1.0 risk assessment 1.1...
TRANSCRIPT
1.0 RISK ASSESSMENT
1.1 Introduction
Risk Assessment is defined as a continuous and integrated process of identification, evaluation
and measurement of risks, along with their potential impact on the organization.
As part of the risk assessment, a preliminary review on the hazardous materials and chemicals
proposed to be handled at the site were reviewed and the storage capacities and design
features of such hazardous materials were also reviewed while assessing the residual risks.
Based on the findings of the risk assessment study, a preliminary risk management plan has
been developed as per the applicable rules and guidelines; wherever possible, good
engineering and management practices are suggested to minimise any intolerable risks.
Risk analysis follows an extensive hazard analysis. It involves the identification and assessment
of risks the neighbouring populations are exposed to as a result of hazards present. This
requires a thorough knowledge of failure probability, credible accident scenario, vulnerability
of populations etc. Much of this information is difficult to get or generate. Consequently, the
risk analysis is often confined to maximum credible accident studies. Identification of various
hazards, probable risk in the plant and consequences analysis is addressed.
1.2 Scope of the Study
The study aims to analyze the risk associated with the following scenarios in the plant:
• Hazards associated with various processes
• Raw material & Chemical storages in the plant
The risk analysis assessment study covers the following:
• Identification of potential hazard areas
• Identification of representative failure cases
• Visualization of the resulting scenarios in terms of fire (thermal radiation) and explosion.
• Assessment of the overall damage potential of the identified hazardous events and the
impact zones from the accidental scenarios
• Specific recommendations on the minimization of the accident possibilities
• Preparation of Occupational and Health safety Plan.
1.3 Risk Assessment
Design data, built in safety systems are studied. Discussions are held with officials. Safety
related individual system is discussed. Hazard identification exercise is conducted taking into
consideration of materials, material handling methods, operating procedures, built in safety in
reactors, operating parameters and safety measures to be taken in proposed plant. Few areas
like process building, storage of hazardous chemicals, to evaluate safety systems in the event
of any abnormalities occurring. Containment failure scenario related to storage area is
considered for hazard Analysis and consequences of such containment failures are considered
in detail. Thus, this study is mainly oriented towards actual risks rather than chronic risks. Risk
assessment involves a series of following steps:
1.3.1 Step 1: Identification of the Hazard
Hazard is an inherent property of a substance, agent, and source of energy or situation having
potential of causing undesirable consequences. Identification of hazards in pulp & paper mill is
of primary significance in the analysis, quantification & cost effective control of accidents
involving chemicals and process. Estimation of probability of an unexpected event and its
severity form the basis of quantification of risk in terms of damage to property, environment
or personnel as:
Risk = Probability X Severity
Therefore, the type, quantity, location and conditions of release of a toxic or flammable
substance have to be identified in order to estimate its damaging effects, the area involved
and the possible precautionary measures required to be taken.
� Identification of major hazards based on Manufacture, Storage, and Import Of
Hazardous
� Chemicals Rules (MSIHC Rules), 2000 Government Of India, as amended till date.
� Process hazard analysis is a method to evaluate and identify credible hazardous
scenarios. PHA is a thorough, orderly, systematic approach for identifying, valuating, and
controlling the hazards of processes involving hazardous chemicals. The probable
potential hazards are classified as under:
Fire hazards: Fire hazard can be evaluated based on storage quantity and flammability of
materials stored. The condition of events like spillage, leakage of material could leads to fire.
Equipment failures, presence of open flame or spark in the area, static charge accumulation,
open live cables and reaction between incompatible materials are some of the reasons which
lead to the occurrence of fire.
Storage Hazards: All the hazardous materials used during the manufacturing activity are
stored in drum/tank/cylinder. Storage hazard can be evaluated based on the storage of various
materials. The condition of event like catastrophic failure of storage tank, rupture of pipe
connected to storage tank, small crack and leakage in the tank may lead to storage hazard.
Toxicity Hazard: Toxic substances affect in three ways by ingestion, absorption & inhalation.
Adequate provision of safety along with personal protective equipment are made, breathing
apparatus and emergency kit are provided at various locations of the installation.
Explosion Hazard: Release of energy in a rapid and uncontrolled manner gives rise to
explosion. Identified locations having explosion hazards are in tank and storage area
(warehouse). Extra care shall be taken by providing rupture disc, pressure release valve and
temperature controller. In addition to that Fire and explosion hazard is identified as
catastrophic failure of storage tanks area.
Corrosive Hazard: Corrosion is a chemical reaction-taking place at the surface of metal. The
corrosive chemicals have their typical hazard when it comes in contact with human tissues.
Corrosive substances produce chemical burns, while certain chemical produce deep ulceration.
Other has detailing effect on skin and may cause dermatitis. This has also adverse effects on
weakening the strength of material in contact.
Mechanical Hazard: Following mechanical hazards are identified which can cause any
unforeseen event which will again result in accident.
� Handling of cranes, trolleys, construction machineries.
� Handling of mechanical equipments like shovel, forklift, etc.
� Handling of raw material MS Scrap, products and various mechanical accessories.
Electrical Hazard: Use of various electrical instrument, electrical appliances may cause
electrical hazards during use of various appliances.
1.3.2 Step 2: Hazard Assessment and Evaluation Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)
The purpose of preliminary hazard analysis is to identify early in the design process the
potential hazards associated with, or inherent in, a process design, thus eliminating costly and
time consuming delays caused by design changes made later. A preliminary hazard analysis is
carried out initially to identify the major hazards associated with storages and the processes of
the plant. There are various process activities involved in this pulp and paper mill operations
like raw material handling and preparation, chemical pulping of pulp stock preparation paper
making & processing except for chemical pulping, pulp bleaching and chemical recovery from
black liquor, all the other processes involve purely mechanical operations that are not complex
or hazardous. Chemical pulping involves cooking of raw material with sodium hydroxide.
Sodium hydroxide is a mildly hazardous chemical in nature.
1.3.2.1 Analysis of SPL
� Agro based for kraft paper production, and
� Chemical Recovery Plant
1.3.2.2 Properties of Storage Fuels/Chemicals Used at the Plant
� Sodium Hydroxide - Corrosive and Hygroscopic nature
� Lubricants – Flammable
� Diesels – Flammable
1.3.2.3 Principal Site Hazards
The various process activities involved in this pulp and paper mill operations are:
a) Chemical Pulping
Chemical pulping involves cooking of raw material with sodium hydroxide at temperatures
below 175ºC. No major hazards are expected from this process. Sodium hydroxide is a mildly
hazardous chemical in nature. The washing and paper manufacturing process contains no
involvement of any hazardous chemicals as such. Overexposure to mists or dusts containing
sodium hydroxide can lead to fluid build-up in the lungs.
