1993 shiel lewis history of guidance

8/7/2019 1993 Shiel Lewis HISTORY OF GUIDANCE

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Irish Journal of Education

Guidance and Counselling in Irish Second-Level SchoolsAuthor(s): Gerry Shiel and Mary LewisSource: The Irish Journal of Education / Iris Eireannach an Oideachais, Vol. 27, No. 1/2(Summer/Winter, 1993), pp. 5-24Published by: Irish Journal of EducationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30077365 .

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TheIrishJournalof Education,1993,xxvii,pp.5-24.GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN IRISH

SECOND-LEVEL SCHOOLS

GerryShiel andMaryLewisEducationalResearchCentreSt Patrick'sCollege,DublinThepaperbeginswithadescriptionofguidanceandcounsellingin second-levelschoolsin theRepublicof Ireland,tracingdevelopmentof theservicefromitsintroductioninthemid-1960stotheearly1990s.Theroleoftheguidancecounselloris consideredin thecontextsof educational,vocational,andcareerguidance;appraisalandassessment;personalcounselling;andsubjectteaching.Interactionsbetweenguidancecounsellorsandschoolcolleagues,parents,andexternalagenciesalsoreceiveattention.Followingthediscussionofissuesrelatingtothedeliveryandeffectivenessof theservice,someofthemoreurgentresearchneedsrevealedinthereviewareoutlined.

A guidanceandcounsellingservice for second-levelschools was formallyestablishedin Irish schools by the Departmentof Educationin 1966. Thisinitiativefollowedtheappointmentin 1960of the firsteducationalpsychologistwithresponsibilityfordevelopinga guidanceservicein the schools of theCityof DublinVocationalEducationCommittee(VEC).TheCity of DublinVECcontinuesto provideservices to vocationalschools in its area,while schoolsinotherVEC areasareservicedby theDepartmentof Education.In thispaper,weconsiderthedevelopmentof theDepartmentof Education'sservicewitha viewto identifyinginformationneeds andresearchissues whichrequireattentionastheserviceapproachesits 30thanniversary.Whileundertakingourreview,weconducteda searchof journalspublishedin theRepublicof Irelandandabroadtolocatearticlesdealingwith allaspectsof theguidanceandcounsellingserviceinIrishschools.Wealso consultedpersonswho areor weredirectlyinvolvedinthedevelopmentof the servicewith the purposeof identifyingotherprimaryinformationsourcessuch as officialguidelinesandreports.THEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEGUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICE

The formal establishmentof a guidanceandcounsellingservicehas beenattributedto a numberof factorsincludingtherapidindustrializationthattookplace in Irelandduringthe 1960s, a slowing down in emigration,and theavailabilityof a widerrangeof careersforyoungpeople(Chamberlain,1983).Whateverfactorsoutsidetheeducationalsystemgaverisetoits introduction,the5


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6 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISnotionof providingguidanceandcounsellingwas readily acceptedin schools,manyof whichwerealreadydoingso on aninformalbasis(O'Connors Walshe,1979). Following the introductionof the service, provisionwas at a relativelyhigh level by internationalstandardsuntil 1983. Up until thatyear,a guidancecounsellor could be appointed in addition to regular teaching staff, on anèx-quota'basis, in schools with 250 or morestudents.In 1983, this thresholdwas raised to 500. In effect, this meant that if schools with fewer than 500studentswishedto employa guidancecounsellor,they hadto do so withintheoverall staff allocationof the school. In 1991, provisionfor expansionof theservicewas madein a proposalfor the `recognitionon anex-quotabasisof 0.5of a whole-timepostforguidancein schoolsin the350-499 enrolmentcategory'(Ireland,1991).It wasenvisagedthattheservicewould beexpandedonaphasedbasis,startingwithschoolsattheupperendof thespecifiedenrolmentcategory.Relatively little publishedinformationis availableon the evolutionof theguidanceandcounsellingservicein schools. Ina paperpreparedby officials ofthe Departmentof Educationin 1979, it was reportedthat as many as 400guidancecounsellorswere active in schools (O'Connors Walshe, 1979). Thefindingsof a surveyconductedby membersof the Departmentof Education'sPsychologicalServicein 1984-85showedthat69 of 316 second-levelschoolsoffereda guidanceandcounsellingservice,but thattheextentof the servicehadbeen substantially reduced since 1983 in 25 of the schools (Ireland.Departmentof Education, 1987). In a survey of 78 second-level schoolsconductedby the Departmentof Education'sSchool GuidanceCommitteein1985,78 of theschools werefoundto havea guidancecounselloron the staffon an èx-quota'(36%),not èx-quota'(35% or shared-between-schools(7%basis(Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987).Ina surveyof 667 second-levelschoolsconductedby theInstituteof GuidanceCounsellorsduringthe 1989-90school year, although78 of schools were foundto offer some guidanceandcounselling, 5 of community/comprehensiveschools, 18 of secondaryschools,and34 of vocationalschoolsofferedno service(Instituteof GuidanceCounsellors,1990). Finally,McCarthy(1993b reportedthat lack of access toguidanceandcounsellingwasaproblemin need of attention

in ruralareaswhereschools generallyhave fewer than350 students,and/orwhere studentsattendvocationalschools.Currentinformationneeds regardingthe natureand extent of the guidanceandcounsellingservice includea breakdownof the distributionof the serviceby schooltype,size, andlocation.Inaddition,informationonthe extentto whichguidanceandcounsellingareprovidedon an èx-quota'basisandteachersotherthantrainedguidancecounsellorsareengagedinthese activitieswouldbe useful.


