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Word, Meaning, and Word, Meaning, and

ConceptConcept

Helena Helena GaoGao

Lecture 5 26 Oct., 2005Lecture 5 26 Oct., 2005

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Required readings:Required readings: O’ Grady, W. (1987). Semantics: the study of O’ Grady, W. (1987). Semantics: the study of

meaning. In W. O’Grady & M. Dobrovolsky (eds.), meaning. In W. O’Grady & M. Dobrovolsky (eds.), Contemporary Linguistic analysis. Copp Clark Contemporary Linguistic analysis. Copp Clark Pitman Ltd. pp. 171-188Pitman Ltd. pp. 171-188

Vygotsky, L. (1996). Thought and Language. Newly Vygotsky, L. (1996). Thought and Language. Newly revised and edited by Alex Kozulin. The MIT Press. revised and edited by Alex Kozulin. The MIT Press. Chapter 7: Thought and Word. pp. 210-276.Chapter 7: Thought and Word. pp. 210-276.

Recommended readings:Recommended readings: Jackendoff, R. (1992). Language of the mind. Jackendoff, R. (1992). Language of the mind.

Essays on mental representation. Chapter 3: Word Essays on mental representation. Chapter 3: Word meanings and what it takes to learn them: meanings and what it takes to learn them: reflections on the Piaget-Chomsky. The MIT Press. reflections on the Piaget-Chomsky. The MIT Press. pp. 53-67pp. 53-67

Gao, H. (2001). The physical foundation of the Gao, H. (2001). The physical foundation of the patterning of physical action verbs. Lund patterning of physical action verbs. Lund University Press. Chapter 2: Lexicalization University Press. Chapter 2: Lexicalization patterns from contact to motion and motion to patterns from contact to motion and motion to contact. pp. 41-60contact. pp. 41-60

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What is “word meaning”?What is “word meaning”?

What does it mean when you say What does it mean when you say you know the meaning of a word?you know the meaning of a word?

What does it mean What does it mean when you saywhen you say you know you know aa word word, such as “bird” , such as “bird” “blue”, or “happy” ?“blue”, or “happy” ?

How do we conceive of a word How do we conceive of a word meaning?meaning?

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Word MeaningWord Meaning

something that is conveyed or something that is conveyed or signified, or sensed in a symbolic signified, or sensed in a symbolic signsign

A fragment of conceptual structure A fragment of conceptual structure that is linked in long-term memory that is linked in long-term memory with a phonological structure and a with a phonological structure and a syntactic structure (Jackendoff, syntactic structure (Jackendoff, 1992)1992)

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Referential meaningReferential meaning

Rose =Rose =

Concept <-> word <-> objectConcept <-> word <-> object

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Reference theoryReference theory

Word = referent in the real world Word = referent in the real world But what about extension of But what about extension of

meaningmeaning Adjectives = qualities of somethingAdjectives = qualities of something Grammatical function words e.g. ‘in’ Grammatical function words e.g. ‘in’

‘on’ ‘at’ ‘because’‘on’ ‘at’ ‘because’ Abstract concepts like ‘love’ ‘god’ Abstract concepts like ‘love’ ‘god’

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According to referential theory,According to referential theory,

Referent (denotation)Referent (denotation)

To equate meaning to a word or To equate meaning to a word or phrase with actual entities to which it phrase with actual entities to which it refers refers

e.g. e.g. an animal that can bark = dogan animal that can bark = dog

Prime Minister of Canada = Paul MartinPrime Minister of Canada = Paul Martin

*Imaginary things have no referents*Imaginary things have no referents

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Two referents for one thing ‡

the same thinge.g.

Paul Martin:

the Prime Minister of Canada

‡the leader of Liberal Party

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Extension versus intentionExtension versus intention - The distinction stipulates the relation

between referents and meanings

A word’s extension corresponds to the set of entities that it picks out in the world (referents)

A word’s intension corresponds to its inherent sense or the concepts that evoke.

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According to Jackendoff According to Jackendoff (1992),(1992),

Within a cognitive theoryWithin a cognitive theoryConceptual

Well-Formedness Rules

linguisticstructures

conceptualstructures

perceptualand action

Inferencerules

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A number of factors combine to A number of factors combine to make a word mean what it doesmake a word mean what it does

(1) The connection of the concept (1) The connection of the concept expressed by the word to perception expressed by the word to perception and actionand action

conceptualstructures

perceptualand action

• No concern about the real-world counter part but the mental representations

• Not all words, nor all aspects of any particular word, are linked to perceptual or motor components.

