1 which competences for teaching literacy? gerry shiel [email protected]
TRANSCRIPT
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“I find television to be very educating.
Every time somebody turns on the set, I go in the other room and read a book”
Groucho Marx
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Some broad questions. . .
• What should reading teachers teach? • How should they teach it? • What are the most important competencies for
reading teachers? • Can professional development programmes in
reading change teachers’ knowledge and beliefs?
• Can changes in teachers’ knowledge and beliefs change reading achievement scores?
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Some more questions. . .
• Under what conditions can pedagogical knowledge influence teaching practice?
• What can policy documents such as IRA’s Standards for Reading Professionals tell us about teacher competencies?
• Are identified competencies relevant across countries, educational systems and class levels?
• What are the implications for teacher development?
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Is the notion of competencies out of date?
• OECD’s Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) Project (2003)
• Life-long learning perspective • Three broad clusters of competencies 1. Use tools interactively (e.g., use language, symbols
and texts interactively, use knowledge and information interactively)
2. Interact in heterogeneous groups (relate well to others, work in teams, manage and resolve conflicts)
3. Act autonomously (defend and assert rights, limits and needs)
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DeSeCo – Links between Individual and Institutional Competencies
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General teaching competencies vs. Reading teacher competencies
General teaching competencies
Competencies for teaching reading
Teaching and Learning Environment
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Theories of teaching and learning
1. Behaviourism
2. Cognitivism
3. Constructivism
4. Socio-culturalism
5. Critical theory
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Many factors are associated with how well
children read . . . • Home or societal learning variables (e.g., parent
SES, parent education, number of books in the home, home educational resources) (PISA & PIRLS)
• Reading programmes, curricula and guidelines (Reading Recovery, National Literacy Strategy in the UK, No Child Left Behind in the US)
• Student motivation to read / engagement and interest in reading (PISA)
• Teacher knowledge and skills / teacher effectiveness / teacher competencies
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But are teachers important?
Research on teacher effectiveness has concluded that . .. .
(a) teachers are the single most important factor that determines students’ level of achievement (e.g., Berliner, 1994; Knapp, 1995)
(b) highly effective teachers share similar characteristics (International Reading Association, 2000; Ruddell, 1997).
** International studies such as PISA and PIRLS won’t answer this question.
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In search of competencies
• Process-product studies of the 1970s and early 1980s. . . Focused on behaviours of effective teachers . . . Some implications for teaching reading. . .
• 1990s . . . Shift to study of cognitive processes of more effective teachers . . . .
• More recently. . . Studies of teacher learning (response to professional development). . .
• Parallel with this.. . . Effective schools in literacy (“Schools where literacy thrives”).
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Process-product Studies of 1960s and 1970s in the US
• Effective teachers maintained an academic focus, kept more pupils on task, and provided direct instruction
• Effective direct instruction included making learning goals clear, asking students questions to monitor understanding of content or skills covered, and providing feedback to students about their progress.
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Cognitive Processes of Effective Teachers
• More effective teachers use modeling and explanation to teach students strategies for decoding words and understanding texts (Roehler & Duffy, 1984)
• Effective teachers stressed higher level thinking skills more than lower level skills (Knapp, 1995)
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Looking Inside Classrooms – Taylor et al. 2002
• Across all grades, whole-group instruction was coded more often than small-group instruction.
• Word-level activities were infrequently observed in grade 3 and comprehension skill or strategy work was seldom observed in grades 1–3
• Across all grades a relatively small amount of higher level questioning or writing related to stories read was observed
• Telling and recitation were major interaction styles of teachers in all grades; coaching was seldom observed
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Associations between observed practices and reading achievement - Taylor et al.
2002
• In kindergarten, time spent on word-level activities (positively related) and telling (negatively related) had significant relationships with regard to spring letter-name scores (after accounting for fall scores).
• In grade 1, the incidence of students coded as actively responding was positively related to spring fluency scores, after accounting for fall scores
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• For grades 2–3, telling had a significant negative relationship with spring fluency scores (after accounting for fall scores).
• For grades 4-6, at class level, time spent on higher level questions had a significant positive relationship and telling had a significant negative relationship on spring comprehension scores (after accounting for fall scores).