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICESIn the absenceof such information,it is difficult to describe the extent of theserviceor to identifyits immediateneeds.Recent international(OECD, 1991 as well as national (Ireland, 1992publicationshave called for the recruitmentof more guidance counsellors,particularlyfor schools located in areas of disadvantage.However, whilecommitmentsto increase the numberof guidancecounsellorsare reflectedinfinancialprovisionsincludedin thebudgetin recentyears,thereis noinformationwhich would allow us to assess the effects of any new appointmentsthat havebeenmade on the inequalitiesin theguidanceservicenoted above.From an outsider'sperspective,the institutionalframeworksupportingtheguidanceandcounsellingserviceseemswelldeveloped.Inthefirstinstance,supportis offeredthroughtheeducationandtrainingof guidancecounsellors,particularlyby way of provisionof specialist universitycourses. Guidancecounsellorsaregenerallyrecruitedfrom the ranksof servingsecond-levelteachersand musthavea minimumof threeyearsteachingexperience.Typically,theyhaveaprimarydegreein artsor commerce(O'Connors Walshe,1979 andthey usuallycompleteanadditionalone-yearfull-timepost-graduatediplomacourseinguidancecounsellingat a third-levelinstitution.Two such coursesare currentlyoffered one wasestablishedatUniversityCollegeDublinin 1967,the otheratUniversityCollegeCorkin 1981.Altogether,about25 teachersenrol in these two courseseachyear.Counsellorsin trainingare paid full salaryand their schools may appointareplacementteacher.Apost-graduatedegreewithaguidanceandcounsellingoptionis offeredatTrinityCollege,Dublin.However,while a numberof optionsexistforteacherswishingto pursuea careeringuidanceandcounselling,no evaluationhasbeen carriedout thatmighthelpto assesstheadequacyof thetrainingprovided.A second formof supportfortheguidanceandcounsellingservice is availablefrom educational psychologists who are employed by the DepartmentofEducation.Thesepsychologistsor inspectorsof guidanceservices,as they arealso known, are nominallyresponsiblefor supervisingthe work of guidancecounsellors and for assistingthem in a consultative and advisorycapacity.Inpractice,dependingon the natureof particularcircumstances,the relationshipbetween guidancecounsellors and the psychologists may be closer than thisdescriptionsuggests.However,the fact thatonly one psychologistis availableforevery 17,000studentsmustberegardedas a seriousconstraintonthe amountof official supportthatguidancecounsellorscan typicallyexpect to call on. If,forexample,as is not unusual,a psychologistor inspectorof guidanceservicesis allocated50 schools,thismeans,ineffect, thathe or shecanspendanaverageof only threedays in the school year dealingwith cases referredfromeach ofthose schools.


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GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISAdditionalsupportforguidancecounsellorsis providedbythe IrishInstituteof GuidanceCounsellors.The Institute,a professionalorganizationwhich wassetupin 1968,organizesconferences,workshops,andseminarsforitsmembers,

of whom there were in excess of 600 in 1993. The Institute also publishesprofessionalguidelines, policy documents,and ajournal.THEROLEOFTHEGUIDANCECOUNSELLOR

The role of guidancecounsellorsin schools has received a fair amountofattentionin researchstudies since the late 1970s (see Chamberlains Delaney,1977;Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987;McCarthy,1985;O'Brien,Tuite,McDonagh, s Deffely, 1982-83; O'Connor s Walshe, 1979; O'Leary sAdams, 1986; O'Leary s McCay-Morrissey,1987; Ryan, 1993). There isconsiderablevariationin the natureand size of the sampleson which studieswerebased. Forexample,the rangeof studies includes a relativelysmall-scalelocal studyin 18 Cork schools (O'Learys McCay-Morrissey,1987), a majorstudy of subject provision, choice, and allocation involving a nationallyrepresentativesampleof second-level schoolsin which68 counsellorsprovidedinformationabouttheir work (Hannan,Breen,Murray,Watson,Hardiman,sO'Higgins, 1983), anda studybasedon a sampledrawnfrom the membershipof the Instituteof GuidanceCounsellorsinvolving340 counsellors(Ryan,1993).In official documentation,the role of the guidancecounsellor is discussedin relationto threebroadareas:theprovisionof informationabouteducational,vocational,and careerchoices; appraisaland assessment;andcounsellingforthose experiencing learning or personal difficulties (Ireland, 1992). Thisclassification,which is adoptedin thepresentreview, is broadlyin line withthecategorizationof differentaspectsof theguidancecounsellor'sroleinpublishedresearch.It is useful to the extent that it points up the broadrangeof activitiesenvisaged as partof the guidancecounsellor's role. In practice,the emphasisgiven to each of these activities is likely to vary dependingon such factors asschool ethos, the interests andpreferencesof counsellorsthemselves,and thefunctionsassignedto otherteachersin aschool.InformationaboutEducational,Vocational,and Career ChoicesA consistentfindingof researchstudiesis thateducational,vocational,andcareercounsellingis the main activityof guidancecounsellors(Hannanet al,1983;McCarthy,1985;O'Learys McCay-Morrissey,1987;Ryan,1993).Thisdimension of the counsellor's role encompasses providing students withguidance in subject choice, information about careers, information about


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICESvocationaltrainingopportunities,and assistancein theapplicationproceduresforadmissionto advancedsecond-levelandthird-levelcoursesin Irelandandothercountries.Mosteducationalandcareercounsellingis conductedat thesenior-cyclelevel. Forexample,inonestudyit wasfoundthat64 of a guidancecounsellor'stimewasdevotedtostudentsin theseniorcycle(Ireland.DepartmentofEducation,1987).However,someguidanceinsubjectchoiceis oftenprovidedatthebeginningof thejuniorcycleaswell (Hannanetal, 1983).The fact that students'post-schooloptionsare largelydeterminedby theirperformancein public examinationslimits the extent to which a guidancecounselloris in a positionto helpstudentsarriveat decisionsrelatingto careerchoice.Nevertheless,the guidancecounsellor'srole in providinginformationaboutcareersand courses of studyhas become morecomplexin recentyears.Reasonsforthisdevelopmentincludeanincreasein theproportionof studentswhostay in schoolafterthe JuniorCertificateexamination;an increasein therangeof senior-cyclecoursesandpost-LeavingCertificatecourses(PLCs);andtheexpansionof third-leveleducationandtrainingoptionsat home andabroad.While counsellorsmay be involved in vocationalpreparationcoursesandtransitioneducationprogrammes(seeHannan,1986;Kellaghans Lewis,1991andmayset upopportunitiesforstudentsto obtainexperienceof workin localindustries,the specific natureof their involvementin this area has not beendocumented. The uncertainty regardingthe nature of career informationprovidedby guidancecounsellors is reflected in a recentcall by the IrishBusiness andEmployer'sFederation(IBEC for theappointmentof a corpsofcareerguidanceofficers who would be independentof the school systemandotherinstitutionsand would`providea structuredsystemof workexperienceatsecondlevel, supplycareerinformationto schools, and establishappropriatelinkageswith local employmentand traininginterests'(IBEC, 1993, p.16).Whetheror not such a move would be welcomedby schools in generalandcounsellorsin particularis a matterfor discussion. In any event, some of theuncertaintysurroundingthe provisionof careerguidancecould be reducedifresearchwere undertakento establishthe effectivenessof currentapproachesandidentifyaspectsthatmayneedimprovement.AppraisalandAssessment