Recommended measures to prevent minimize, and control potential worker health and safety
impacts from chemicals include:
• Systems and procedures should be laid down for safe pulping operations to avoid
potential hazards to the operating personnel. This should include provision of the
required engineering controls.
• Conveyors, elevators, and storage bins to be provided with canopies to avoid spillages
and dust emissions.
• Exhaust ventilation should be provided for washers and hood over sheet dryers.
• Protective binding should be provided for all liquid storages with provision for spillage
collection and pumping back.
• Proper care i.e. PPEs should be taken while working with chemicals like sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and acids.
• Maintain a current database and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) of all chemicals
used and manufactured in the mill, including data on hazards, toxicology, biological
properties etc;
• Label, mark, package and store all chemicals and hazardous materials according to
compatibility criteria and national standards.
• Ensure that the contractor personnel, including maintenance contractors retained
during shutdowns are trained in and follow site safety procedures, including use of
personal protective equipment and handling of chemicals;
• Implement an inspection and maintenance program to prevent and identify leaks,
equipment failure.
b) Raw material stockpiles
Large amounts of recycled/waste paper and raw material for boiler as fuel (Rise Husk &
bagasse) are stored. The fuel stockpile presents an ideal situation for the propagation of a fire.
c) Boiler:
The boiler’s primary function is to generate heat by complete combustion of rice husk. This
heat is utilized to generate steam from water. The following hazards were identified as having
the most significant impact. Other possible deviations, which do not constitute any
foreseeable hazards are not mentioned below:-
No Water Flow: Failure of the feed water pump to the boiler will result in no water flow into
the boiler, therefore no heat sink for the combustion process. This will lead to a release of
abnormally hot flue gases. This may cause thermal damage to equipment downstream, and
ultimately result in release of very hot gases at the stack.
Action/Recommendation: Proper control alarms in place will warn of any deviation in
temperature, or water flow, and alert operators on cause of malfunction and allow them to
shut down the process before the deviation causes damage.
Feed Flow Rate Deviation: A deviation in the firing rate of fuel Rice Husk and combustion air
will have an effect on the combustion products generated. A defined ratio must be complied
with, to optimize the combustion process. The effects of deviations such as more fuel Rice
Husk and/or less air are: incomplete combustion, and a release of larger amounts of particulate
matter, undesirable gaseous compounds, including VOCs, noxious gases, and other
combustion by-products. These gases are potentially harmful in significant concentrations, and
contribute to the greenhouse gas problem.
Action/Recommendation: Control systems are to be put in place to monitor and regulate the
flow rates of the fuel and air, as well as the temperature within the boiler furnace.
Any deviation will warn the operators, and immediate corrective action is required.
Presence of Contaminants in Feed: Control systems and continuous monitoring of the quality
of the fuel going into the boilers will prevent this.
Steam Lines: Regularly scheduled maintenance on all piping infrastructures, repair any leaks as
soon as possible, and regular structural testing.
d) Digester:
The Kraft pulping process is used in the pulp and paper industry to digest the pulp in the
papermaking process. The operation is done in a water solution of sodium hydroxide and
approx at the 160° C temperature and 7 bar pressure. Batch Digesters – rotary spherical – are
adopted for this process. Nearly all of the vessels are made as per the applicable
standards/Code for vessels with carbon steel grades and typical design conditions.
e) Recovery Plant and Evaporators:
The black liquor as available from the washing system is sent to Chemical Recovery comprising
Evaporation section. The process of Chemical Recovery breaks the black liquor into water and
soda ash. The recovered soda ash is sold in the open market.
f) Pressure Vessels:
A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure
substantially different from the ambient pressure. Standards methods, including full
compliance of the Factories Act, should be used for operation & maintenance.
1.3.2.4 Common Causes of Accidents
Based on the analysis of past accident information, common causes of major plant accidents
are identified as:
• Poor house keeping
• Improper use of tools, equipment, facilities
• Unsafe or defective equipment facilities
• Lack of proper procedures
• Improvising unsafe procedures
• Failure to follow prescribed procedures
• Jobs not understood
• Lack of awareness of hazards involved
• Lack of proper tools, equipment, facilities
• Lack of guides and safety devices
• Lack of protective equipment and clothing
1.3.3 Hazard Assessment and Evaluation
Safety of hazard prone section is studied using Preliminary Hazard Analysis. The PHA focuses
on the hazardous materials and major plant elements. The PHA consists of formulating a list of
hazards related to:
• Plant equipment
• Operative environment
• Operations (tests, maintenance, etc.)
• Facility
• Safety equipment
The results include recommendations to reduce or eliminate hazards in the subsequent plant
design phase. It includes following hazards:
Chemical Hazards
A number of chemicals are used and manufactured in the pulp and paper industry that can
have adverse impacts on worker health and safety. Liquids like sodium hydroxide, acids used in
water treatment, papermaking additives, and dyes.
Sodium Hydroxide causes eye and skin burns, digestive and respiratory tract burns. It is
hygroscopic in nature. Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis.
Recommended measures to prevent minimize, and control potential worker health and safety
impacts from chemicals include:
• Systems and procedures should be laid down for safe pulping operations to avoid
potential hazards to the operating personnel. This should include provision of the
required engineering controls.
• Conveyors, elevators, and storage bins to be provided with canopies to avoid spillages
and dust emissions.
• Exhaust ventilation should be provided for washers and hood over sheet dryers.
• Protective bunding should be provided for all liquid storages with provision for spillage
collection and pumping back.
• Proper care i.e. PPEs should be taken while working with chemicals like sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and acids.
• Maintain a current database and material safety datasheets (MSDS) of all chemicals used
and manufactured in the mill, including data on hazards, toxicology, biological
properties etc;
• Label, mark, package and store all chemicals and hazardous materials according to
compatibility criteria and national standards.
• Ensure that the contractor personnel, including maintenance contractors retained
during shutdowns are trained in and follow site safety procedures, including use of
personal protective equipment and handling of chemicals;
• Implement an inspection and maintenance program to prevent and identify leaks,
equipment failure.
