in the Wake of the#merican*ed #ttack on Ira5"' inGumar 0amakrishna and ee eng Tan 3eds.4"

&fter 3ali The Threat of Terrorism in Southeast &sia 3ingapore: Institute ofDefence and trategic tudies" ,anyang Technological /niversity" (--84" p. 8AE.

(1 ukma" $Indonesia and the &hallenge"'p. 8BB.

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Ronald Lukens-Bull

is unacceptable if it uses violence or tries to limit freedom of

thought and of having different opinions. 0adical Islam is limited in

its scope and outreach and is therefore a non*Issue outside of ?ava.

,arrow interpretations of Islam" much less radical ones" are not wellreceived by most Indonesians Muslims((

'esistance to 'adicalism

There are number of reasons to belief that Indonesia will remain

resilient to the challenge of radicalism. !irst" radical groupsconstitute only a tiny percentage of the Indonesian Muslim

community. In 1+++" pro*shari>àhharia parties only gained 1BNof the votes ** 222 O: 11N; 2artai @ulan @ulintang O : (N" and

2artai Geadilan O: 1N. econd" ,/ and Muhammadiyah have

continued their historical opposition to the establishment ofshari>àhha>riah law(8 Fasyim Mu>adi flatly denies the

possibility that any one in the ,/ organi>ation could be pro*

shari>àh haria 3personal communication #ugust 1B" (--)4. Third"

most Indonesian Muslims embrace democracy.(B!ourth" there is a

strong counter*radical discourse" as seen in the group iberal Islam

,etwork 3?aringan Islam iberal4. @eyond this" the pesantren

community is deeply committed to non*radicalism.

6iven that university students fit best the demographic for

recruitment into radical groups 31A*(C" strong western education"little Islamic education4" several kyais have sought to inoculate this

population either through pesantren created specifically for

university students or by opening up their pesantren to university

student. In either case" pesantren tradition is altered so that thestudents may daily leave the pesantren campus for outside

education. The best example of this is #l*Fikam in Malang which

was founded by Fasyim Mu>adi who states that he had the specific

purposes of creating anti*radicals. 9lsewhere"(CI detail the efforts of

this pesantren and the ways in which they are defining a way in

(( Ibid." pp. 8B+*8C-.

(8 Ibid." p. 8BA.

(B Ibid.

(C0onald ukens*@ull" $Two ides of the ame &oin: Modernity and Tradition inIndonesian Islamic 9ducation"'&nthropology and Education 7uarterly.8(384:pp.

8C-*8)(.


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which to interact with the West" the modern world" and globali>ation

in a specifically Islamic way. 2ak Fasyim and other kyais assert that

the kitab kuning3yellow books4" which include classical ha>fi`=i>

fi5h" are the best defense against radicalism. 7ne cannot help butthink that they are right. @y staying within the traditional madhhab

there is little room for radicalism; but by opening the gates of

interpretation one is free to


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Ronald Lukens-Bull

can no longer talk about central tendencies nor use the case study

approach. There is an almost desperate need to establish both the

range and distribution of variation in beliefs" practices" and

knowledge that has emerged among pesantren scholars. To do this"the study of pesantren needs to engage mixed methodology. This

would involve the use of 5ualitative research to understand the range

of variation and the use of survey methods and 5uantitative analysis

to map the distribution of that variation.

There are a number of areas in which changes may have takenplace and need further investigation including demographics"

curriculum" basic orientation" organi>ation" and ritual activity. With

the issue of demographics" the 5uestion is: has there been a change

in the social*economic and educational backgrounds of students andtheir parents as well any shifts in political and religious affiliationsQ

When considering curriculum" the 5uestion concerns whether there

has been any significant shifts in the combinations of religious and

secular sub


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recogni>ed curriculum usually at the middle and high school levels.