Appraisalandassessmentof studentsis alsoanimportantpartof theguidancecounsellor's work (Chamberlains Delaney, 1977; O'Leary s McCayMorrissey,1987).Accordingto thegovernmentGreenPaper,Educationfor aChangingWorld,thepurposeof appraisalandassessmentis to`enabletheschoolto understandthe needs of the student,as well as helpingstudentsand their


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to GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISparentsto understandthemselvesbetter'(Ireland,1992,p. 107).Theavailableliteraturetells us little abouthow counsellors combine formal and informalassessmentinformationto advise studentsregardingtheirchoiceof subjectsandsuitabilityfor careersand/oradvancedcourses,or how counsellorsgatheranduseassessmentinformationin ordertoadvisestudentsaboutpersonalproblems.However,someresearchhasbeenpublishedontherangeof teststhatcounsellorsuse in assessingstudentsandon thecharacteristicsandusefulnessof such tests.In a surveyof guidancecounsellors in 74 second-levelschools in CountyDublin,MacNamara(1989 foundthatcounsellorsmostfrequentlyadministeredgrouptests of `aptitude'such as the DifferentialAptitudeTests (EducationalResearchCentre,1975 andtheAH4GroupTest of GeneralIntelligence(Heim,1970).Theprimaryreasonscitedby thecounsellorsforusingsuchtests weretohelp students choose senior-cycle subjects and make career choices. Thecounsellorsalso indicatedthatthe resultsof psychologicaltestsprovidedmoreusefulinformationthanthatobtainedthroughinterviewingparents,interviewingpupils,or examiningpublicexaminationresults.Only interviewswith subjectteachersappearedto providemore useful informationthanthe tests.A difficultyin using the resultsof psychologicaltests to predictacademicperformanceat the end of second-leveleducation,and hencetheprobabilityofgainingentryinto specific third-levelcourses,is that the correlationbetweensuchtests andperformanceon theLeavingCertificateExaminationmaynot bevery high. Martinand O'Rourke(1984 foundthat,dependingon the pointsscheme that is used for LeavingCertificateExaminationresultsand studentgender,between26 and44 ofvariancein overallperformanceontheLeavingCertificateExaminationcould be accountedfor by performanceon the verbalandnumerical(VR-NA subtestsof theDifferentialAptitudeTests(DAT takensome 30 monthsearlier.The DAT predictedoverallexaminationperformancebetterthanit predictedperformancein individualsubjects.The use in Irish schools of personality questionnaireswhich have beenconceptualizedandnonmedelsewherewasquestionedin astudybyGreaneyandMartin (1984 who concluded that the AmericanHigh-School PersonalityQuestionnaire(HSPQ),whichsome Irishcounsellorsadminister,was unsuitableforguidanceandcounsellingpurposesin thiscountry.Tworeasonsweregivenfor this conclusion:the low levels of reliability(internalconsistency of thefactorstappedbythetestand thelack of normativedataforan Irishpopulation.These observationssuggestthatcounsellorsshould exercise considerablecareinselectingquestionnairesandtests,interpretingresults,andcommunicatingtheresultsto students.


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICES 11Given thatschoolsareprovidedwithfinancialassistanceby theDepartmentof Educationtopurchasepsychologicaltests,andthatcounsellorswhoroutinelyadministersuchtestsclaim thattheinformationtheyobtainis valuableto them,it is surprisingthatvirtuallynoresearchhasbeenconductedon theuses to which

such tests are put by guidancecounsellors,or on how studentsthemselvesinterpretandusetestresultsinarrivingatcareer-relateddecisions.Oneimportantissuerelatesto thecriteriathatcounsellorsadoptin interpretingtest resultsforstudents.We mayask,for example,to what extentcounsellorsoperatefromatalent-matchingperspective,attemptingtomatchstudentswithcareersfor whichtheyappearto be suitable,or from aneducationalperspective,emphasizingthedevelopmentof skills,knowledge,andexperiencesthatwould enablestudentsto makeand implementtheir own decisions(see Watts,1993). In additiontoresearchwhich would examine how counsellorsand their studentsinterpretdifferencesinperformanceacrosstests,andtheimplicationsof suchdifferencesforcareer-relateddecisions,thereis also needforresearchthatwouldinvestigatehowcounsellorsgatherbiographicaldata,whatvocationalpreferencemeasurestheyuse, andhowtheyadvisestudentson theoutcomesof assessment.Personaland Social CounsellingIn additionto providingcareer,educational,and vocationalguidance,andconductingassessments,many counsellorsprovide personalcounsellingtoindividualstudentswhorequestit. Infact,guidancecounsellorshave describedpersonalcounselling as one of their most importantactivities after careerguidance.Between 70 and 80 of counsellorsin Hannanet al's (1983 studyclaimedeithersignificantormaininvolvementinpersonalcounsellingatjuniorandsenior-cyclelevels,thoughthisinvolvementwasless importantthanseniorcyclesubject-advisoryfunctions,andsubstantiallyless importantthaninvolvementinfacilitatingcareerchoiceatbothlevels.The 61 counsellorswhorespondedtothe 1985surveyof the SchoolGuidanceCommitteerankedindividualpersonalcounsellingas theactivityin whichtheyengagedmostfrequentlyatjunior-cyclelevel.The samecounsellorsrankedindividualpersonalcounsellingfifth behindvocationalandeducationalcounselling(forindividualsandclass-sizegroups atthesenior-cyclelevel (Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987).Whilemostof the340counsellorsina surveyconductedbyRyan(1993 alsoindicatedthattheyregardedpersonalcounsellingas a majorpartof theirwork,theamountof timetheydevotedto this activityvariedin differentpartsof thecountry. Counsellors working in urban schools reportedthat they spentsignificantlymore time on personalcounselling than theircounterpartsinschoolslocatedin smalltownsandruralareas.Ifguidancecounsellorshavethe