Physical Hazards
Recommended measures to prevent minimize, and control general physical hazards (e.g. trips,
falls, and materials handling hazards) include:
• Install catch platforms under conveyors that cross passageways or roadways
• Quickly clean up spills
• Appropriate working height
• Use non-skid walking surfaces that allow drainage
• Install guard rails on walkways adjacent to production lines or at height, and clearly mark
traffic lanes for vehicles and pedestrians
1.3.4 Machine Safety
Pulp mills employ raw material processing and other equipment the potential to expose
workers to severe injury.
Recommendations to prevent minimize and control injuries include:
• Equipment with moving parts should be fitted with safety guards or interlocks
• Capable of preventing access to moving parts
• Equipment must be shut off and locked out before maintenance, cleaning, or repairs are
undertaken.
• Workers should be trained specifically in the safe use of the equipment.
• Work stations should be aligned to minimize human danger from fragments which could
arise from breakage.
• Equipment should be regularly inspected and maintained to prevent equipment failure.
• All personnel operating cutting equipment should use protective eyewear, and other
PPE as necessary.
1.3.5 Dust from Raw Material and Fuel Handling Operations
Exposure to dust is a potential concern in the material handling area in the initial stages of
pulping. Exposure to dust can occur in paper mills. Recommended measures to prevent
minimize, and control dust includes:
• Enclose and ventilate shredders, dusters, and conveyors;
• Avoid use of compressed air to clear dust and waste paper;
• Enclose and ventilate areas where dry, dusty additives are unloaded, weighed, and
mixed, or use additives in liquid form;
• Regularly inspect and clean dusty areas to minimize dust explosion risk.
1.3.6 Heat
Many pulping operations, including pulping, chemical recovery and paper drying involve high
temperatures. Measures to prevent minimize, and control heat exposure in the pulp and paper
sector includes:
• Provide pressurized air control rooms, including in pulping and paper- making areas
• Schedule work in hot areas to allow acclimatization and rest periods.
• Automate granules removal from the chemical recovery boiler.
• Provide heavy-duty protective clothing to workers potentially exposed to high
temperature materials
• Implement safety procedures to minimize the potential for explosions.
1.3.7 Fire
In paper industry the areas including recycled waste paper collection, kraft paper preparation
and raw materials like rice husk are prone to fire hazard.
Measures to prevent minimize, and control fire exposure includes:
• Place fire extinguishers and fire hydrants at all identified places.
• Sand bucket and slogans should be clearly displayed at all prone locations based on the
GOI Rules, 1989.
1.3.8 Noise
Pulp and paper mills are inherently noisy due to the large amount of mechanical equipment,
transport vehicles, physical activities. Use of control rooms and other engineering controls at
manufacturer level is advised. The detailed study of Noise environment in SPL was examined
at all possible section and found that noise level is less than 85 dB(A) Leq daily noise exposure
level, at all location.
1.3.9 Primary Hazard Analysis:
It is carried out initially to identify the hazard associated with process of Plant/factory. The
various activities involves in paper industry is as follows:
1. Raw material preparation and handling
2. Pulping of raw material with chemicals (NaOH)
3. Washing, screening and cleaning
4. Chemical recovery from black liquor
5. Stock preparation
6. Paper making
7. Finishing and packaging
• Except the paper making, pulping, washing, screening and cleaning all the other process
involves purely mechanical operations that are not hazardous.
• Raw materials received from field contain dust and fine particles, pith etc.
• Screening and de-dusting of raw material is carried out in raw material preparation. In
this process inhalation of fine and dust particles involves that may lead to respiratory
problems.
• Pulping involves the cooking of raw material with sodium hydroxide at 6 – 7 bar pressure
and approx. 1600C NaOH is mild hazardous chemical.
• The boiler’s primary function is to generate heat by complete combustion of fuel with
air. This heat is utilized to generate steam from water.
• Chemical recovery plant consisting of film evaporator in which black liquor containing
spent chemical from pulp mills is concentrated and is then fired in the black liquor
incinerator. In this process Soda Ash is regenerated as by product, it has been sell out to
soap makers and other industries. Thus, this process cannot be considered as a major
hazardous process.
• The boiler's primary function is to generate heat by complete combustion of rice husk
with air. This heat is utilized to generate steam from water. Proper control alarms in
place will warn of any deviation in temperature, or water flow, and alert operators on
cause of malfunction and allow them to shut down the process before the deviation
causes damage.
Control systems are to be put in place to monitor and regulate the flow rates of the fuel
and air, as well as the temperature within the boiler furnace. Any deviation will warn the
operators, and immediate corrective action is required.
• Particulate Filter System: Compliance to a regular maintenance schedule will prevent this
from occurring. Regular air emission monitoring should be carried out to check the level
of particulates present in the flue gas of the stack. Above a certain particulate level, an
alarm will alert operators of the deviation, in which the operators will be required to
alter the feed and boiler conditions to reduce the amount of particles generated in the
combustion process, or to carry out corrective action to remedy this problem.
• Digester: Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) also called as Lye used in used in digesting pulp are
very corrosive material, can cause chemical burns on exposed skin, can cause irritation
of skin, eyes, nose and throat. Proper and scheduled maintenance of digester with
Standard Operating Procedure should be laid down according to chemical being used in
plant. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should be displayed for Chemicals used in
digester.
• Recovery Plant and Evaporators: The black liquor as available from the washing system
is sent to Chemical Recovery comprising Evaporation section, & Recovery boiler section.
The process of Chemical Recovery breaks the black liquor into water and soda ash. The
recovered soda is sold in the open market. All procedures are mechanically operated.
• Pressure Vessels: Regular maintenance and Standard Operating Procedure should be
displayed. Maximum allowable and test procedure should be clearly marked above
vessels. Regular checking and preventive maintenance of cracks, corrosion, leaks and
other faulty operations to avoid hazards.
Hence, no major hazards with potential for any emergency situation exist in the process
plants.
Power Transformers, Switch Yard Control Room: Fire and Explosion
• All electrical fittings and cables are provided as per the specified standards.
Fire in cable galleries and switch.
Fuel Stockpile: Fire Hazard
• The appropriate fire hydrants are to be available, to enable containment and reduce the
risk of further propagation.