7ne result is that many of these pesantrens are no longer able to

produce graduates who have the knowledge and skills to become

religious leaders. The pesantren community has asked from whencewill the future leadership comeQ 7ne possible solution discussed in

the mid*+-s involved new forms of pesantren education. #nother

answer in the mid*+-s was that 2h.D. holders would provide this

needed leadership. In many regards this is the >enith of the path

started in the 1+)-s with the establishment of the /I,PI#I, system.The brightest and the best /I,PI#I, graduates often become

faculty at their home institution. #fter several years of service" some

may travel overseas to take advanced degrees. There are two basic

paths at this point. The first is to receive a !ulbright or similarscholarship and study in the / or other Western countries. The

other path involves study in the Middle 9ast" usually 9gypt. In

either case" they return home to once again teach at their alma mater.

It will be useful to explore the shifts in educational trahar4 and those who are beginning to favor

institutions in audi #rabia and 2akistanQ Taken as an aggregate"these life histories should yield a sense of the kinds of shifts in

education" thinking" and religious practice that IndonesiaSsincreasing participation in global processes has re5uired.

onclusion

When the West seeks allies in its $War on Terror' it completely

misreads the situation. In the first instance" it misreads the extent of

the threat and associates terrorism with a much broader swatch of

the Muslim community than is e the role of traditional Islamic schools in

1C


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Ronald Lukens-Bull

radical Islam. It looks at certain madrasah in 2akistan and their

tendency for involvement in violence and radicalism and generali>es

to all similar schools including the Indonesian pesantren. When

looking at Indonesia specifically" it looks at the few pesantren thathave been associated with radical Islamism such as the home bases

of both askar ?ihad and the organi>ation commonly referred to as

?amaah Islamiyah" and then concludes that the pesantren

community may be a threat source.

I have shown here that the argument that pesantrens are a sourceof radicalism is by and large misplaced. 2esantrens have a strong

history of accommodation" pluralism" and non*0adicalism. %es"

pesantren have been mobili>ed to violence in the past" both in the

War for Independence and in 1+EC*1+EE" but these can beunderstood as special cases. The pesantren tradition of

accommodation" tolerance" and anti*radicalism is one that should be

embraced and encouraged. It is the best hope for counteracting

radicalism. U

+ibliogra,!y

#bdullah" Taufik. $The 2esantren in Fistorical 2erspective.' In

%slam and Society in Southeast &sia". ed. Taufik #bdullah and

haron iddi5ue. ingapore: Institute of outheast #sian

tudies" 1+A).

#das" Michael. Prophets of Rebellion (illenarian Protest

(o)ements against the European olonial 6rder. &hapel Fill:

/niversity of ,orth &arolina 2ress" 1+)+.

#rifin" Imron.Kepemimpinan Kyai Kasus Pondok PesantrenTebu

%reng.Malang: Galimasada 2ress" 1++8.

@oland" @.?. The Struggle of %slam in (odern %ndonesia. The

Fague: ,i


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**********. The PesantrenTradition & Study of the Role of the Kyai in

the (aintenance of the Traditional %deology of %slam in #a)a.

Tempe: 2rogram for outheast #sian tudies" 1+++.

6hofir" #bdul et al. Sketsa Pondok Pesantren !aporan "asil Studi

and Eksperimentasi Pondok Pesantren di #awa Timur.Malang: !akultas Tarbiyah I#I, unan #mpel" 1+A(.

Fafid>" Tatik . $#ssessing IndonesiaSs Lulnerability in the Wake ofthe #merican*ed #ttack on Ira5.' in Gumar 0amakrishna

and ee eng Tan" eds.&fter 3ali The Threat of Terrorism in

Southeast &sia. ingapore: Institute of Defence and trategic

tudies" ,anyang Technological /niversity" (--8.

Fa55ani" Fusain. $Islam=s Medieval 7utposts' /oreign Policy,ovemberPDecember (--(.

?ohns" #nthony. $Tari5ah.' In The Encyclopaedia of Religion.

Mircea 9liade" editor in chief. ,ew %ork: Macmillan

2ublishing &ompany" Lol. 1B 31+A)4" pp. 8B(*8C(.

Gartodird


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Ronald Lukens-Bull

%unus" Mahmud. Se$arah Pendidikan %slam din %ndonesia. ?akarta:

Mutiara" 1+)+.

Woodward" Mark 0.%slam in #a)a 'ormati)e Piety and (ysticism

in the Sultanate of +ogyakarta. Tucson: The /niversity of

#ri>ona 2ress" 1+A+.

1. ronald l-bull

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