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(2) A word meaning’s interaction with (2) A word meaning’s interaction with the inference rulesthe inference rules

perceptualand action

conceptualstructures

Inferencerules

The difference in inference between two words follows from a feature of “completiveness”/ ”boundedness” in conceptual structure interacting with an inference rule that depends on the value of that feature.

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(3) A word meaning’s relationship to the (3) A word meaning’s relationship to the rest of the lexiconrest of the lexicon

linguisticstructures

conceptualstructures

perceptualand action

Inferencerules

Lexicon has taxonomic structure

Links within the lexicon (e.g., animal->dog-> poodle) form concepts into hierarchies.

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(4) The interaction of the word with (4) The interaction of the word with the grammatical patterns of the the grammatical patterns of the languagelanguage

e.g.e.g.

I read Shakespeare.I read Shakespeare.

I am reading Shakespeare.I am reading Shakespeare.

I have read Shakespeare.I have read Shakespeare.

The grammatical pattern itself is carrying The grammatical pattern itself is carrying an element of meaning that interacts with an element of meaning that interacts with the meaning of the verb to make the the meaning of the verb to make the inference possible.inference possible.

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ConceptualWell-Formedness Rules

linguisticstructures

perceptualand action

Inferencerules

conceptualstructures

the brain’s combinatorialorganization

the resources availablein the brain for forming

concepts

Similar to logicalinference

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Learned and Innate Learned and Innate Components of Word MeaningComponents of Word Meaning

What determines the possible What determines the possible concepts that the learner can concepts that the learner can consider?consider?

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The possibilities are constrained by the Conceptual Well-Formedness Rules

Question:

Where does the Conceptual Well-Formedness Rules come from?

Answer (Jackendoff, Fodor, Kant):

They can not be learned: they are the foundation on which learning is based.

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Conceptual Well-Formedness Rules Conceptual Well-Formedness Rules encompass the space of possibilities encompass the space of possibilities provided by provided by

sense-datasense-data the combination of elements of that the combination of elements of that

space by the principle of associationspace by the principle of association

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Questions:Questions:

Is the space of possible concepts Is the space of possible concepts constrained by a set of innate constrained by a set of innate principles?principles?

How specific and detailed is the set How specific and detailed is the set of innate principle?of innate principle?

What are the specifics and details?What are the specifics and details?

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A suggestion by serious research A suggestion by serious research on lexical organization:on lexical organization:

Word meanings are Word meanings are composite – they are built composite – they are built up from some set of up from some set of conceptual primitives and conceptual primitives and principles of combination.principles of combination.

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Back to the question:Back to the question:• How do we conceive of a word How do we conceive of a word

meaning?meaning?

Piaget’s hypothesis:Piaget’s hypothesis:

Children acquire their repertoire of Children acquire their repertoire of concepts in a certain order, concepts in a certain order, starting with basic sensorimotor starting with basic sensorimotor concepts and gradually concepts and gradually progressing from them to more progressing from them to more abstract domains, eventually abstract domains, eventually arriving at the most abstract arriving at the most abstract concepts of pure logic.concepts of pure logic.

(see Piaget 1954a)(see Piaget 1954a)

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Back to the question:Back to the question:• How do we conceive of a word meaning?How do we conceive of a word meaning?

Vygotsky’s understanding word meaning:Vygotsky’s understanding word meaning:

Word meanings are dynamic rather Word meanings are dynamic rather than static formations. They change as than static formations. They change as the child develops; they change also with the child develops; they change also with the various ways in which thought the various ways in which thought functions. functions.

If word meanings change in their If word meanings change in their inner nature, then the relation of inner nature, then the relation of thought to word also changes.thought to word also changes.

(Vygotsky 1996: 217)(Vygotsky 1996: 217)

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Thought and Word –Thought and Word –Vygotsky (1996)Vygotsky (1996)

Thought and word are not connected Thought and word are not connected by a primary bond. by a primary bond.

Word meaning is an elementary Word meaning is an elementary “cell” that cannot be further “cell” that cannot be further analyzed and that represents the analyzed and that represents the most elementary form of the unity most elementary form of the unity between thought and word.between thought and word.

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ConceptsConcepts

From the point of view of From the point of view of psychology, the meaning of every psychology, the meaning of every word is a generalization or a word is a generalization or a concept. And since generalizations concept. And since generalizations and concepts are undeniably acts of and concepts are undeniably acts of thought, we may regard meaning as thought, we may regard meaning as a phenomenon of thinking.” a phenomenon of thinking.” (Vygotsky, 1996: 212)(Vygotsky, 1996: 212)

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ConceptsConcepts Some think of concepts as word meanings (or Some think of concepts as word meanings (or

bearers of word meanings)bearers of word meanings)

What does the word “rose” mean?What does the word “rose” mean?