A preliminary hazard analysis is carried out initially to identify the major hazards associated
with storages and the processes of the plant. This is followed by consequence analysis to
quantify these hazards. Finally, the vulnerable zones are plotted for which risk reducing
measures are deduced and implemented. The various process activities involved in the plant
operations are:
• Raw material handling and preparation
• Chemical pulping
• Chemical recovery from black liquor
• Stock preparation
• Paper making and processing
Except for chemical pulping and chemical recovery from black liquor, all the other processes
involve purely mechanical operations that are not complex or hazardous. Chemical pulping
involves the cooking of the raw material with sodium hydroxide in the vapour phase at
temperatures below 200°C. No major hazardous are expected from this process. Sodium
hydroxide is mildly hazardous chemical. The chemical recovery plant consisting of falling film
evaporator in which the black liquor containing the spent chemicals from the pulp mill is
concentrated to about 45% and is then fired in an incinerator, where Soda Ash is recovered as
by-product. Thus, this process cannot be considered as a major hazardous process.
Hence, no major hazards with potential for any emergency situation existing the process
plants. The other hazards related to the DG Sets and storage areas are given below and the
PHA for the whole plant in general is given in Table 7.5.
TABLE 1
Preliminary Hazard Analysis for Process and Storage Areas
Equipment Process Potential Hazard Provision
Generator Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Mechanical hazards and fire hazards in lube oil system, cable galleries, short circuits.
Layout of equipment/ machinery is done in accordance with factory and electrical inspectorates.
Power Transformers -- Fire and explosion All electrical fittings and cables are provided as per the specified standards.
Switch Yard Control Room
-- Fire in cable galleries and switch
As above
Diesel Oil Storage Used as fuel Fire & explosion Leaks detection system will be provided.
TABLE 2
Preliminary Hazard Analysis for the Whole Plant in General
PHA Category Description of Plausible Hazard
Recommendation Provision
Environmental Factors If there is any leakage and eventuality of source of ignition.
– All electrical fittings and cables are provided as per the specified standards. All motor starters are flame proof.
Highly inflammable nature of the chemicals may cause fire hazard in the storage facility.
A well-designed fire protection including protein foam, dry powder, CO2 extinguisher should be provided.
Fire extinguisher of small size and big size are provided at all potential fire hazard places. In addition to the above, fire hydrant network is also provided.
1.3.10 Maximum Credible Accident Analysis (MCAA)
Hazardous substances may be released as a result of failures or catastrophes, causing possible
damage to the surrounding area. This section deals with the methodology to determine the
consequences of the release of such substances and the damage to the surrounding area, by
means of models. It is intended to give an insight into how the physical effects resulting from
the release of hazardous substances can be calculated by means of models and how
vulnerability models can be used to translate the physical effects in terms of injuries and
damage to exposed population and environment. A disastrous situation is, in general, due to
outcome of fire, explosion or toxic hazards in addition to other natural causes, which
eventually lead to loss of life, property and ecological imbalance. Major hazards posed by
flammable storage can be identified, taking recourse to MCA analysis. MCA analysis
encompasses certain techniques to identify the hazards and calculate the consequent effects
in terms of damage distances of heat radiation, toxic releases, vapour cloud explosion, etc. A
host of probable or potential accidents of the major units in the complex arising due to use,
storage and handling of the hazardous materials are examined to establish their credibility.
Depending upon the effective hazardous attributes and their impact on the event, the
maximum effect on the surrounding environment and the respective damage caused can be
assessed.
The MCA analysis involves ordering and ranking of various sections in terms of potential
vulnerability. Inventory analysis and fire, explosion and toxicity index (FE&TI) are the two
techniques employed for hazard identification process. The storage of Diesel oil in the plant
premises mainly poses flammable and explosion hazards due to unwanted release or leakage
of fuel. Consequence Analysis is basically a study of quantitative analysis of hazards due to
various failure scenarios. It is that part of risk analysis, which considers failure cases and the
damage caused by these failure cases. It is done in order to form an opinion on potentially
serious hazardous outcome of accidents and their possible consequences. The reasons and
purpose of Consequence Analysis are many, like:
• Part of Risk Assessment
• Plant Layout/Code Requirements
• Protection of other Plants
• Protection of the Public
• Emergency Planning
• Design Criteria (e.g. loading on Control Room)
The results of the Consequence Analysis are useful for getting information about all known
and unknown effects that are of importance when some failure scenario occurs in the plant
and also to get information as to how to deal with the possible catastrophic events. It also
gives the workers in the plant and people living in the vicinity of the area, an understanding of
their personal situation.
1.3.11 Damage Criteria
The fuel storage and unloading at the storage facility may lead to fire and explosion hazards.
The damage criteria due to accidental release of any hydrocarbon arise from fire and
explosion. The vapours of these fuels are not toxic and hence no effects of toxicity are
expected.
Tank fire would occur if the radiation intensity is high on the peripheral surface of the tank
leading to increase in internal tank pressure. Pool fire would occur when fuel collected in the
dyke due to leakage gets ignited.
1.3.12 Fire Damage
A flammable liquid in a pool will burn with a large turbulent diffusion flame. This releases heat
based on the heat of combustion and the burning rate of the liquid. A part of the heat is
radiated while the rest is carried away by rising hot air and combustion products. The
radiations can heat the contents of a nearby storage or process unit to above its ignition
temperature and thus result in a spread of fire. The radiations can also cause severe burns or
fatalities of workers or fire fighters located within a certain distance. Hence, it will be
important to know beforehand the damage potential of a flammable liquid pool likely to be
created due to leakage or catastrophic failure of a storage or process vessel. This will help to
decide the location of other storage/process vessels, decide the type of protective clothing the
workers/fire fighter’s need, the duration of time for which they can be in the zone, the fire
extinguishing measures needed and the protection methods needed for the nearby
storage/process vessels.
The table below gives the damage effect on equipment and people due to thermal radiation
intensity.
TABLE 3
DAMAGE DUE TO INCIDENT RADIATION INTENSITIES
S. No. Incident Radiation (kw/m2)
Type of Damage Intensity
Damage to Equipment Damage to People
1.
37.5 Damage to process equipment 100% lethality in 1 min.
1% lethality in 10 sec.
2. 25.0 Minimum energy required to ignite wood at indefinitely long exposure without a flame
50% Lethality in 1 min. Significant injury in 10 sec.
3. 19.0 Maximum thermal radiation intensity allowed on thermally unprotected adjoining equipment
--
4. 12.5 Minimum energy to ignite with a flame; melts plastic tubing
1% lethality in 1 min.
5. 4.5 -- Causes pain if duration is longer than 20 sec, however blistering is unlikely (First degree burns)
6. 1.6 -- Causes no discomfort on long exposures
Source: Techniques for Assessing Industrial Hazards by World Bank.