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12 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISmainresponsibilityfor theprovisionof personalcounsellingin theirschools, asHannan and his colleagues reported,it would seem that schools that havecounsellorsandarelocated outsidelargeurbanareas should be especiallyalertto the possibility that they may not be adequately meeting the personalcounsellingneedsof theirstudents.An important aspect of personal counselling is the range of problemsaddressedby counsellors and the supportthatthey receive in addressingtheseproblems.FromRyan's (1993 data,it is clear thatmanycounsellorsprovideadvice to studentson a widerangeof problemsrelatingtofamily,sex, social andemotional development,bullying, unreasonableacademic expectations, andalcohol anddrugabuse. Most counsellorswho participatedin Ryan'sstudyfeltthat the functions of career guidance and personal counselling should beintegratedin the treatmentof theseproblems.However,they reportedthatsomeof theirguidancecolleaguesand officials in the Departmentof Educationtooka differentview, suggesting that counselling should be relatedprimarilytoeducation,and should concentrateon improving study skills and confidence,instilling discipline, and developing relationships with teachers. While,ultimately,thebestapproachis one which suits theparticularneeds of individualschools and takes account of the availabilityandadequacyof referralservices,it wouldseem importantthatcounsellorsandtheirsupervisorsworktogetherongoals andstrategiesthatareappropriateandsufficientlybroadto enable schoolsto meet the needs of students.The extentto whichthe workof counsellorsis effective in assistingstudentswith personal problems is unclear. This issue was raised in a recent studyinvolvinginterviewswithyoung peoplewho hadleftsecond-leveleducationfiveyearsearlier.Thestudyconcluded that thereis a need to considerablyimprovethe content and quality of personal and social developmenteducation andpastoral-careprogrammesin schools. These goals aregiven very high priorityby school leavers, and ratherlow satisfactionmarks result for their schools'(Hannans Shortall,1991, p. 6). Given thatguidancecounsellorsprovidesomeinstructionin personaland social developmentskills (see Chamberlain,1988),they may need more informationand feedbackto plananddevelopthis aspectof the service in ways which would enable them to address a wide range ofstudentneeds. To beginwith,informationmightbe obtainedwhich would allowappraisalof overallprovisionof personalcounselling services with a view toidentifyingstrengthsand weaknesses.Then, using a case-study approach,anexaminationof how personal counselling is conducted, and its effects oncounsellors, students,and their parentscould be undertakenin a numberofschools.


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICES 13SubjectTeachingThe involvement of guidance counsellors in time-tabled non-guidancesubject teaching is an importantissue in the context of available time forcounsellingactivities.At present ex-quota'guidancecounsellorsmustprovideaminimumof eighthoursguidanceandcounsellingif theyworkinVEC schoolsand a minimum of 12 hours if they work in community,comprehensive,orsecondaryschools. In additionthey arerequiredto teacha school subjectfor atleastthree hoursperweek (Ireland.Departmentof Education,1983).In the School Guidance Committee's survey (Ireland. DepartmentofEducation,1987), counsellors who were ex quota' reportedteachinga schoolsubjectfor an averageof 5 hours per week, while counsellors who were not`ex-quota' reportedan average figureof 9 hoursper week. In most cases, theschool principal,workingwithinofficialparameters,decides how theguidancecounsellor's time is allocated.As indicatedearlier,counsellorswho engage inmoresubject teachinghave less time available for counsellingin general,andpersonalcounselling in particular,thantheircounterpartswho do not have astrong involvement in subject teaching. The tensions in combining subjectteachingandcounsellingare underlinedin the following dilemma.On the onehand,freeing guidancecounsellors from subject teachingduties would allowthem to provide more guidance and counselling; on the other, greaterinvolvement in subject teaching might afford them valuable contact withstudents in a non-guidance setting as well as leading to more effectiverelationshipswithcolleagueswho areengagedin subject-teachingon a full-timebasis.In general, the availableresearchfindings indicate that counsellors preferto do some subject teaching in addition to performing their counsellingduties, but not as much as they are typically assigned (O'Leary, 1987;O'Learys Adams, 1986). The principalteachersin O'Leary's (1987 studywere in agreementwith guidance counsellors regardingthe amount of time(0 to 6 hoursperweek that should be allocated to subject teaching.Even so,these principals also reported that they allocated significantly moresubject-teachinghoursto counsellors;only 50 of teachersin the studywereengaged in teaching for fewer than six hoursper week. O'Leary makes thepoint that, while the reportof the Institute of Guidance Counsellors (1985did not perceive subject teaching as partof the guidance counsellor's role,guidance counsellors in her study generally felt that they should do somesubject teaching. A useful researchcontributionmight be to examine whatbenefits, if any, accrue fromguidancecounsellors engaging in non-guidancesubject teaching particularly when it is argued that counsellors have


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14 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISinsufficient time for guidanceandcounselling. It would be worthwhile,forexample,to comparehowtheroleof the counselloris perceivedbyteachersandstudentsin settingswherecounsellorshave little or no involvementin subjectteachingandin settingswherecounsellorsperformsubstantialsubjectteachingduties.

THEWORKOFTHEGUIDANCECOUNSELLORINSCHOOLORGANIZATIONANDEXTERNALCONTEXTSAccordingto the GreenPaper,Educationfor a ChangingWorld(Ireland,1992),theprovisionof guidance shouldbe seenas a school-wideresponsibility,involving the collaboration of the school administration, the guidancecounsellor,and otherteachers'(p. 107).This view sees counsellorsas playinga pivotalrole in manydifferentaspectsof theorganizationandco-ordinationofguidance-relatedactivitiesin schools.However,the availableresearchfindings