Rephrase as: When would you know that Rephrase as: When would you know that someone knew the meaning of the word “rose”someone knew the meaning of the word “rose” When they can identify roses as rosesWhen they can identify roses as roses

Use the word “rose” only to refer to rosesUse the word “rose” only to refer to roses

How do you identify a rose (as a rose)? How do you identify a rose (as a rose)? (Categorisation)(Categorisation) How do you bring a single instance under a general How do you bring a single instance under a general

concept?concept?

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ConceptsConcepts

Concepts and knowledgeConcepts and knowledge You and I both possess (are masters of) You and I both possess (are masters of)

the concept TREEthe concept TREE My knowledge of trees is rather My knowledge of trees is rather

sketchy, whereas yours might be rich sketchy, whereas yours might be rich and fulland full Novice versus expertNovice versus expert

Concept versus conceptualisation?Concept versus conceptualisation?

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Question: Question: Do languages have the Do languages have the same concepts?same concepts? Talmy claims that “Mandarin Chinese has Path Talmy claims that “Mandarin Chinese has Path

satellites and constructions that are entirely satellites and constructions that are entirely homologous with those of English” (Talmy homologous with those of English” (Talmy 1985: 106). 1985: 106).

Is it? What about this sentence in English:Is it? What about this sentence in English:

He knocked off a fly from the table. He knocked off a fly from the table.

The Chinese translation:The Chinese translation: 他敲桌子把苍蝇赶飞了。他敲桌子把苍蝇赶飞了。 Ta qiao zhuozi ba cangyi gan fei le. Ta qiao zhuozi ba cangyi gan fei le. he knock table Ba fly drive fly Lehe knock table Ba fly drive fly Le He knocked off a fly from the table.He knocked off a fly from the table. (Gao, 2001: 62)(Gao, 2001: 62)

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The Prototype TheoryThe Prototype Theory ““[C]oncepts are bundles of statistically reliable [C]oncepts are bundles of statistically reliable

features [and] having a concept is knowing features [and] having a concept is knowing which properties the things it applies to reliably which properties the things it applies to reliably exhibit” (Fodor, 1998, p. 92)exhibit” (Fodor, 1998, p. 92)

““According to the Prototype Theory, most According to the Prototype Theory, most concepts … are complex representations whose concepts … are complex representations whose structure encodes a statistical analysis of the structure encodes a statistical analysis of the properties their members tend to have” properties their members tend to have” (Laurence & Margolis, (Laurence & Margolis, 20002000 p. 27) p. 27)

Note “tend to have” – so it’s not necessary that Note “tend to have” – so it’s not necessary that an example of the concept have the property in an example of the concept have the property in questionquestion

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The Prototype TheoryThe Prototype Theory The prototype theory explainsThe prototype theory explains

Concept acquisitionConcept acquisition The learner acquires a concept by assembling its features The learner acquires a concept by assembling its features

(statistical procedure)(statistical procedure) CategorizationCategorization

Similarity comparison process (e.g., “contrast principle”)Similarity comparison process (e.g., “contrast principle”) Is Tweety Pie a bird?Is Tweety Pie a bird? Suppose the features that tend to be possessed by birds Suppose the features that tend to be possessed by birds

areare Flies, sings, lays eggs, is small, nests in trees, eats Flies, sings, lays eggs, is small, nests in trees, eats

insectsinsects Suppose Tweety Pie flies, lays eggs, is small and sings Suppose Tweety Pie flies, lays eggs, is small and sings Tweety pie has 4 of these features and doesn’t have 2 of Tweety pie has 4 of these features and doesn’t have 2 of

themthem 4 – 2 = 24 – 2 = 2

Tweety Pie doesn’t have any features additional to those a Tweety Pie doesn’t have any features additional to those a bird tends to havebird tends to have

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Word meaning and radial Word meaning and radial categoriescategories

Words and their senses represent conceptual categories, which have much in common with non-linguistic conceptual categories. It follows that linguistic categories have prototype

structure.

Word meanings are typically polysemous, being structured with respect to a central prototype (or prototypes). Lexical categories therefore form radial categories,

which can be modeled as a radiating lattice structure.

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Word meaning and radial Word meaning and radial categoriescategories

Radial categories, particularly meaning extensions from the prototype, are motivated by general cognitive mechanisms including metaphor and image schema transformation. The senses that constitute radial categories

are stored rather than generated.