Associations between observed practices and reading achievement - Taylor et al. 2002
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Taylor et al., (2002) – Conclusion
• In general, a shift in certain teaching practices, such as higher level questioning, style of interacting, and encouraging active pupil involvement, may be warranted.
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Examples of Effective Behaviours in Kindergarten
• Teaching small groups (of 6 pupils)• Emphasis on word work (making words with
plastic letters, practicing sight words, generating rhyming words, writing sounds heard in journals)
• Active involvement of students (instead of telling)
• Frequent choral reading instead of turn-taking• Coaching (hints and clues) rather than telling,
when students struggled with a word
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Examples of Less-effective Teaching Activates in First Grade
• The teacher generates a morning message for the class rather than asking the students to co-construct it.
• The teacher sounds out a word herself and then has the children repeat it, instead of coaching them to sound it out.
• As children are writing in their journal, the teacher consistently tells them how to spell a word instead of determining which parts they could spell themselves
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Examples of Effective Teaching in Grades 4-6
• Introducing a book title, and asking students to write a prediction in their journals before continuing
• Providing additional help to a small group of struggling readers while the rest of the class was engaged in silent reading
• Engaging students in preparing and making small-group presentations about a story (covering questions and vocabulary)
• Assessing students’ growth towards independence
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What generalisations can we make about teacher
competencies?
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UK Studies of Effective Teachers
• Wray, Medwell, Poulson & Fox (2001/02)• Topping and Ferguson (2005)• Teachers nominated by LEAs, above average
(or high) scores on standardised tests of reading literacy
• Surveys and structured observations (usually videotaped)
• Wray et al. 26 effective and 10 typical teachers observed twice. 300 teachers surveyed.
• Topping – 5 teachers observed and inteviewed.
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Other Studies of Effective Teachers
• Pressley, Ranking & Yokoi, 1996• Wharton-McDonald, Pressley et al.
1997/98• Pressley et al. (2001)• Knapp (1995) – Teaching for meaning in
high-poverty schools• CIERA (Centre for Improvement in Early
Reading Achievement) / Taylor et al. 1999, 2002, 2003
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Summary of Outcomes of Effective Teaching of Reading Studies
• Providing opportunities to learn (e.g., Topping & Ferguson – 1 hour and 20 mins per day; minimum 90 mins per day)
• Classroom environment and materials for reading (e.g., Pressley (1996) – classrooms were filled with a wide range of high-quality children’s literature)
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Summary of Outcomes
• A coherent, differentiated classroom programme (e.g., Taylor et al. 2003 – flexible and dynamic grouping). . . But grouping not always necessary (e.g., Topping & Ferguson – greater range of effective behaviours occurred during whole class shared reading lessons than in small group settings, where there tended to be more telling, recitation, closed questioning and transmission of information).
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Summary of Outcomes
• A metacognitive approach to instruction (Pressley et al 2001 – fostering self-regulation in students’ use of strategies)
• Following three years of intensive professional development, Taylor at al. (2003) noted that telling and recitation were still the dominant modes of instruction among teachers in their study, but even modest occurrences of modelling and coaching were associated with substantial growth in achievement, leading to the conclusion that a little goes a long way.
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Summary of Outcomes
• Skills teaching within a context . . . (e.g., Wray et al. reported that effective teachers used big books and shared texts as an entry point into teaching phonics and vocabulary, while less effective teachers introduced skills in isolation using flashcards and paper-and-pencil activities.
• (e.g., Knapp et al. 1995 . . . Children in meaning-oriented classrooms acquired basic skills as well as children in skills-orientated classrooms).
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Summary of Outcomes
• Emphasis on formative assessment (Wray et al., 2002 – exemplary teachers were more diagnostic in their assessment of children’s developing understanding).
• Expert classroom management (Taylor et al. 2003 – in classrooms of effective teachers, 90% of students were observed to be on-task 90% of the time); (Pressley et al., 2001) – bad behaviour was stopped quickly and redirected in positive ways. Classrooms of effective teachers were characterised by high levels of engagement.