indicatethatcounsellorsdo not exercisestrongleadershiproleswithinschools.Hannanet al (1983 foundthat,while counsellorswereinvolvedto someextentin the initial selection and assessmentof students,they had no influence indeterminingthe numberand structureof classes (e.g., whetherstreamedorbanded or the packagingof subjects.Theyrecommendedthat,in additiontohavingsome inputin theseareas,counsellorsshould becomemore involvedinestablishingrelationshipsbetweensubjectteachers,students,and theirparents,and in developingandevaluatingcurricularand instructionalinterventionstodealwith conventionalschool failure.However,it has to be bornein mindthat,givencurrentconstraintsonguidanceactivities,any attemptsto broadenthe roleof guidancecounsellorsin theseareascould meana reductionof theirservicesin otherareas.Pastoral-CareProgrammesAn areain which counsellorsmaybecomemoreinvolvedin the futureis inthe provision of personaland social educationthroughthe developmentofpastoral-careprogrammes.These programmes,which have been a featureofcounsellingin second-levelschools in Englandand elsewherefor manyyears(see Lang, 1993),areusuallydevisedby a pastoral-careteamconsistingof theguidancecounsellorandsubjectteacherswho volunteertoactas tutorsorspecialclass teachers to individualclass groups. Accordingto Chamberlain(1988),there is substantial overlap between the content of typical pastoral-careprogrammes self-awarenesstraining,informationon the transitionfromprimary to secondary schools, subject choice, study skills, examinationtechniques,responsibility/decision-makingskills, and life skills and the


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICES 15contentthatis often foundin the conventionalguidanceprogrammesofferedinIrish second-level schools. The widespreaddevelopmentof pastoral-careprogrammeswouldallow counsellorsto becomemore involvedwith subjectteacherson a professionalbasis.Withsomecounsellingdutiesdevolvingto thesubjectteachers,this arrangementmight providecounsellorswith additionaltime in which to concentrateon otheraspectsof theirwork.Some basic researchon the nature and extent of pastoral-careservicescurrently operating in second-level schools could contributeto a greaterunderstandingof pastoralcare,improveits development,andultimatelyallowmore studentsto experienceits benefits.At present,little is known abouttheinvolvementof counsellorsin suchprogrammeswhichmayalso be offeredinschools as civics, personal and health education,religious educationandchaplaincy,orpersonalandsocialdevelopmentprogrammes.Itwouldbe usefulto look at existing situationsin which guidancecounsellorsaresuccessfullyleadingpastoral-careprogrammeswithinschoolswitha view to identifyinganddisseminatingelementsof good practice.Itmightalso be useful tocomparethedeliveryand effectivenessof suchprogrammeswhentheyareimplementedbyguidancecounsellorsandbyotherstaffmembers,includingsubjectteachersandyearor formheads,who maynothavespecialisttraining.PartnershipswithParentsAnotherareain whichguidancecounsellors'activitiesmightbroadenin thefutureis in theirpartnershipswithparents.Severalresearchershavepointedoutthatparentsare a particularlyimportantinfluence on their children'scareerdecisionsandthatcounsellorsregularlymeet withthem(Ireland.DepartmentofEducation,1987;McCarthy,1993b;O'Brien, Tuite,McDonagh,s Deffeley,1982-83; O'Leary s McCay-Morrissey, 1987). At this point, however,relativelylittle is knownabouthow counsellorsandparentsworktogethertoassist the careerchoices of students.Whilerecognitionof theneedforgreaterparentalinvolvementin guidanceandcounsellinghas beenexpressed(Hannanet al, 1983;O'Learys McCay-Morrissey,1987), it seems importantthatthedevelopmentof suchlinks be basedon a sharedunderstandingof how parentsandcounsellorscanco-operateto assistyoungpeopleinmakingeducationalandcareer-related decisions. The current involvement of the DepartmentofEducation'sPsychologicalServicein aEuropean-wideprojectonenhancingtheroleof parentsin guidancemayprovidecounsellorswithnew insightson howto involveparentsmoreeffectivelyin guidance.


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16 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISLinkswithExternalAgenciesYet anotheraspectof the guidancecounsellor'swork involves liaison withagencies outside the school including governmentdepartments,places ofemploymentandtraining,andthird-levelcolleges,in orderto obtaininformationregardingeducationaland career opportunitiesand, increasingly,to securework-experienceplacementsforstudents.Therespectiverolesof theDepartmentof Enterpriseand Employment(formerlythe Departmentof Labour and theDepartmentof Educationrequirefurtherclarification,particularlyin relationtothe provisionof career-relatedinformation(McCarthy,1986). While it is notdifficultto acceptthatthequalityof guidancemaybe affectedby factorsrelatingtotheprovisionandflow of career-relatedinformation,theprecisewaysin whichguidancecounsellorsor studentsmightbe affectedin practicaltermsfromthisadministrativearrangementhavenotbeenexplored.Further,no researchhasbeencarriedout on the appropriatenessor value of the careerinformation,includingpublishedmaterials,thatis providedto schoolsby stateagencies.Relativelylittleis knowneitheraboutthenatureandeffectivenessof thelinksbetween school guidance counsellors and human resources personnel inindustry.Onlyonestudyin thisareawas identified.In asurveyof 150companiescarriedoutby theConfederationof IrishIndustry(CII),now known as theIrishBusiness and EmployersConfederation(IBEC),42 reportedthat a schoolscareerguidancecounsellorhad been in contact with theirfirm in theprevioustwo years. Smallerfirms were much less likely to havebeen contacted(19comparedwith 59 for largerfirms).The mostpopularinitiativeswithrespectto school-industrylinks were company visits by students,career talks byindustrialists/businesspeople, careerseminars,and careerexhibitions.Of the150companies,just31 felt thatinformationconcerningcareersin industrywasbeingpassedontopost-primarystudentsin anappropriatemanner(CII, 1990).In theabsenceofadditionalresearchon therangeandeffectivenessofexistinglinks between guidancecounsellors and industry,it is difficult to determinewhethercurrentarrangementsareoperatingsatisfactorily.Clearly,calls fortheappointmentof externalcareerofficers(see IBEC, 1993 must be evaluatedinthe contextof the objectivesof the guidanceserviceprovidedin schools, thelinks which guidance counsellors have established with industry,and theinitiativestakenby industryto foster links withschools.Irish-EuropeanGuidanceLinksThepastseveralyearshaveseen thedevelopmentof linksbetweenguidancecounsellorsin Irishsecond-levelschools andtheircounterpartsinothercountriesin the European Community.These links have been supportedby various


