10.ETHICS AND VALUES INENGINEERING PROFESSION

NOTES BY ARUN SHARMA

DISCLAMER: THE MATERIAL IN THE NOTES IS NOT MY OWN AND I HAVE ONLY TRIEDTO COMPILE THE SAID NOTES FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES AVAILABLE IN THEMARKET FOR THE READING PURPOSE ONLY. MOREOVER, THERE IS NO GUARANTEETHAT QUESTIONS IN THE UPSC WILL BE ASKED FROM THESE NOTES.

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

In everyday life, ethics often refers to principles of action that implement or promotemoral or ethical values. It implies the willingness to accept the consequences of one’sactions. Morals refers to standards of right conduct.

Definitions of ethics by different philosophers

1. Bentham : ethics may be styled as the art of self government2. Preston : ethics is concerned about what is right , fair, just, or good; about what

we ought to do, not just about what is the case or what is the most acceptable orexpedient

3. Jonsen and hellegers: a body of prescriptions , do’s and don’ts4. Means: the standards of conduct derived from the philosophical and religious

traditions of society

ETHICS IN ENGINEERING is the ability as well as responsibility of an engineer to judgehis decisions from the context of the general wellbeing of the society. It is the study ofmoral issues that confront engineers and engineering organizations when some crucialdecisions are taken. Engineering research and practice requires that the task beingperformed considers all the pros and cons of a certain action and its implementation.

Ethical standards in engineering are influenced by many factors:1. Engineering as an experimentation for the good of mankind is a notable factor

involving far reaching consequence,2. Ethical dilemmas make engineering decisions relatively difficult to make.3. Risk and safety of citizens as a social responsibility is a prime concern of an

engineer,4. Technological advancement can be very demanding on the engineering skill in

the global context,5. Moral values and responsible conduct will play a crucial role in decision making.

MORALS AND ETHICS

Morals are the welfare principles enunciated by the wise people, based on theirexperience and wisdom. They were edited, changed or modified or evolved to suit thegeography of the region, rulers (dynasty), and in accordance with development ofknowledge in science and technology and with time. Morality is concerned withprinciples and practices of morals such as: (a) What ought or ought not to be done in agiven situation? (b) What is right or wrong about the handling of a situation? and(c) What is good or bad about the people, policies, and ideals involved?

Morality

1. More general and prescriptive based on customs and traditions.2. More concerned with the results of wrong action, when done.3. Thrust is on judgment and punishment, in the name of God or by laws.4. In case of conflict between the two, morality is given top priority, because the

damage is more. It is more common and basic.5. Example: Character flaw, corruption, extortion, and crime.

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

Ethics

1. Specific and descriptive. It is a critical reflection on morals.

2. More concerned with the results of a right action, when not done.3. Thrust is on influence, education, training through codes, guidelines, and

correction.4. Less serious, hence second priority only. Less common. But relevant today,

because of complex interactions in the modern society.5. Example: Notions or beliefs about manners, tastes, customs, and towards law

Question:Whether morals are always subjective?Whether ethics can be objective?(Objective means it is universal towards everyone with no exception whilesubjective means it varies from person to person)

WHAT IS A PROFESSION? AND WHETHER ENGINEERING IS A PROFESSION OR NOT.

PROFESSIONS are those forms of work which involves advanced expertise, self-regulation( autonomy of the profession) and concerted service to the public good.

Attributes of a profession include:1. Work that requires sophisticated skills, the use of judgment, and the exercise ofdiscretion. Also, the work is not routine and is not capable of being mechanized.2. Membership in the profession requires extensive formal education, not simplypractical training or apprenticeship.3. The public allows special societies or organizations that are controlled by members ofthe profession to set standards for admission to the profession, to set standards ofconduct for members, and to enforce these standards.4. Significant public good results from the practice of the profession [ Schinzinger andMartin, 2000 ]

In a profession, “judgment” refers to making significant decisions based onformal training and experience.

“Discretion” can have two different meanings. The first defi nition involvesbeing discrete in the performance of one’s duties by keeping information aboutcustomers, clients, and patients confi dential. The other definition of discretion involvesthe ability to make decisions autonomously.

One thing not mentioned in the defi nition of a profession is the compensationreceived by a professional for his services. Although most professionalstend to be relatively well compensated, high pay is not a suffi cient condition forprofessional status. Entertainers and athletes are among the most highly paidmembers of our society, and yet few would describe them as professionals in thesense described previously. Although professional status often helps one to getbetter pay and better working conditions, these are more often determined byeconomic forces.