The effect of incident radiation intensity and exposure time on lethality is given in Table
below:-
TABLE 4
Radiation Exposure and Lethality
Radiation Intensity (kw/m2) Exposure Time (seconds) Lethality (%) Degree of Burns
1.6 - 0 No Discomfort even after long exposure
4.5 20 0 1st
4.5 50 0 1st
8.0 20 0 1st
8.0 50 <1 3rd
8.0 60 <1 3rd
12.0 20 <1 2nd
12.0 50 8 3rd
12.5 - 1 -
25.0 - 50 -
37.5 - 100 -
1.3.13 Damage Due to Explosion
Explosion is a sudden and violent release of energy accompanied by the generation of
pressure wave and a loud noise. The rate of energy release is very large and has potential to
cause injury to the people, damage the plant and nearby property etc. The effect of over-
pressure can directly result in deaths to those working in the direct vicinity of the explosion.
The pressure wave may be caused by a BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Cloud) or
Vapour Cloud explosion.
TABLE 5
Damage due to Peak over Pressure
Human Injury Structural Damage
Peak Over Pressure (bar) Type of Damage
Peak Over Pressure (bar) Type of Damage
5 – 8 100% lethality 0.3 Heavy (90% damage)
3.5 – 5 50% lethality 0.1 Repairable (10% damage)
2 – 3 Threshold lethality 0.03 Damage of Glass
1.33 – 2 Severe lung 0.01 Crack of Windows
1 – 11/3 50% Eardrum - -
Source: Marshall, V.C. (1977) ' How lethal are explosives and toxic escapes'.
2.0 Disaster Management Plan
2.1 Disasters
A disaster is a catastrophic situation in which, suddenly, people are plunged into helplessness
and suffering and, as a result, need protection, clothing, shelter, medical and social care and
other necessities of life.
Disasters can be divided into two main groups. In the first, are disasters resulting from natural
phenomena like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storm surges, cyclones, tropical storms,
floods, avalanches, landslides, forest fires. The second group includes disastrous events
occasioned by man, or by man's impact upon the environment. Examples are armed conflict,
industrial accidents, radiation accidents, factory fires, explosions and escape of toxic gases or
chemical substances, river pollution, mining or other structural collapses, air, sea, rail and road
transport accidents and can reach catastrophic dimensions in terms of human loss.
There can be no set criteria for assessing the gravity of a disaster in the abstract, since this
depends to a large extent on the physical, economic and social environment in which it occurs.
What would be considered a major disaster in a developing country, ill-equipped to cope with
the problems involved may not mean more than a temporary emergency elsewhere. However,
all disasters bring in their wake similar consequences that call for immediate action, whether
at the local, national or international level, for the rescue and relief of the victims. This includes
the search for the dead and injured, medical and social care, removal of the debris, the
provision of temporary shelter for the homeless, food, clothing and medical supplies, and the
rapid re-establishment of essential services.
2.2 Objectives of Disaster Management Plan [DMP]
The Disaster Management Plan (DMP) is aimed to ensure safety of life, protection of
environment, protection of installation, restoration of production and salvage operations in
the same order of priorities. For effective implementation of the DMP, it should be widely
circulated and personnel training through rehearsals/drills should be organized.
The DMP should reflect the probable consequential severities of the undesired event due to
deteriorating conditions or through 'Knock on' effects. Further, the management should be
able to demonstrate that its assessment of the consequences uses good supporting evidence
and is based on currently available and reliable information, incident data from internal and
external sources and, if necessary, the reports of external, independent, agencies.
To tackle the consequences of a major emergency inside the factory or immediate vicinity of
the factory, a DMP has to be formulated and this planned emergency document is called
"Disaster Management Plan". The objective of the Industrial Disaster Management Plan is to
make use of the combined resources of the plant and the outside services to achieve the
following:
• Effect the rescue and medical treatment of causalities
• Safeguard other people
• Minimise damage to property and the environment
• Initially contain and ultimately bring the incident under control
• Identify any dead
• Provide for the needs of relatives
• Provide authoritative information to the news media
• Secure the safe rehabilitation of affected area
• Preserve relevant records and equipment for the subsequent inquiry into the cause and
circumstances of the emergency.
In effect, it is to optimise operational efficiency to rescue rehabilitation and render medical
help and to restore normalcy.
2.3 Emergencies
General Industrial Emergencies
The emergencies that could be envisaged in the plant and tank farm are as follows:
• A situation of fire at the tank farm of all storages
• Slow isolated fires
• Fast spreading fires
• Structural failures
• Contamination of food/water
• Sabotage/Social disorder
Fire and Explosion
Fire consequences can be disastrous, since they involve huge quantities of fuel either stored or
in dynamic inventory in pipelines or in nearby areas. Toxic releases can affect persons working
around. Preliminary Hazard Analysis has provided a basis for consequence estimation.
Estimation can be made by using various pool fire, tank fire consequence calculations. During
the study of Risk Assessment, the nature of damages is worked out and the probability of
occurrence of such hazards is also drawn up. Therefore, the risk assessment report is to be
essentially studied in conjunction with the Disaster Management Plan.
Emergency Organization
It is recommended to set up or strengthen the Emergency Organization. A senior executive
who has control over the affairs of the plant would be heading the Emergency Organization.
He would be designated as Site Controller. As per the General Organization chart, Resident
Director would be designated as the Incident Controller. In the case of stores, utilities, open
areas, which are not under the control of the Production Heads, Senior Executive responsible
for maintenance of utilities would be designated as Incident Controller. All the Incident
Controllers would be reporting to the Site Controller.
Each Incident Controller, for him, organizes a team responsible for controlling the incidence
with the personnel under his control. Shift Incharge would be the reporting officer, who would
bring the incidence to the notice of the Incident Controller and Site Controller.
Emergency Co-ordinators would be appointed who would undertake the responsibilities like
fire fighting, rescue, rehabilitation, transport and provide essential and support services. For
this purpose, Security Incharge, Personnel Department, Essential services personnel would be
engaged. All these personnel would be designated as key personnel.
In each shift, electrical supervisor, electrical fitters, pump house incharge, and other
maintenance staff would be drafted for emergency operations. In the event of power or
communication system failure, some of the staff members in the office/plant offices would be
drafted and their services would be utilized as messengers for quick passing of
communications. All these personnel would be declared as essential personnel.
Emergency Communication
Whoever notices an emergency situation such as fire, growth of fire, leakage etc. shall inform
his immediate superior and Emergency Control Centre. The person on duty in the Emergency
Control Centre shall appraise the Site Controller. Site Controller shall verify the situation from
the Incident Controller of that area or the Shift Incharge and shall decide about an impending
On Site Emergency. This shall be communicated to all the Incident Controllers and Emergency
Co-ordinators. Simultaneously, the emergency warning system shall be activated on the
instructions of the Site Controller.