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICES 17programmes. One such programme,PETRA, an action programmeforvocational education and training,has providedfundingand expertise forimprovingthequalityof vocationaleducationandtraininginmemberstates.Animportantelement of this initiativehas been the establishmentof nationalco-ordinationunits(NCUs and nationalguidancecentresin all memberstates.Two guidancecentreswere set up in Irelandin 1992 the PETRAINCUNationalVocationalGuidanceCentre,and the FAS NationalOccupationandCareerGuidanceCentre. The PETRAINCUNational VocationalGuidanceCentre,in partnershipwith.the National Informationin TechnologyCentre(NITEC),hascontributedto thedevelopmentof andaccess to theQUALIFAXdatabase.This databasewasdesignedandcompiledbytheInstituteofGuidanceCounsellorsandaims toprovideschool leaversin Irelandandin othercountrieswithinformationaboutvocational,technical,andhighereducationopportunitiesinthiscountry.ThePETRAINCUCentrehasalso involvedguidancepersonnelin avarietyof action-researchprojectsrelatingto guidanceingeneral,andtotheEuropeandimensionof guidancein particular.Theseprojects,involvingcloseco-operationwithexpertsandcounsellorsin othermemberstates,haveas theirobjectivestheprovisionof non-formalguidancetodisadvantagedyouthandthedevelopmentof standardsforguidance.The FAS Centrehas beeninvolvedinprojectsdealingwith comparabilityof trainingqualificationsacrossmemberstates, and in providing informationabout training opportunitiesin othercountries to young persons. Finally, the Department of Education'sPsychologicalService has been workingwith its EuropeancounterpartsinBelgium (Flanders), Denmark, the Netherlands, and Portugal, onPETRA-fundedprojects.Theseinvolvethepreparationof modulesfortheinitialandcontinuingtrainingof guidancecounsellorsin theEuropeandimensionofguidance, the developmentof joint quality standardsin guidance,and thepreparationof methods and materialsfor enhancingthe role of parentsinguidance(McCarthy,1993a).While the numberof school leavers currentlyseeking informationaboutopportunitiesfor vocationaleducationandtrainingin Europemaybe small,itcanbe expectedto increase.Moreover,EuropeanCommunityinitiatives,suchas PETRA, may serve to link the differentorganizationsinvolved in theprovisionof guidanceservicesin thiscountryand to familiarizeIrishguidancecounsellorswitha varietyof approachesto serviceprovision.Theeffectsof thePETRA-sponsoredprojectsareas yet unclearas only preliminaryreportsareavailableat this time(e.g., Ireland.Departmentof Education,n.d.).To evaluatetheoverallimpactof theprojects,it would be necessaryto look notonly attheeffectsof individualprojects,butalsoatlinkagesacrossprojectsandthe extent


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18 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISto which activitiespromotedby theprojectsbecome anintegralpartof nationalpolicy and state structures(McCarthy,1993a).

THEDELIVERYANDEFFECTSOFGUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGIn addition to a lack of researchon variousdimensionsof the guidancecounsellor'srole, there is a lack of basic informationabout the delivery ofguidanceserviceswithin schools.No dataare availableon the specificcontentof guidanceandcounselling programmes,or on the ways in which guidancecounsellorspresentinformationto students.It is importantthat the gaps ininformationin these areas receive attention if our understandingof howcounsellorspresentinformationto studentsandlead studentsto makeinformeddecisions is to be improved.In the absence of such work,it is difficult to seehow effective guidancepracticescan be recognized,let alone disseminatedorexplainedto parentsandcolleagues.Overallappraisalof theserviceshouldtakeinto accountthechangingclimatewithinwhich it is beingprovided.Inparticular,suchanappraisalshouldconsiderseveral recentdevelopmentswhichmaybe havinga considerableinfluenceonhow students and their parentsobtain career guidance information.Thesedevelopmentsincludethe increasingnumbersof studentswho stay at schoolbeyondthe minimumschool-leaving age; the introductionof new junior andsenior-cyclecurriculaand examinations;the increasedrole of the media inprovidinginformationand advice about post-school options and third-levelprovisioninparticular;theprovisionof publicseminarsandexhibitionsinrecentyears on workand careeroptionsfor second-levelstudents;the expansionof

school-basedwork-experienceprogrammeswhich have careerguidanceas anobjective;andthedevelopmentanduseof careervideos andcomputerizedcareerinformationincludingEuropeandatabases.Evaluationof GuidanceOutcomesTherearea numberof ways in which evaluationof the effects of guidanceandcounsellingmightbe undertaken.Perhapsthe most basicapproachtowardsevaluatingoutcomesmightinvolveobtaininga detaileddescriptionof the natureand extentof guidancefromguidancecounsellorsand students.Thisapproachcould be adoptedin the context of examiningthe guidanceand counsellingsystem in generalas well as specific interventionsor programmes.A secondapproachmightbe basedon an examinationof students'satisfactionwith theirguidance experiences with a view to determininghow students felt thoseexperiences had helped them in making personal,educational,and career


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICES 19decisions. Some use of thisapproachhasalreadybeen madein oneIrishstudy.The findingsshowed thatstudentsconsideredcounsellorsto have been moreinvolved thanother teachersin providingthem with advice and informationaboutsubjectchoice andcareers,butthatthe influenceof counsellorswas lessthanthatof parentsandfriends.Girls,in particular,emphasizedtheimportanceof friendsin helpingthemto select careers(Hannanet al, 1983).Thesetwo approacheswouldpose relativelyfew methodologicalproblemsto researchers.However,they would not provide specific informationon theprocessesof guidanceor on itsoutcomesin termsof learningoreconomicgains.A thirdapproachwouldberequiredtoinvestigatehow studentsfareineducation,training,andjobs and to relatetheseoutcomesto theguidancetheyreceivedinschool. A problemwith this approach,which would require longitudinalresearch,is that it would involve efforts to distinguishthe effects of goodguidance(e.g., the developmentof effective decision-makingskills fromtheeffects of otherinfluences,includingthe abilityof the guidancecounsellortopredictappropriateand likely outcomes for students. A fourthapproachtoevaluation,describedby Stoney(1993), wouldbe to measurethe attitudesandknowledge that students receive from guidance by developing and usingappropriatepre andpost-guidanceinstruments.Such an approachcouldyieldinformationon the effects of differentlevels of guidanceon studentsand theeffects of guidanceon differentgroupsof students,takinginto accountsuchfactorsas studentgender,family background,and thegeographicallocationofschools.