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

Earlier, reference was made to “professional” athletes and carpenters. Let’sexamine these occupations in light of the foregoing defi nition of professions andsee if athletics and carpentry qualify as professions. An athlete who is paid for herappearances is referred to as a professional athlete. Clearly, being a paid athletedoes involve sophisticated skills that most people do not possess, and these skills arenot capable of mechanization. However, substantial judgment and discretion are notcalled for on the part of athletes in their “professional” lives, so athletics fails the firstpart of the defi nition of “professional.” Interestingly, though, professional athletes arefrequently viewed as role models and are often disciplined for a lack of discretion intheir personal lives.

Athletics requires extensive training, not of a formal nature, but more of a practicalnature acquired through practice and coaching. No special societiesare required by athletes, and athletics does not meet an important public need;although entertainment is a public need, it certainly doesn’t rank high compared to theneeds met by professions such as medicine. So, although they are highly trained andvery well compensated, athletes are not professionals.

Similarly, carpenters require special skills to perform their jobs, but manyaspects of their work can be mechanized, and little judgment or discretion isrequired. Training in carpentry is not formal, but rather is practical by way ofapprenticeships. No organizations or societies are required. However, carpentrycertainly does meet an aspect of the public good—providing shelter is fundamentalto society—although perhaps not to the same extent as do professions such as medicine.So, carpentry also doesn’t meet the basic requirements to be a profession. We can see,then, that many jobs or occupations whose practitioners might be referred to asprofessionals don’t really meet the basic defi nition of a profession. Although they maybe highly paid or important jobs, they are not professions.

Before continuing with an examination of whether engineering is a profession,let’s look at two occupations that are definitely regarded by society asprofessions: medicine and law. Medicine certainly fits the defi nition of a professiongiven previously. It requires very sophisticated skills that can’t be mechanized, itrequires judgment as to appropriate treatment plans for individual patients, and itrequires discretion. (Physicians have even been granted physician–patient privilege, theduty not to divulge information given in confi dence by the patient to the physician.)Although medicine requires extensive practical training learned through anapprenticeship called a residency, it also requires much formal training (four years ofundergraduate school, three to four years of medical school, and extensive handsonpractice in patient care). Medicine has a special society, the American MedicalAssociation (AMA), to which a large fraction of practicing physicians belong and thatparticipates in the regulation of medical schools, sets standards for practice of theprofession, and promulgates a code of ethical behavior for its members. Finally, healingthe sick and helping to prevent disease clearly involve the public good. By the defi nitionpresented previously, medicine clearly qualifi es as a profession. Similarly, law is aprofession. It involves sophisticated skills acquired through extensive formal training;has a professional society, the American Bar Association(ABA); and serves an importantaspect of the public good. (Although this last point is increasingly becoming a point of

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

debate within American society!) The difference between athletics and carpentry onone hand and law and medicine on the other is clear. The fi rst two really cannot beconsidered professions, and the latter two most certainly are.

ENGINEERING AS A PROFESSION

Using medicine and law as our examples of professions, it is now time to considerwhether engineering is a profession. Certainly, engineering requires extensiveand sophisticated skills. Otherwise, why spend four years in college just to get astart in engineering? The essence of engineering design is judgment: how to usethe available materials, components, and devices to reach a specifi ed objective.Discretion is required in engineering: Engineers are required to keep theiremployers’ or clients’ intellectual property and business information confi dential.Also, a primary concern of any engineer is the safety of the public that willuse the products and devices he designs. There is always a trade-off betweensafety and other engineering issues in a design, requiring discretion on the partof the engineer to ensure that the design serves its purpose and fi lls its marketniche safely.

The point about mechanization needs to be addressed a little more carefullywith respect to engineering. Certainly, once a design has been performed, it caneasily be replicated without the intervention of an engineer. However, each newsituation that requires a new design or a modifi cation of an existing designrequires an engineer. Industry commonly uses many computer-based tools forgenerating designs, such as computer-aided design (CAD) software. Thisshouldn’t be mistaken for mechanization of engineering. CAD is simply a toolused by engineers, not a replacement for the skills of an actual engineer. Awrench can’t fi x an automobile without a mechanic. Likewise, a computer withCAD software can’t design an antilock braking system for an automobile withoutan engineer.

Engineering requires extensive formal training. Four years of undergraduatetraining leading to a bachelor’s degree in an engineering program is essential, followedby work under the supervision of an experienced engineer. Many engineering jobs evenrequire advanced degrees beyond the bachelor’s degree. The work of engineers servesthe public good by providing communication systems, transportation, energy resources,and medical diagnostic and treatment equipment, to name only a few.