Emergency Responsibilities
The responsibilities of the key personnel are appended below:
a) Site Controller
On receiving information about emergency, he would rush to Emergency Control Centre and
take charge of ECC and the situation and assesses the magnitude of the situation on the advice
of Incident Controller and would decide:
• Whether the affected area needs to be evacuated
• Whether personnel who are at assembly points need to be evacuated
• About declaration of emergency and ordering the for operation of emergency siren
• To organise announcement by public address system about location of emergency
• To assess which areas are likely to be affected, or need to be evacuated or are to be
alerted
• To maintain a continuous review of possible development and assess the situation in
consultation with Incident Controller and other Key Personnel as to whether shutting
down the plant or any section of the plant is required and if evacuation of persons is
required
• To direct personnel for rescue, rehabilitation, transport, fire, brigade, medical and other
designated mutual support systems locally available, for meeting emergencies
• To control evacuation of affected areas, if the situation is likely to go out of control or
effects are likely to go beyond the premises of the factory to inform District Emergency
Authority, Police, Hospital and seek their intervention and help
• To inform Inspector of Factories, Deputy Chief Inspector of Factories, UPPCB and other
statutory authorities
• To give a public statement if necessary
• To keep a record of chronological events and prepare an investigation report and
preserve evidence
• On completion of On Site Emergency and restoration of normalcy, to declare ‘all clear’
and order for ‘all clear’ signal.
b) Incident Controller
• Assembles the incident control team.
• Directs operations within the affected areas with the priorities for safety to personnel,
minimise damage to the plant, property and environment and minimise the loss of
materials.
• Directs the shutting down and evacuation of plant and areas likely to be adversely
affected by the emergency.
• Ensures that all key personnel’s help is sought.
• Provides advice and information to the Fire and Security Officer and the Local Fire
Services as and when they arrive.
• Ensures that all non-essential workers/staff of the affected areas are evacuated to the
appropriate assembly points, and the areas are searched for causalities.
• Has regard to the need for preservation of evidence so as to facilitate any inquiry into
the causes and circumstances, which caused or escalated the emergency.
• Co-ordinates with emergency services at the site.
• Provides tools and safety equipment to the team members.
• Keeps in touch with the team and advises them regarding the method of control to be
used.
• Keeps the Site Controller of Emergency informed of the progress being made.
c) Emergency coordinator - Rescue, Fire Fighting
• On knowing about emergency, rushes to ECC.
• Helps the Incident Controller in containment of the emergency.
• Ensures fire pumps in operating conditions and instructs pump house operator to be
ready for any emergency with standby arrangement.
• Guides the fire fighting crew i.e. firemen, trained plant personnel and security staff.
• Organizes shifting the fire fighting facilities to the emergency site, if required.
• Takes guidance of the Incident Controller for firefighting as well as assesses the
requirements of outside help.
• Arranges to control the traffic at the gate and the incident area.
• Directs the security staff to the incident site to take part in the emergency operations
under his guidance and supervision.
• Evacuates the people in the plant or in the nearby areas as advised by Site Controller.
• Searches for casualties and arranges proper aid for them.
• Assembles a search and evacuation team.
• Arranges for safety equipment for the members of this team.
• Decides which paths the evacuated workers should follow.
• Maintains law and order in the area and, if necessary, seeks the help of police.
d) Emergency Co-ordinator - Medical, Mutual Aid, Rehabilitation, Transport and
Communication
• In the event of failure of electric supply and thereby internal telephone, sets up
communication point and establishes contact with the Emergency Control Centre (ECC).
• Organises medical treatment to the injured and, if necessary, arrange to shift the injured
to nearby hospitals.
• Mobilises extra medical help from outside, if necessary.
• Keeps a list of qualified first aiders of the factory and seeks their assistance.
• Maintains first aid and medical emergency requirements.
• Makes sure that all safety equipment is made available to the emergency team.
• Assists Site Controller with necessary data and to coordinate the emergency activities.
• Assists Site Controller in updating the emergency plan, organising mock drills,
verification of inventory of emergency facilities and furnishing report to Site Controller.
• Maintains liaison with Civil Administration.
• Ensures availability of canteen facilities and maintenance of rehabilitation centre.
• He will liaise with Site Controller/Incident Controller.
• Ensures transportation facility.
• Ensures availability of necessary cash for rescue/rehabilitation and emergency
expenditure.
• Controls rehabilitation of affected areas on discontinuation of emergency.
• Makes available diesel/petrol for transport vehicles engaged in emergency operation.
e) Emergency Co-ordinator - Essential Services
• He would assist Site Controller and Incident Controller.
• Maintains essential services like Diesel Generator, Water, Fire Water, Compressed
Air/Instrument Air and power supply for lighting.
• He would plan alternate facilities in the event of power failure, to maintain essential
services such as lighting, refrigeration plant etc.
• He would organise separate electrical connections for all utilities and emergency
services so that in the event of emergency or fires, essential services and utilities are not
affected.
• Gives necessary instructions regarding emergency electrical supply, isolation of certain
sections etc. to shift in charge and electricians.
• Ensures availability of adequate quantities of protective equipment and other
emergency materials, spares etc.
f) General Responsibilities of Employees during an Emergency
During an emergency, it becomes more enhanced and pronounced when an emergency
warning is raised; the workers, if they are incharge of process equipment, should adopt safe
and emergency shut down and attend to any prescribed duty as essential employee. If no such
responsibility is assigned, he should adopt a safe course to assembly point and await
instructions. He should not resort to spread panic. On the other hand, he must assist
emergency personnel towards objectives of DMP.
2.4 Emergency Facilities
Emergency Control Centre (ECC)
SPL has established an Emergency Control Centre. It has external telephone, telefax and telex
facility. All the Site Controller/ Incident Controller Officers, Senior Personnel would be located
here.
The following information and equipment will be provided at the Emergency Control Centre
(ECC):
• Intercom, telephone
• P and T telephone
• Safe contained breathing apparatus
• Fire suit/gas tight goggles/gloves/helmets
• Hand tools, wind direction/velocities indicators
• Public address megaphone, hand bell, telephone directories
• (Internal, P and T) factory layout, site plan
• Emergency lamps/torch lights/batteries
• Plan indicating locations of hazard inventories, plant control room, sources of safety
equipment, work road plan, assembly points, rescue location, vulnerable zones, and
escape routes
• Hazard chart
• Emergency shut-down procedures
• Nominal roll of employees
• List of key personnel, list of essential employees, list of Emergency Co-ordinators
• Duties of key personnel
• Addresses with telephone numbers of key personnel, emergency coordinator, and
essential employees.