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Characteristics of Expert Teachers of Adolescent Literacy (Parris & Block, 2007)
1. Literacy approaches used to teach: Teaching pedagogy
2. Methods of addressing diverse needs3. Personal characteristics4. Knowledge base5. Quality and quantity of literacy activities used6. Amount of professional development7. Relationship with students8. Classroom management
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1. Literacy approaches used to teach
• High pedagogic expectations• Encourages independent learning; • Integrates reading instruction with content area; • Exhibits and evokes emotion (humour,
enthusiasm); • Spontaneous• Promotes critical thinking skills• Asks questions (rather than always telling)• Involves students in decision making
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2. Addressing diverse student needs
Indicators
• Individualises instruction;
• Frequent assessment and feedback;
• Flexible grouping;
• Strategies that attend to individual needs within the context of groups
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3. Personal Characteristics of Teachers
Indicators. . .
• Cares about all students
• Collaborates with peers
• Excellent two-way communication skills
• Prepared;
• High expectations of self
• Love of learning
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4. Knowledge Base
Comprehensive knowledge of the following:
• Content area;
• Developmental stages of adolescents;
• Reading instruction strategies;
• Student reading development stages;
• Selecting appropriate strategies as needed
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5. Quality and Quantity of Literacy Activities Used
Indicators . . .
• Uses multiple forms of input systems activities (visuals, hands-on, technology);
• Uses multiple forms of expression (peer share, publishing);
• Uses book-sharing activities; • Allows time to read and write independently;
• Uses group activities
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5. Quality and Quantity of Literacy Activities Used
Examples of specific activities. . . . • hands-on activities;• activities, projects, and competitions that interrelated
content areas;• scaffolding;• Mini-lessons that teach a specific reading strategy;• using discussions as opposed to lecturing;• including instruction in how to read a variety of genres;• grouping through literature circles, fluid grouping, pair
share;• inviting classmates to give constructive feedback to one
another;• encouraging students’ critical and analytical thinking;
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6. Amount of Professional Development
Indicators. . .
• Professional development (participates in professional associations, college classes,
• Stays abreast of research;
• Reflects on own teaching to improve;
• Stays abreast of current events
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7. Appropriate Relationships with Students
Indicators . . . . • Good rapport with students; • Gives personal attention to each student;• Communicates that all students are valued
and accepted; • Mutual respect with students;• Trustworthy• [Humour important]
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8. Classroom Management
Indicators. . . . • Excellent learning management (ability to keep
students focused on work, minimal discipline problems);
• Excellent resource management (classroom, time)
Classroom management defined by: • student behavior,• student time on task, and• organization of time and resources in general.
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Competent teachers are not necessarily competent in all
aspects of reading instruction. .
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Distinction between Training and Teaching / Teacher Learning
• Training. . . situate knowledge and authority within the teacher rather than the learner. . . (shares this with other practices such as conditioning, instructing, indoctrination)
• Training is an incomplete and insufficient construct on which to base our models of teacher preparation (Hoffman & Pearson, 2000).
• Training will not help teachers develop the personal and professional commitment to lifelong learning required by those teachers who want to confront the complexities and contradictions of teaching.
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“Do we know how to teach teachers of reading?”
• No (Hoffman & Pearson, 2000) . . . But research is promising
• As long as the outcomes can be specified and the context controlled, training serves our needs. .. . But the reality of teaching is one of constantly changing conditions with fairly abstract and even ambiguous learning outcomes
• We need reflective, discursive, and dialogical strategies
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Corcoran-Smyth & Lytle (1999)
• Three approaches to understanding teacher learning• Knowledge for practice – teachers are provided the
knowledge they will need to be effective teachers, by more knowledgeable others, usually university professors
• Knowledge in practice – teachers discover the knowledge they need in the field as they reflect on and critique their own practice, either individually or in some collaborative arrangement
• Knowledge of practice – teachers, invariably in community settings, construct their own knowledge of practice through deliberate inquiry, which may well involve ideas and experiences that emerge from their own practice as well as those codified as formal knowledge within the profession
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Preparing Teachers: Teaching vs. Training Perspectives• The truth is that serious attempts to teach
teachers, to engage them in educative practice and inquiry rather than provide them with a set of bureaucratically endorsed recipes, is a relatively new phenomenon. (Hoffman & Pearson)
• We must make a fundamental shift from faith in simple answers . . . simple procedures, simple packages of materials teachers can be directed to follow. Instead, we must “embrace the complexities.” (Duffy, 1991, p. 15)
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Typical Steps in Teaching for Learning (Teacher as Researcher) Project Model
Teachers . . .• find their own problems and questions• design their own approaches to studying
them• share their work with colleagues• support colleagues in similar endeavors
by critiquing their work• participate in public dissemination about
the project
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International Reading Association – Standards for Reading Professionals (2003)
Standards for. . .