Before passing final judgment on the professional status of engineering, thenature of engineering societies requires a little consideration. Each disciplinewithin engineering has a professional society, such as the Institute of Electrical andElectronics Engineers (IEEE) for electrical engineers and the American Society ofMechanical Engineers (ASME) for mechanical engineers. These societies serve toset professional standards and frequently work with schools of engineering to setstandards for admission, curricula, and accreditation. However, these societies differsignifi cantly from the AMA and the ABA. Unlike law and medicine, each specialtyof engineering has its own society. There is no overall engineering society thatmost engineers identify with, although the National Society of ProfessionalEngineers (NSPE) tries to function in this way. In addition, relatively few practicing

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

engineers belong to their professional societies. Thus, the engineering societies areweak compared to the AMA and the ABA.It is clear that engineering meets all of the definitions of a profession. In addition,it is clear that engineering practice has much in common with medicine andlaw. Interestingly, although they are professionals, engineers do not yet hold thesame status within society that physicians and lawyers do.

PERSONAL VS. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

In discussing engineering ethics, it is important to make a distinction between personalethics and professional, or business, ethics, although there isn’t always a clear boundarybetween the two. Personal ethics deals with how we treat others in our day-to-day lives.Many of these principles are applicable to ethical situations thatoccur in business and engineering. However, professional ethics often involveschoices on an organizational level rather than a personal level. Many of the problemswill seem different because they involve relationships between two corporations,between a corporation and the government, or between corporations andgroups of individuals. Frequently, these types of relationships pose problems thatare not encountered in personal ethics.

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND ITS CHARACTERSTICS

Professional ethics is the set of standards adopted by professionals insofar as they viewthemselves acting as professionals. Engineering ethics is that set of ethical standardsthat applies to the profession of engineeringCharacteristics:Professional ethics is usually stated in a formal codeThe professional codes of ethics of a given profession focus on the issues tht areimportant in that professionWhen one is in a professional relationship, professional ethics is supposed to takeprecedence over personal moralityProfessional ethics has both negative as well as positive dimensions. Being ethical hastwo aspects:

1. preventing and avoiding evil called preventive ethics 2. doing and promoting good called aspirational ethics

BRANCHES OF ETHICS

1. Descriptive ethics (comparative ethics) is on the less philosophical end of thespectrum, since it seeks to gather particular information about how people liveand draw general conclusions based on observed patterns. Abstract andtheoretical questions that are more clearly philosophical—such as, "Is ethicalknowledge possible?"—are not central to descriptive ethics. Descriptive ethicsoffers a value-free approach to ethics, which defines it as a social science ratherthan a humanity. Its examination of ethics doesn't start with a preconceivedtheory, but rather investigates observations of actual choices made by moralagents in practice.

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

2. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in aspecific situation or a particular domain of action

3. Meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when wetalk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question fixed on someparticular practical question—such as, "Should I eat this particular piece ofchocolate cake?"—cannot be a meta-ethical question. A meta-ethical question isabstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. Forexample, "Is it ever possible to have secure knowledge of what is right andwrong?" would be a meta-ethical question.

4. Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of ethics thatinvestigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought toact, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because itexamines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, whilemeta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moralfacts. Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is anempirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. To put it another way,descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion ofpeople believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concernedwith whether it is correct to hold such a belief. Hence, normative ethics issometimes called prescriptive, rather than descriptive

Note that normative ethics looks for an ideal litmus test of reasonablebehaviour. Fieser states that it provides THE GOLDEN RULE of doing things aswe want them to do to us.

Micro ethics and macro ethics

Micro ethics is concerned with individuals and the internal relations of theengineering profession UPSC 2017 and macro ethics is concerned with thecollective, social responsibility of the engineering profession and societaldecisions about technology.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND ETHICAL THEORIES

By Arun Sharma

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

1. BeneficenceThe principle of beneficence guides the decision maker to do what is right andgood.This priority to “do good” makes an ethical perspective and possible solution to anethicaldilemma acceptable. This principle is also related to the principle of utility, whichstates that we should attempt to generate the largest ratio of good over evil possible inthe world. This principle stipulates that ethical theories should strive to achieve thegreatest amount of good because people benefit from the most good. This principle ismainly associated with the utilitarian ethical theory discussed later in this set of notes.

2. Least HarmSimilar to beneficence, least harm deals with situations in which no choice appearsbeneficial.In such cases, decision makers seek to choose to do the least harm possibleand to do harm to the fewest people. Students might argue that people have a greaterresponsibility to “do no harm” than to take steps to benefit others. For example, astudent has a larger responsibility to simply walk past a teacher in the hallway ratherthan to make derogatory remarks about that teacher as he/she walks past even thoughthe student had failed that teacher’s class.

3. Respect for AutonomyThis principle states that decision making should focus on allowing people to beautonomous— to be able to make decisions that apply to their lives. Thus, peopleshould have control over their lives as much as possible because they are the onlypeople who completely understand their chosen type of lifestyle. Each individualdeserves respect because only he/she has had those exact life experiences andunderstands his emotions, motivations, and physical capabilities in such an intimatemanner. In essence, this ethical principle is an extension of the ethical principle ofbeneficence because a person who is independent usually prefers to have control overhis life experiences in order to obtain the lifestyle that he/she enjoys.