• Important addresses and telephone numbers including Government agencies,
neighboring industries and sources of help, outside experts, chemical fact sheets,
population details around the factory.
Assembly Point
Number of assemblies depending upon the plant location would be identified wherein
employees who are not directly connected with the disaster management would be
assembled for safety and rescue. Emergency breathing apparatus, minimum facilities like
water etc. would be organised. In view of the size of plant, different locations are earmarked
as assembly points. Depending upon the location of hazard, the assembly points are to be
used.
Emergency Power Supply
Plant facilities would be connected to Generator and would be placed in auto mode. Thus,
water pumps, plant’s lighting and emergency control centre, administrative building and other
auxiliary services are connected to emergency power supply. In all the blocks, flameproof type
emergency lamps would be provided.
Fire Fighting Facilities
First Aid and Firefighting equipment suitable for emergency are maintained well in each
section in the plant. This would be developed according to the statutory requirements as well
as per Tariff Advisory Committee (TAC) Regulations. However, fire hydrant line covering major
areas has been laid. Fire alarms have been located in the bulk storage areas.
Existing Fire Fighting Facilities:- SPL plant already has adequate fire fighting facilities and the
same will be used in post MEP also, after augmenting, if necessary.
Location of Wind Sock
Windsocks exist in the plant and the same will continue to be used after the implementation of
the MEP also to indicate direction of wind for emergency escape.
Emergency Medical Facilities
Stretchers, gas masks and general first aid materials for dealing with chemical burns, fire burns
etc. will be maintained in the medical centre as well as in the emergency control room. Private
medical practitioners’ help would be sought. Government hospital would be approached for
emergency help.
Apart from plant first aid facilities, external facilities would be augmented. Names of medical
personnel and medical facilities in the area would be prepared and updated. Necessary specific
medicines for emergency treatment of burns patients, and for those affected by toxicity
would be maintained.
Breathing apparatus and other emergency medical equipment would be provided and
maintained. The help of nearby industrial managements in this regard would be taken on
mutual support basis.
Ambulance
An ambulance with driver availability in all the shifts on call, emergency shift vehicle will be
ensured and maintained to transport injured or affected persons. Many persons would be
trained in first aid so that, in every shift, first aid personnel would be available.
2.5 Emergency Actions
Emergency Warning
Communication of emergency will be made familiar to the personnel inside the plant and
people outside. An emergency warning system has already been established in the plant.
Emergency Shutdown
There are a number of facilities which can be provided to help deal with hazardous conditions,
when a tank is on fire. The suggested arrangements are:
• Stop feed
• Dilute contents
• Remove heat
• Deluge with water
• Transfer contents
Whether a given method is appropriate depends on the particular case. Cessation of agitation
may be the best action in some instances but not in others. Stopping of the feed may require
the provision of bypass arrangements.
Methods of removing additional heat include removal through the normal cooling
arrangements or use of an emergency cooling system. Cooling facilities, which use vaporizing
liquid, may be particularly effective, since a large increase in vaporization can be obtained by
dropping pressure.
Evacuation of Personnel
There could be more number of persons in the storage area and other areas in the vicinity. The
area would have adequate number of exits and staircases. In the event of an emergency,
unconnected personnel have to escape to assembly point. Operators have to take emergency
shutdown procedure and escape. Time Office maintains a copy of deployment of employees in
each shift. If necessary, persons can be evacuated by rescue teams.
All Clear Signal
Also, at the end of an emergency, after discussing with Incident Controllers and Emergency Co-
ordinators, the Site Controller orders an all clear signal. When it becomes essential, the Site
Controller communicates to the District Emergency Authority, Police, Fire Service personnel
regarding help required or development of the situation into an Off-Site Emergency.
2.6 General
Employee Information
During an emergency, employees would be warned by raising siren in specific pattern.
Employees would be given training of escape routes, taking shelter, protecting from toxic
effects. Employees would be provided with information related to fire hazards, antidotes and
first aid measures. Those who would be designated as key personnel and essential employees
should be given training in emergency response.
Public Information and Warning
The industrial disaster effects related to this plant may mostly be confined to the plant area.
The detailed risk analysis has indicated that the pool fire effects would not be felt outside.
However, as an abundant precaution, the information related to chemicals in use would be
furnished to District Emergency Authority (normally the Collector) for necessary dissemination
to general public and for any use during an offsite emergency.
Co-ordination with Local Authorities
Keeping in view the nature of the emergency, two levels of co-ordination are proposed. In the
case of an On Site Emergency, resources within the organization would be mobilized and in
the event of an extreme emergency, local authorities’ help should be sought.
In the event of an emergency developing into an offsite emergency, local authority and District
Emergency Authority (normally the Collector) would be appraised and under his supervision,
the Off Site Disaster Management Plan would be exercised. For this purpose, the facilities that
are available locally, i.e. medical, transport, personnel, rescue accommodation, voluntary
organizations etc. would be mustered. Necessary rehearsals and training in the form of mock
drills should be organized.
Mutual Aid
Mutual aid in the form of technical personnel, runners, helpers, special protective equipment,
transport vehicles, communication facility etc. should be sought from the neighboring
industrial managements.
Mock Drills
Emergency preparedness is an important part of planning in Industrial Disaster Management.
Personnel are being trained suitably and prepared mentally and physically in emergency
response through carefully planned, simulated procedures. Similarly, the key personnel and
essential personnel are being trained in the operations.
Important Information
Important information such as names and addresses of key personnel, essential employees,
medical personnel, transporters’ addresses, addresses and phone numbers of those
connected with Off Site Emergency such as Police, Local Authorities, Fire Services, District
Emergency Authority are prepared and maintained.
2.7 Off-Site Emergency Preparedness Plan
The task of preparing the Off-Site Emergency Plan lies with the District Collector; however, the
off-site plan will be prepared with the help of the local district authorities. The proposed plan
will be based on the following guidelines.
2.7.1 Introduction
Off-site emergency plan follows the on-site emergency plan. When the consequences of an
emergency situation go beyond the plant boundaries, it becomes an off-site emergency. Off-
site emergency is essentially the responsibility of the public administration. However, the
factory management will provide the public administration with the technical information
relating to the nature, quantum and probable consequences on the neighboring population.