CONCLUSIONPublishedresearchonguidanceandcounsellingin Irishsecond-levelschoolshasconsisted of thecollection,analysis,andpublicationof surveyresultsandinterviewdata,andhasprovidedvaluabledescriptionsof thedevelopmentof theguidanceservice,theconditions,roles,andattitudesof counsellors,andthetypesof problemsthat counsellorsencounteras they work with studentsin schoolsettings.Researchhas also providedsome general insightsinto the natureofstudents' guidance needs in the context of current economic and socialdifficulties.However,no majorinvestigationhas beencarriedoutto examinespecificallyprovisionandpracticesrelatingto guidanceandcounsellingin Irish

schools. Neither has therebeen any evaluationof the trainingprovidedforguidancecounsellorsor of thesupportservices(includingin-serviceeducationestablishedto assist them.


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20 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISUnderlyingmost of the papersand reportsconsideredin this review is arecognitionof the needfor morecomprehensiveresearch.Forexample,in theReportof the School GuidanceCommittee(Ireland.Departmentof Education,1987), it was notedthat a well plannedsystemof evaluationis necessaryto

improveand develop a guidanceand counsellingservice' (p.79). Similarly,McCarthy(1993b noted that `the usage of counselling services is largelyuntabulatedandthe evaluationof services in termsof meetingcustomers'needsappearsnon-existent'(p. 1).The lackof primaryresearchmaybe attributedtoseveral factors. First, until relativelyrecently, there has not been a strongtraditionof formal programmeevaluationin Irish education,much less atraditionof evaluatingstudents'perceptionsof the value of the educationalservices they have received. Services which are comparableto guidanceandcounsellingin termsof sizeandstructure,suchas remedialeducationandspecialeducation,havenotbeenevaluatedinanycomprehensivemannereither.Second,althoughspecific aims for guidanceandcounsellinghavebeen proposed(seeIreland.DepartmentofEducation,1987),theredoesnotappeartobe aconsensuson theemphasesthatcounsellorsshouldplaceon differentaspectsof theirwork,or on howtheirworkshouldaffectstudents.Thiscreatesproblemsfordesigninganevaluationstudy.Third,since theguidanceandcounsellingfield is relativelynew,mostof the initialefforthas beenfocusedondevelopingthe servicewithoutdue attention to issues of effectiveness. Clearly, however, policy makers,counsellors themselves, and, ultimately,students and their parents,wouldbenefit from systematicevaluationof guidanceprogrammesin schools, andproposals for providing additional resources or expanding guidance andcounsellingservices would standon firmerground.Based on our review, the following issues emerge as importantareasofconcernand researchinquiry.Firstandforemost,there is need for data on theextentof theguidanceandcounsellingserviceinsecond-levelschools,includingabreakdownof the numberof counsellorswhoare`ex-quota'andnot`ex-quota'in differenttypesof schools and in differentlocations.Second,thereis need toexaminethe natureof careerguidanceinformationprovidedto studentsandtoevaluate the adequacyof such information.Ideally, this would involve anexaminationof thelinks betweencounsellorsand externalagencies,takingintoaccount the objectivesof provisionin schools and otherinformationsourcesincluding work-experienceplacements,parents,media output, and publicexhibitions and seminars.Third,there is need to know how counsellorsuseformalandinformalassessmentinformationto advisestudentsregardingsubjectchoiceandtheirsuitabilityfor careersand/oradvancedcourses.Researchonthisissue would have to consider the range and appropriatenessof assessment


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICES 21measuresin use in schools and theways in whichguidancecounsellorsobtaininformalassessmentinformation.A fourthareaof inquiryconcernsthe rathersensitiveissue of personalcounselling.Researchon this aspectof the serviceneeds to focus on the relativeneeds of studentsin urbanand ruralschools andin disadvantagedandnon-disadvantagedareas.It mightinvolve identificationof the modelsor approachesthatcounsellorsuse in workingwithstudents,anexaminationof the links thatevolve betweenparentsandcounsellorsasspecificproblemsareaddressed,as well as some evaluationof thequalityof personalcounsellingfromthe student'spointof view.Fifth,the natureandeffectivenessof pastoral-careprogrammesdeservesattention.Specifically,we need to knowmoreaboutsuchprogrammesfromaschoolorganizationperspective,abouttheinvolvement of guidance counsellors and other teachers in pastoral-careprogrammes,andaboutthewaysin whichsuchprogrammesaffectrelationshipsbetweencounsellors,students,and otherteachers.Sixth,theuse of technologyin guidance and counselling should be explored, taking into accountthecontributionof Europeandatabasesandnetworks,in orderto identifyeffectivepracticesandongoingneeds. Access to technologyin schools,theadequacyofcounsellors'skills forusing technology,and students'responsesto technologyaresome of the moreobviousissues thatmightbe examinedinthis context.Last,butnotleast, it seemsimperativethatsome considerationbe given to thewaysinwhichthegeneraleffectivenessof theguidanceandcounsellingservicemightbe monitoredon anon-goingbasis.Concernabouttheabilityof theguidanceandcounsellingservicetoadapttochanging circumstances and needs underlies many of the researchissuesidentified in this review. Obviously, the currenteducational and socialenvironmentis very different from the one in which the service was firstestablished.There are now fewer small schools in the system, manyfewerreligiousin schools who in thepastwould have contributedin no smallparttothepastoralcare/guidancedimensionof educationalprovision,andmuchgreaternumbersof studentsparticularlyatsenior-cyclelevel.These,togetherwithotherchangesoutsidetheschoolsystem,whichhave resultedin ahugeincreasein therangeof optionsand in the amountof informationavailableto youngpeople,mustberegardedaskeyissues inany appraisalof theguidanceandcounsellingservice.

Thepotentialvalueof researchingeneratinginformationabouttheguidanceandcounsellingservice in schools has been underlinedthroughoutthepaper.The issues presented for discussion emerge essentially from a researchperspective.We trustthattheyfindsupportin theconcernsof policy-makersandpractitionerswho undoubtedlyhave theirown informationrequirementswhich


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22 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISwe werenot in a positionto identifyorexpressin thispaper.Inconclusion,wemay emphasize again the need to resource substantial improvementsininformation about guidance and counselling in schools. Without suchinformation,it is impossibleto know if theadministratorsand counsellorswhorun the service or thepupilsandparentswho use it arebeingwell served.