4. JusticeThe justice ethical principle states that decision makers should focus on actions that arefair to those involved. This means that ethical decisions should be consistent with theethical theory unless extenuating circumstances that can be justified exist in the case.This also means that cases with extenuating circumstances must contain a significantand vital difference from similar cases that justify the inconsistent decision.

ETHICAL THEORIES

For individuals, the ethical theory they employ for decision making guidanceemphasizes aspects of an ethical dilemma important to them and leads them to the mostethically correct resolution according to the guidelines within the ethical theory itself.Four broad categories of ethical theory include deontology, utilitarianism, rights, andvirtues.

Deontology

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND ETHICAL THEORIES

By Arun Sharma

The deontological class of ethical theories states that people should adhere to theirobligations and duties when engaged in decision making when ethics are in play. Thismeans that a person will follow his or her obligations to another individual or societybecause upholding one’s duty is what is considered ethically correct. For instance, adeontologist will always keep his promises to a friend and will follow the law. A personwho adheres to deontological theory will produce very consistent decisions since theywill be based on the individual’s set duties. Deontology contains many positiveattributes, but it also contains flaws. One flaw is that there is no rationale or logicalbasis for deciding an individual’s duties. For instance, a businessperson may decide thatit is his/her duty to always be on time to meetings. Although this appears to besomething good, we do not know why the person chose to make this his duty.Sometimes, a person’s duties are in conflict. For instance, if the business person whomust be on time to meetings is running late, how is he/she supposed to drive? Isspeeding breaking his/her duty to society to uphold the law, or is the businesspersonsupposed to arrive at the meeting late, not fulfillingthe duty to be on time?

UtilitarianismUtilitarian ethical theories are based on one’s ability to predict the consequences of anaction. To a utilitarian, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people isthe one that is ethically correct. There are two types of utilitarianism, act utilitarianismand rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism subscribes precisely to the definition ofutilitarianism— a person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless ofpersonal feelings or the societal constraints such as laws. Rule utilitarianism takes intoaccount the law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit themost people but through the fairest and most just means available. Therefore, addedbenefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and includes beneficence at thesame time. Both act and rule utilitarianism have disadvantages. Although people can usetheir life experiences to attempt to predict outcomes, no one can be certain that his/herpredictions will be accurate. Uncertainty can lead to unexpected results making theutilitarian decision maker appear unethical as time passes, as the choice made did notbenefit the mostpeople as predicted. Another assumption that a utilitarian decision maker must makeconcerns his/her abilityto compare the various types of consequences against each other on a similar scale. But,comparing material gains, such as money, against intangible gains, such as happiness, isvery difficult since their qualities differ to such a large extent. An act utilitarian decisionmaker is concerned with achieving the maximum good. Thus,one individual’s rights may be infringed upon in order to benefit a greater number ofpeople. In other words, act utilitarianism is not always concerned with justice,beneficence or autonomy for an individual if oppressing the individual leads to thesolution that benefits a majority of people.Still another source of challenge with actutilitarian decision makers occurs when an individual faces one set of variableconditions and then suddenly experiences changes in those conditions. The change inconditions may lead to a change in the original decision— being be nice to someone onemoment and then dislike them the next moment because the situation has changed, andliking the person is no longer beneficial to the most people.In rule utilitarianism, there is the possibility of conflicting rules. Recall the example of

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND ETHICAL THEORIES

By Arun Sharma

the business person running late for a meeting. Suppose the business person happens tobe the CEO, who may believe that it is ethically correct to arrive at important meetingson time as the members of the company will benefit from this decision. The CEO mayencounter conflicting ideas about what is ethically correct if he/she is running late. Yet,the CEO believes that he/she should follow the law because this benefits society.Simultaneously, he/she believes that it is ethically correct to be on time for his meetingbecause it is a meeting that also benefits the society. There appears to be no ethicallycorrect answer for this scenario.

RightsIn ethical theories based on rights, the rights established by a society are protected andgiven the highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically correct and valid since alarge population endorses them. Individuals may also bestow rights upon others if theyhave the ability and resources to do so. For example, a person may say that her friendmay borrow her laptop for the afternoon. The friend who was given the ability toborrow the laptop now has a right to the laptop in the afternoon.A major complication of this theory on a larger scale is that one must decipher what thecharacteristics of a right are in a society. The society has to determine what rights itwants to uphold and give to its citizens. In order for a society to determine what rights itwants to enact, it must decide what the society’s goals and ethical priorities are.Therefore, in order for the rights theory to be useful, it must be used in conjunction withanother ethical theory that will consistently explain the goals of the society. Forexample in America people have the right to choose their religion because this right isupheld in the Constitution. One of the goals of the Founding Fathers’ of America was touphold this right to freedom of religion.