The off-site plan in detail will be based on those events, which are most likely to occur, but
other less likely events, which have severe consequence, will also be considered. Incidents,
which have very severe consequences yet have a small probability of occurrence, should also
be considered during the preparation of the plan. However, the key feature of a good off-site
emergency plan is flexibility in its application to emergencies other than those specifically
included in the formation of the plan.
The roles of the various parties who will be involved in the implementation of an off-site plan
are described below. Depending on local arrangements, the responsibility for the off-site plan
should either rest with the works management or, with the local authority. Either way, the
plan should identify an emergency co-ordinating officer, who would take the overall command
of the off-site activities. As with the on-site plan, an emergency control centre should be set up
within which the emergency co-ordinating officer can operate.
An early decision will be required in many cases on the advice to be given to people living
"within range" of the accident; in particular, whether they should be evacuated or told to go
indoor. In the latter case, the decision can regularly be reviewed in the event of an escalation
of the incident. Consideration of evacuation may include the following factors:
• In the case of a major fire but without explosion risk (e.g. an oil storage tank), only
houses close to the fire are likely to need evacuation, although a severe smoke hazard
may require this to be reviewed periodically.
• If a fire is escalating and in turn threatening a store of hazardous material, it might be
necessary to evacuate people nearby, but only if there is time; if insufficient time exists,
people should be advised to stay indoors and shield them from the fire.
For release or potential release of toxic materials, limited evacuation may be appropriate
downwind if there is time. The decision would depend partly on the type of housing "at risk".
Conventional housing of solid construction with windows closed offers substantial protection
from the effects of a toxic cloud, while shanty house, which can exist close to factories, offers
little or no protection.
The major difference between releases of toxic and flammable materials is that toxic clouds
are generally hazardous down to much lower concentrations and therefore hazardous over
greater distances. Also, a toxic cloud drifting at, say, 300 m per minute, covers a large area of
land very quickly. Any consideration of evacuation should take this into account. Although the
plan will have sufficient flexibility built in to cover the consequences of the range of accidents
identified for the on-site plan, it will cover in some detail the handling of the emergency to a
particular distance from each major hazard works.
2.7.2 Aspects Proposed to be considered in the Off-Site Emergency Plan
The main aspects, which should be included in the emergency plan, are:
Organization
Details of command structure, warning systems, implementation procedures, emergency
control centres. Names and appointments of incident controller, site main controller, their
deputies and other key personnel.
Communications
Identification of personnel involved, communication centre, call signs, network, lists of
telephone numbers.
Specialized Knowledge
Details of specialist bodies, firms and people upon whom it may be necessary to call e.g. those
with specialized chemical knowledge, laboratories.
Voluntary Organizations
Details of organizers, telephone numbers, resources etc.
Chemical Information
Details of the hazardous substances stored or processed on each site and a summary of the
risk associated with them.
Meteorological Information
Arrangements for obtaining details of weather conditions prevailing at thetime and weather
forecasts.
Humanitarian Arrangements
Transport, evacuation centres, emergency feeding treatment of injured,first aid, ambulances,
temporary mortuaries.
Public Information
Arrangements for (a) dealing with the media press office; (b) informing relatives, etc.
Assessment
Arrangements for: (a) collecting information on the causes of the emergency; (b) reviewing
the efficiency and effectiveness of all aspects of the emergency plan.
2.7.3 Role of the Emergency Co-ordinating Officer
The various emergency services should be co-ordinated by an emergency co-ordinating officer
(ECO), who will be designated by the District Collector. The ECO should liaise closely with the
Site Controller. Again, depending on local arrangements, for very severe incidents with major
or prolonged off-site consequences, the external control should be passed onto a senior local
authority administrator or even an administrator appointed by the central or state
government.
2.7.4 Role of the Local Authority
The duty to prepare the off-site plan lies with the local authorities. The emergency planning
officer (EPO) appointed should carry out his duty in preparing for a whole range of different
emergencies within the local authority area. The EPO should liase with the works, to obtain the
information to provide the basis for the plan. This liaison should ensure that the plan is
continually kept upto date.
It will be the responsibility of the EPO to ensure that all those organizations, which will be
involved off site in, handling the emergency, know of their role and are able to accept it by
having for example, sufficient staff and appropriate equipment to cover their particular
responsibilities. Rehearsals for off-site plans should be organized by the EPO.
2.7.5 Role of Police
Formal duties of the police during an emergency include protecting life and property and
controlling traffic movements. Their functions should include controlling bystanders,
evacuating the public, identifying the dead and dealing with casualties, and informing relatives
of dead or injured.
2.7.6 Role of Fire Authorities
The control of a fire should normally be the responsibility of the senior fire brigade officer who
would take over the handling of the fire from the site incident controller on arrival at the site.
The senior fire brigade officer should also have a similar responsibility for other events, such as
explosions and toxic release. Fire authorities in the region should be apprised about the
location of all stores of flammable materials, water and foam supply points, and fire-fighting
equipment. They should be involved in on-site emergency rehearsals both as participants and,
on occasion, as observers of exercises involving on-site personnel.
2.7.7 Role of Health Authorities
Health authorities, including doctors, surgeons, hospitals, ambulances, and similar other
persons/institutions should have a vital part to play following a major accident, and they
should form an integral part of the emergency plan.
For major fires, injuries should be the result of the effects of thermal radiation to a varying
degree, and the knowledge and experience to handle this in all but extreme cases may be
generally available in most hospitals. For major toxic releases, the effects vary according to the
chemical in question, and the health authorities should be apprised about the likely toxic
releases from the plant, which will enable them to deal with the aftermath of a toxic release
with treatment appropriate to such casualties.
Major off-site incidents are likely to require medical equipment and facilities in additional to
those available locally, and a medical "mutual aid" scheme should exist to enable the
assistance of neighboring authorities to be obtained in the event of an emergency.
2.7.8 Role of Government Safety Authority
This will be the factory inspectorate available in the region. Inspectors are likely to want to
satisfy themselves that the organization responsible for producing the off-site plan has made
adequate arrangements for handling emergencies of all types including major emergencies.
They may wish to see well documented procedures and evidence of exercise undertaken to
test the plan.
In the event of an accident, local arrangements regarding the role of the factory inspector will
apply. These may vary from keeping a watch to a close involvement in advising on operations.
While the industry will activate the DMP and take necessary alleviating measures and arrange
to extend all medical and security support, the factory inspectorate may be the only external
agency with equipment and resources to carry out appropriate tests to assess the impact.