REFERENCESChamberlain,J. (1983). Guidanceandcounsellingin the Republicof Ireland.Personneland GuidanceJournal,61,479-482.Chamberlain,J. (1985). Schoolpsychologyin theRepublicof Ireland.Journalof SchoolPsychology,23, 217-224.Chamberlain,J. (1988). Educationaland vocationalguidanceservices for the14-25 age groupin the Republicof Ireland.InEducationaland vocational

guidance services for the 14-25 age group: The United Kingdom,theRepublic of Ireland and Greece. Luxembourg: Office for OfficialPublicationsof theEuropeanCommunities.Chamberlain,J.(1990).EducationalandvocationalguidanceservicesinIreland.InEducationaland vocationalguidance Bulletin51/90. Berlin:AssociationInternationaled'OrientationScolaireet Professionnelle.Chamberlain,J., s Delaney, O. (1977). Guidanceand counselling in Irishschools.BritishJournalof Guidanceand Counselling,5 (1), 49-64.Confederationof IrishIndustry.(CII).(1990).Humanresources:Thekeyissues.CIINewsletter,53(9), 1-7.Educational ResearchCentre. (1975). DifferentialAptitudeTests. Adaptedversion. Dublin:Author.Greaney,V., s Martin,M. O. (1984). An assessmentof theHSPQas a measureof thepersonalitystructureof Irishpost-primaryschoolpupils.IrishJournalof Education,18, 49-62.Hannan,D. F. (1986). Schooling and the labour market:Youngpeople intransitionfromschoolto work.Shannon:ShannonCurriculumDevelopmentCentre.Hannan,D. F., Breen, S., Murray,B., Watson,D., Hardiman,N., s O'Higgins,K. (1983). Schoolingandsex roles:Sexdifferencesin subjectprovisionandstudentchoice in Irishpost-primaryschools. Dublin:Economic and SocialResearchInstitute.


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GUIDANCEANDCOUNSELLINGSERVICES 23Hannan,D. F., s Shortall,S. (1991). Thequalityof their education:Schoolleavers' views of educationalobjectivesand outcomes.Dublin:Economicand Social ResearchInstitute.Heim, A.W. (1970). AH4 Group Test of General Intelligence.Windsor:

NFER-Nelson.Instituteof GuidanceCounsellors.(1985).Theguidanceandcounsellingserviceandtheroleof theguidancecounsellor.Dublin:Author.Instituteof GuidanceCounsellors.(1990).Theguidanceandcounsellingserviceinsecond-levelschools:A nationalsurvey.Dublin:Author.Ireland. (1991). Programme for economic and social progress. Dublin:StationeryOffice.Ireland. (1992). Educationfor a changing world: Green paper. Dublin:StationeryOffice.Ireland.Departmentof Education.(1983). Circular letter no. 28183.Dublin:Author.Ireland.Departmentof Education.(1987). Reportof the School GuidanceCommittee.Dublin:Author.Ireland.Departmentof Education.(n.d.).Reportonphase1 of the 'Trainingofguidancecounsellors'project.Nationalreport Ireland.Dublin:Author.IrishBusiness andEmployersConfederation.(IBEC).(1993). Responseto thegreenpaperon education.Dublin:Author.Kellaghan,T., s Lewis, M. (1991). Transitioneducation in Irish schools.Dublin:EducationalCompany.Lang,P. (1993). `Tryingbut could do better' A review of pastoralcare inEnglandandelsewhere.In R.Best,P.Lang,s A. Lichtenberg(Eds.),Caringfor children:Internationalperspectiveson pastoralcare andpersonalandsocial education.London:Cassell.MacNamara,J. (1989).Theuseof standardisedtestsby guidancecounsellorsinsecond-level schools in Co. Dublin. Instituteof Guidance CounsellorsJournal, 16, 21-24.Martin,M. 0., s O'Rourke,B. (1984). Thevalidityof theDAT as a measureof scholastic aptitudein Irish post-primaryschools. Irish Journal ofEducation,18, 3-22.McCarthy,J. (1985).A surveyof guidance,counsellingandassessmentin theCork COMTECarea. Cork: Community Training and EmploymentConsortium.


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24 GERRYSHIELANDMARYLEWISMcCarthy,J. (1986). Careerinformationin guidance:A review of methods,needsandtrends.Instituteof GuidanceCounsellorsJournal, 12, 3-8.McCarthy,J. (1993a).Guidanceandcounselling:A unifyingtheme.CONASC,1(2), 14-17.McCarthy, J. (1993b). The vocational counselling needs of Irish ruraldisadvantagedyouth.Dublin:PETRA/NCUNationalVocationalGuidanceCentre.O'Brien,R., Tuite, F.,McDonagh,P., s Deffeley,T. (1982-83).The role of thecounsellor.Instituteof GuidanceCounsellorsJournal,7, 31-35.O'Connor, T.P., s Walshe,J. (1979). Guidance in Ireland:New directions.Compass,8(2), 4-22.O'Leary,E. (1987). An evaluationof the attitudesof Irishschool principalstothe numberof hoursguidancecounsellorsspend on subjectteachingandclassroomguidance.Oideas,31,76-86.O'Leary,E., s Adams,M. (1986). The guidancecounsellorin the classroom.Instituteof GuidanceCounsellorsJournal,12, 28-31.O'Leary, E., s McCay-Morrissey,T. (1987). Time spent by the guidancecounselloron variousduties.Instituteof GuidanceCounsellorsJournal,13,25-30.Organisationfor EconomicCo-operationandDevelopment.(OECD). (1991).Reviewsof nationalpoliciesfor education:Ireland.Paris:Author.Ryan, L. (1993). Counsellingthe adolescentin a changingIreland. Dublin:Instituteof GuidanceCounsellors.Stoney, S. W. (1993). Researchinto guidance in secondaryeducation: TheBritishexperience.Paperpresentedat the Council of EuropeEducationalResearchColloquy on Researchinto Guidance in SecondaryEducation.Ghent,Belgium.Watts,A. G. (1993). Reporton theeducationalresearchcolloquyon `Researchintoguidancein secondaryeducation.'Strasbourg:Councilof Europe.

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