• Paraprofessional candidates
• Classroom teacher candidates
• Reading specialists/literacy coach candidates
• Teacher educator candidates
• Administrator candidates
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International Reading Association – Standards for Reading Professionals (2003)
1. Foundational Knowledge
2. Instructional Practices Materials
3. Assessment, Diagnosis, and Evaluation
4. Creating a Literate Environment, and
5. Professional Development
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Visualising the IRA Professional Development Standards
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IRA Standards – Example – Assessment, Diagnosis & Evaluation Strand
Classroom teacher candidates. . . • Select and administer appropriate formal and
informal assessments, including technology-based assessments
• Compare, contrast and analyze information and assessment results, to place students along a developmental continuum.
• Analyse, compare, contrast and use assessment results to plan, evaluate and revise effective instruction for all students, within an assessment-evaluation-instruction cycle.
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PIRLS – Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (2006)
• 40 countries/regions participated in 2006• Involves students in Grade 4 and their teachers • Chapters on . . . • Student Performance in Reading (Russia ranked
first)• School Curriculum and Organisation for
Teaching Reading • Teachers and Reading Instruction • School Contexts
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PIRLS 2006 – Which Teacher Factors Are Examined?
• What Education and Training Do Teachers Have for Teaching Reading?
• What Are the Background Characteristics and Responsibilities of Reading Teachers?
• What Instructional Resources Do Teachers Use?• How Often Do Students Read Aloud and Independently
in Class?• What Activities Do Students Do in Response to Class
Reading?• What Library Resources Are Available and How Are
They Used? . . . . . . . .• How Do Teachers Assess Reading Progress?
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PIRLS 2006 – Teacher Demographic Information
• Just 2% of teachers in Russia and 5% in Germany and Macedonia are in the 20-29 age range, compared with 20% in French Belgium and 29% in France.
• All fourth grade students in Poland are taught reading by female teachers compared with 55% in Luxembourg
• Fourth grade students in Austria are taught reading by teachers with an average of 22 years teaching experience, compared with 12 years in England, and 15 in France.
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Varying Emphases in Teachers’ Formal Training
• 48% of students in Denmark are taught by teachers who were provided with pre-service training in language and/or children’s literature without reading pedagogy.
• 25% of students in Poland were taught by teachers who had studied reading pedagogy but not language and literature.
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PIRLS 2006 - Teachers’ Use of Instructional Materials
• Teachers of 64% of students in England report that they use a variety of children’s books as a basis for reading instruction compared with 1% in Hungary and 4% in Poland
• Teachers of one-third of students in the Netherlands report that they use computer programmes as a basis for teaching reading compared with 4% in Spain and Sweden.
• Teachers of 42% of students in France report that they use text books from other curricular areas as a basis for teaching reading, compared with 4% in the Russian Federeation.
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Frequency of Use of Instructional Strategies
• 5% of students in French Belgium are taught by teachers who teach decoding on a daily basis, compared with 40% in Bulgaria and 62% in Poland
• 93% of students in Romania report reading aloud in class on a daily basis, compared with 2% in Sweden
• 5% students in Sweden are taught by teachers who ask students to describe text style or structure compared with 39% in Spain and 64% in England.
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Competence is in the eye of the beholder. . . . National Literacy Strategy in England
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NLS Review - Consultants
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National Literacy Strategy – Consultants’ Views (contd)
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Future Research• Analysis of teachers’ confidence in their ability to
teach particular strategies (probably preferable to asking teachers whether or not they engage in particular practices)
• Analysis of teacher responses to instructional scenarios
• Should the PIRLS approach to describing reading instruction be explored further, or is there a need for smaller-scale studies to analyse differences in teaching practices across countries?
• How do teachers in different countries respond to professional development?