VirtueThe virtue ethical theory judges a person by his/her character rather than by an actionthat may deviate from his/her normal behavior. It takes the person’s morals, reputation,and motivation into account when rating an unusual and irregular behavior that isconsidered unethical. For instance, if a person plagiarized a passage that was laterdetected by a peer, the peer who knows the person well will understand the person’scharacter and will judge the friend accordingly. If the plagiarizer normally follows therules and has good standing amongst his colleagues, the peer who encounters theplagiarized passage may be able to judge his friend more leniently. Perhaps theresearcher had a late night and simply forgot to credit his or her source appropriately.Conversely, a person who has a reputation for academic misconduct is more likely to bejudged harshly for plagiarizing because ofhis/her consistent past of unethical behavior. One weakness of virtue ethical theory isthat it does not take into consideration a person’s change in moral character. Forexample, a scientist who may have made mistakes in the past may honestly have thesame late night story as the scientist in good standing. Neither of these scientistsintentionally plagiarized, but the act was still committed. On the other hand, aresearcher may have a sudden change from moral to immoral character may gounnoticed until a significant amount of evidence mounts up against him/her.

Conclusion:

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND ETHICAL THEORIES

By Arun Sharma

Autonomy, the first of the four fundamental principles, is to respect others' choices andhuman dignity, while beneficence is to bring about good in all actions. Justice is theobligation to treat others fairly, and nonmaleficence is to cause no harm or the leastamount of harm possible.

Deontology, one of the five major ethical theories, is to adhere to duties and obligationsin an ethical dilemma, while utilitarianism is choosing the action which provides thegreatest benefit to the majority of people. Rights suggests that the rights set forth bysociety are ethically correct and should be high priority. Casuist uses previous ethicaldilemmas to judge the best possible outcome, and virtue judges a person by theircharacter rather than a single act which is out of the norm.

After stdying these notes i advise all of you to go through the book Charles B.Fleddermaan from page 39 to 46 to make these theories more clear .Most of theinstitutions have jst copy pasted these theories from their

FEWS IMPORTANT POINTS ON INDIAN ETHICS, MUSLIM ETHICS AND BUDDHISM ETHICS

By Arun Sharma

Of the four vedas, RIGVEDA is the oldest text in the world, called as the firsttestament of mankind

Samaveda is associated with music , rigveda with medicine,yajurveda witharchery and atharva with craft/wealth

The UPANISHADAS are philosphical texts. They are generally called vedantas, asthey came towards the end of the vedas. There are 108 upanishads.Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest upanishad

The national motto of SATYAMEVA JAYATE (truth alone prevails ) is taken fromthe MUNDAKA UPANISHAD belonging to the atharva veda (UPSC 2017)

The epic RAMAYANA is authored by VALMIKI and is the oldest epic in the worldwhere as the MAHABHARATA , the longest epic of the world is authored byVED VYASA. BHAGAVAD GITA is extracted from BIHSHMA PARVAN ofmahabharata . SHANTI PARVAN (chapter) is the largest chapter of themahabharata

The QURAN literally meaning "the recitation"; is the central religioustext of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God

The Quran is divided into chapters (surah in Arabic), which are then divided intoverses (ayah). The Quran contains 114 surahs, or chapters. The total number ofverses in all chapters is 6,236

Muslims believe the Quran was verbally revealed by God to Muhammad throughthe angel Gabriel (Jibril), gradually over a period of approximately 23 years,beginning on 22 December 609 CE, when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as the most importantmiracle of Muhammad, a proof of his prophethood, and the culmination of aseries of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam andended with Muhammad

Buddhism is a religion to about 300 million people around the world. The wordcomes from 'budhi', 'to awaken'. It has its origins about 2,500 years ago whenSiddhartha Gotama, known as the Buddha, was himself awakened(enlightened) at the age of 35.

Buddhism teaches that the solutions to our problems are within ourselves notoutside. The Buddha asked all his followers not to take his word as true, butrather to test the teachings for themselves. ln this way, each person decides forthemselves and takes responsibility for their own actions and understanding.This makes Buddhism less of a fixed package of beliefs which is to be accepted inits entirety, and more of a teaching which each person learns and uses in theirown way.