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An Example in English - the word An Example in English - the word overover

TR

LM

The central schema for over (Lakoff 1987: 419)

Lakoff’sLakoff’s The full-specification approach: The full-specification approach: overover

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Lakoff argues that the schema depicted Lakoff argues that the schema depicted in this figure underlies examples like in this figure underlies examples like (1):(1):

(1) The plane flew over

(2) The bird flew over the yard (3) The plane flew over the hill (4) The boy climbed over the wall (5) The boy walked over the hill (6) The boy walked over the bridge

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Image schema transformations:

(7) The boy lives over the hill (8) The boy lives over the bridge

Metaphoric extensions: (9) Jane has a strange power over

me

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Schema type ABOVE schema

The TR is located above the LM E.g., The helicopter is hovering over the hill

COVERING schema The TR is covering the LM

E.g., The board is over the hole REFLEXIVE schema

The TR is reflexive: TR is simultaneously TR and LM. The final location of the TR is understood with respect to its starting position

E.g., The fence fell over EXCESS schema

When over is employed as a prefix it can indicate ‘excess’ of TR relative to LM

E.g., The bath overflowed REPETITION schema

Over is used as an adverb to indicate a process that is repeated E.g., After receiving a poor grade, the student started the assignment

over (again)

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The main findings of the full-specification approach

Words represent radial categories: related senses organized with respect to a central sense.

A radial category consists of abstract schemas, which may also consist of more detailed instances.

Radial categories are highly granular in nature, ranging from relatively schematic senses to very detailed senses. The lexicon (semantic memory) fully specifies the majority of the sense associated with a lexical item.

Senses may derive from image schema transformations and/or metaphorical extension.

Because radial categories have prototype structure, they exhibit polysemy; while some senses are closely related, others are more peripheral (e.g., metaphorical extensions).

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Distinct senses for Distinct senses for overover identified in identified in Tyler and Evans (2003)Tyler and Evans (2003)

1 ABOVE (central sense) 1 ABOVE (central sense) The picture is over the sofaThe picture is over the sofa

2A ON-THE-OTHER-SIDE-OF 2A ON-THE-OTHER-SIDE-OF St. Paul’s is over the river from SouthwarkSt. Paul’s is over the river from Southwark

2B ABOVE-AND-BEYOND (excess I)2B ABOVE-AND-BEYOND (excess I) Your article is over the page limitYour article is over the page limit

2C COMPLETION 2C COMPLETION The movie is overThe movie is over

2D TRANSFER 2D TRANSFER The discredited government hand power over to an The discredited government hand power over to an

interim authorityinterim authority 2E TEMPORAL 2E TEMPORAL

The relationship had altered over the yearsThe relationship had altered over the years 3 COVERING 3 COVERING

The clouds are over the sunThe clouds are over the sun

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Distinct senses for Distinct senses for overover identified identified in Tyler and Evans (2003)in Tyler and Evans (2003)

4 EXAMINING 4 EXAMINING Mary looked over the document quite carefullyMary looked over the document quite carefully

4A FOCUS-OF-ATTENTION 4A FOCUS-OF-ATTENTION The committee agonized over the decisionThe committee agonized over the decision

5A MORE 5A MORE Jerome found over forty kinds of shells on the beachJerome found over forty kinds of shells on the beach

5A1 OVER-AND-ABOVE (excess II) 5A1 OVER-AND-ABOVE (excess II) The heavy rains caused the river to flow over its banksThe heavy rains caused the river to flow over its banks

5B CONTROL 5B CONTROL She has a strange power over meShe has a strange power over me

5C PREFERENCE 5C PREFERENCE I would prefer tea over coffeeI would prefer tea over coffee

6 REFLEXIVE 6 REFLEXIVE The fence fell overThe fence fell over

6A REPETITION 6A REPETITION After the false start, they started the race overAfter the false start, they started the race over

39The Semantic network for Over (Tyler and Evana, 2003:80

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An Example of Polysemy – the Chinese An Example of Polysemy – the Chinese word word DaDa

(Gao, 2001, pp. 163-165)(Gao, 2001, pp. 163-165)

Corpus-based Taxonomy

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We found no specific We found no specific interdependence between the interdependence between the genetic roots of thought and word. It genetic roots of thought and word. It became plain that the inner relations became plain that the inner relations we were looking for were not a we were looking for were not a prerequisite for , but rather a prerequisite for , but rather a product of, the historical product of, the historical development of human development of human consciousness. (Vygotsky 1996: 211)consciousness. (Vygotsky 1996: 211)