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

INTRODUCTIONCodes of ethics have been established by various professional engineering societies, such asthe National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE), the American Society of MechanicalEngineers (ASME), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), etc. Thesecodes serve as a framework for ethical judgment for a professional engineer. The codesalsoexpress the rights, duties, and obligations of the members of the profession. Obviously, thecodes of ethics are not comprehensive enough to cover all possible ethical dilemmas thatan engineer might encounter in his or her career. The codes serve as starting points formaking ethical decisions.It is important to note what a code of ethics does not represent:

1. A code of ethics is not a legal document, so a professional cannot be arrested forviolating its provisions

2. Although violating the code of ethics may result in expulsion from a professionalsociety (such as NSPE or ASME), expulsion from a society generally will not result inan inability to practice engineering

3. A code of ethics does not create new moral and ethical principles; these principlesare rooted in centuries of societal and human interactions

EVOLUTION OF CODES: Historically, the development of professional codes for engineersbegan in ENGLAND in 1771 with the code of the SMEATONIAN SOCIETY

CODE OF ETHICS

A code of ethics is a document, usually issued by a board of directors, that outlines a set ofprinciples that affect decision-making

CODE OF CONDUCT

A code of conduct typically is issued by a board of directors; however, it outlines specificbehaviors that are required or prohibited as a condition of ongoing employment. A code ofconduct might forbid sexual harassment, racial intimidation or viewing inappropriate orunauthorized content on company computers. These are rigorous standards that usually aretightly enforced by company leaders

For engineers two types of codes of conduct are especially important: professional codesthat are formulated by professional associations of engineers and, corporate codes ofconduct that are formulated by organisations/departments in which engineers are employed

Depending on the exact objectives of a code of conduct, a distinction can be madebetween types of codes of conduct

Aspirational codes formulate the ideals a profession considers worth pursuing. Regulativecodes (sometimes called disciplinary codes) consist of much more detailed guidelines forprofessional conduct, which serve as the basis of internal, disciplinary jurisdiction. A middleway is chosen in educational (or advisory) codes that present professional values and normsin general terms, but give some direction to their interpretation as well by including casematerial, examples and comments

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

NSPE CODE OF ETHICS

PreambleEngineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession,engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity.Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly,the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, andmust be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineersmust perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to thehighest principles of ethical conduct.

I. Fundamental CanonsEngineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:1. Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public.2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.5. Avoid deceptive acts.6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance thehonor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.

II. Rules of Practice

1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.a. If engineers' judgment is overruled under circumstances that endanger life or property,they shall notify their employer or client and such other authority as may be appropriate.b. Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents that are in conformity withapplicable standards.c. Engineers shall not reveal facts, data, or information without the prior consent of theclient or employer except as authorized or required by law or this Code.d. Engineers shall not permit the use of their name or associate in business ventures withany person or firm that they believe are engaged in fraudulent or dishonest enterprise.e. Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful practice of engineering by a person or firm.f. Engineers having knowledge of any alleged violation of this Code shall report thereon toappropriate professional bodies and, when relevant, also to public authorities, andcooperate with the proper authorities in furnishing such information or assistance as maybe required.

2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.a. Engineers shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or experience inthe specific technical fields involved.b. Engineers shall not affix their signatures to any plans or documents dealing with subjectmatter in which they lack competence, nor to any plan or document not prepared undertheir direction and control.c. Engineers may accept assignments and assume responsibility for coordination of an

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

entire project and sign and seal the engineering documents for the entire project, providedthat each technical segment is signed and sealed only by the qualified engineers whoprepared the segment.

3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthfulmanner.a. Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements, ortestimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports,statements, or testimony, which should bear the date indicating when it was current.b. Engineers may express publicly technical opinions that are founded upon knowledge ofthe facts and competence in the subject matter.c. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on technical matters thatare inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless they have prefaced their comments byexplicitly identifying the interested parties on whose behalf they are speaking, and byrevealing the existence of any interest the engineers may have in the matters.

4. Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.a. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of interest that could influence orappear to influence their judgment or the quality of their services.b. Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than oneparty for services on the same project, or for services pertaining to the same project, unlessthe circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to by all interested parties.c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable consideration, directly orindirectly, from outside agents in connection with the work for which they are responsible.d. Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or employees of a governmental orquasigovernmental body or department shall not participate in decisions with respect toservices solicited or provided by them or their organizations in private or public engineeringpractice.e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract from a governmental body on which aprincipal or officer of their organization serves as a member.

5. Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.a. Engineers shall not falsify their qualifications or permit misrepresentation of their or theirassociates' qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their responsibility inor for the subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other presentations incidentto the solicitation of employment shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerningemployers,employees, associates, joint venturers, or past accomplishments.b. Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit or receive, either directly or indirectly, anycontribution to influence the award of a contract by public authority, or which may bereasonably construed by the public as having the effect of intent to influencing theawarding of a contract. They shall not offer any gift or other valuable consideration in orderto secure work. They shall not pay a commission, percentage, or brokerage fee in order tosecure work, except to a bona fide employee or bona fide established commercial ormarketing agencies retained by them.

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

III. Professional Obligations

1. Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards ofhonesty and integrity.a. Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and shall not distort or alter the facts.b. Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they believe a project will not besuccessful.c. Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment of their regular work orinterest. Before accepting any outside engineering employment they will notify theiremployers.d. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another employer by false ormisleading pretenses.e. Engineers shall not promote their own interest at the expense of the dignity and integrityof the profession.

2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.a. Engineers shall seek opportunities to participate in civic affairs; career guidance foryouths; and work for the advancement of the safety, health, and well-being of theircommunity.b. Engineers shall not complete, sign, or seal plans and/or specifications that are not inconformity with applicable engineering standards. If the client or employer insists on suchunprofessional conduct, they shall notify the proper authorities and withdraw from furtherservice on the project.c. Engineers shall endeavor to extend public knowledge and appreciation of engineeringand its achievements.

3. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public.a. Engineers shall avoid the use of statements containing a material misrepresentation offact or omitting a material fact.b. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may advertise for recruitment of personnel.c. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may prepare articles for the lay or technicalpress, butsuch articles shall not imply credit to the author for work performed by others.4. Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential informationconcerning the business affairs or technical processes of any present orformer client or employer, or public body on which they serve.a. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, promote or arrange fornew employment or practice in connection with a specific project for which the engineerhas gained particular and specialized knowledge.b. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, participate in orrepresent an adversary interest in connection with a specific project or proceeding in whichthe engineer has gained particular specialized knowledge on behalf of a former client oremployer.5. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by conflictinginterests.a. Engineers shall not accept financial or other considerations, including free engineeringdesigns, from material or equipment suppliers for specifying their product.

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By ARUN SHARMA

b. Engineers shall not accept commissions or allowances, directly or indirectly, fromcontractors or other parties dealing with clie nts or employers of the engineer in connectionwith work for which the engineer is responsible.6. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement orprofessional engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or byother improper or questionable methods.a. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept a commission on a contingent basis undercircumstances in which their judgment may be compromised.b. Engineers in salaried positions shall accept part-time engineering work only to the extentconsistent with policies of the employer and in accordance with ethical considerations.c. Engineers shall not, without consent, use equipment, supplies, laboratory, or officefacilities of an employer to carry on outside private practice.

7. Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly orindirectly, the professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment ofother engineers. Engineers who believe others are guilty of unethical or illegalpractice shall present such information to the proper authority for action.a. Engineers in private practice shall not review the work of another engineer for the sameclient, except with the knowledge of such engineer, or unless the connection of suchengineer with the work has been terminated.b. Engineers in governmental, industrial, or educational employ are entitled to review andevaluate the work of other engineers when so required by their employment duties.c. Engineers in sales or industrial employ are entitle d to make engineering comparisons ofrepresented products with products of other suppliers.

8. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professionalactivities, provided, however, that engineers may seek indemnification forservices arising out of their practice for other than gross negligence, wherethe engineer's interests cannot otherwise be protected.a. Engineers shall conform with state registration laws in the practice of engineering.b. Engineers shall not use association with a nonengineer, a corporation, or partnership as a"cloak" for unethical acts.

9. Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit isdue, and will recognize the proprietary interests of others.a. Engineers shall, whenever possible, name the person or persons who may be individuallyresponsible for designs, inventions, writings, or other accomplishments.b. Engineers using designs supplied by a client recognize that the designs remain theproperty of the client and may not be duplicated by the engineer for others without expresspermission.c. Engineers, before undertaking work for others in connection with which the engineermaymake improvements, plans, designs, inventions, or other records that may justify copyrightsor patents, should enter into a positive agreement regarding ownership.d. Engineers' designs, data, records, and notes referring exclusively to an employer's workare the employer's property. The employer should indemnify the engineer for use of theinformation for any purpose other than the original purpose.e. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and

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By ARUN SHARMA

should keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional practice,participating in continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature, andattending professional meetings and seminars.

ASME CODE OF ETHICS

THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLESEngineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor, and dignity of the Engineeringprofession by:I. using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare;II. being honest and impartial, and serving with fidelity the public, their employersand clients, andIII. striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession.

THE FUNDAMENTAL CANONS1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in theperformance of their professional duties.2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.3. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers andshall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers undertheir supervision.4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agentsor trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest.5. Engineers shall build their professional reputations on the merit of their services andshallnot compete unfairly with others.6. Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations.7. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.

THE ASME CRITERIA FOR INTERPRETATION OF THE CANONSThe ASME criteria for interpretation of the Canons are guidelines and represent theobjectives toward which members of the engineering profession should strive. They areprinciples which an engineer can reference in specific situations. In addition, they provideinterpretive guidance to the ASME Committee on Ethical Standards and Review on the Codeof Ethics of Engineers.1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the publicin the performance of their professional duties.a. Engineers shall recognize that the lives, safety, health and welfare of the generalpublic are dependent upon engineering judgments, decisions and practicesincorporated into structures, machines, products, processes and devices.b. Engineers shall not approve or seal plans and/or specifications that are not of adesign safe to the public health and welfare and in conformity with acceptedengineering standards.c. Whenever the Engineers' professional judgments are over-ruled undercircumstances where the safety, health, and welfare of the public are endangered,the Engineers shall inform their clients and/or employers of the possibleconsequences.

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

(1) Engineers shall endeavor to provide data such as published standards, testcodes, and quality control procedures that will enable the users tounderstand safe use during life expectancy associated with the designs,products, or systems for which they are responsible.(2) Engineers shall conduct reviews of the safety and reliability of the designs,products, or systems for which they are responsible before giving theirapproval to the plans for the design.(3) Whenever Engineers observe conditions, directly related to theiremployment, which they believe will endanger public safety or health, theyshall inform the proper authority of the situation.d. If engineers have knowledge of or reason to believe that another person or firm maybe in violation of any of the provisions of these Canons, they shall present suchinformation to the proper authority in writing and shall cooperate with the properauthority in furnishing such further information or assistance as may be required.2. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.a. Engineers shall undertake to perform engineering assignments only when qualifiedby education and/or experience in the specific technical field of engineeringinvolved.b. Engineers may accept an assignment requiring education and/or experience outsideof their own fields of competence, but their services shall be restricted to otherphases of the project in which they are qualified. All other phases of such projectshall be performed by qualified associates, consultants, or employees.3. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, andshould provide opportunities for the professional and ethical development of thoseengineers under their supervision.4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client asfaithful agentsor trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest or the appearance of conflictsof interest.a. Engineers shall avoid all known conflicts of interest with their employers or clientsand shall promptly inform their employers or clients of any business association,interests, or circumstances which could influence their judgment or the quality oftheir services.b. Engineers shall not undertake any assignments which would knowingly create apotential conflict of interest between themselves and their clients or their employers.c. Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more thanone party for services on the same project, or for services pertaining to the sameproject, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed to, and agreed to, by allinterested parties.d. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable considerations, forspecifying products or material or equipment suppliers, without disclosure to theirclients or employers.e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept gratuities, directly or indirectly, fromcontractors, their agents, or other parties dealing with their clients or employers inconnection with work for which they are responsible. Where official public policyor employers' policies tolerate acceptance of modest gratuities or gifts, engineersshall avoid a conflict of interest by complying with appropriate policies and sha ll

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

avoid the appearance of a conflict of interest.f. When in public service as members, advisors, or employees of a governmental bodyor department, Engineers shall not participate in considerations or actions withrespect to services provided by them or their organization(s) in private or productengineering practice.g. Engineers shall not solicit an engineering contract from a governmental body orother entity on which a principal, officer, or employee of their organization serves asa member without disclosing their relationship and removing themselves from anyactivity of the body which concerns their organization.h. Engineers working on codes, standards or governmental sanctioned rules andspecifications shall exercise careful judgment in their determinations to ensure abalanced viewpoint, and avoid a conflict of interest.i. When, as a result of their studies, Engineers believe a project(s) will not besuccessful, they shall so advise their employer or client.j. Engineers shall treat information coming to them in the course of their assignmentsas confidential, and shall not use such information as a means of making personalprofit if such action is adverse to the interests of their clients, their employers or the

public.(1) They will not disclose confidential information concerning the businessaffairs or technical processes of any present or former employer or client orbidder under evaluation, without his/her consent, unless required by law orcourt order.(2) They shall not reveal confidential information or finding of anycommission or board of which they are members unless required by law orcourt order(3) Designs supplied to Engineers by clients shall not be duplicated by theEngineers for others without the express permission of the client(s).k. Engineers shall act with fairness and justice to all parties when administering aconstruction (or other) contract.l. Before undertaking work for others in which Engineers may make improvements,plans, designs, inventions, or other records which may justify seeking copyrights,patents, or proprietary rights, Engineers shall enter into positive agreementsregarding the rights of respective parties.m. Engineers shall admit their own errors when proven wrong and refrain fromdistorting or altering the facts to justify their mistakes or decisions.n. Engineers shall not accept professional employment or assignments outside of theirregular work without the knowledge of their employers.o. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an employee from other employers or from themarket place by false or misleading representations.

5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of theirservices and shall not compete unfairly with others.a. Engineers shall negotiate contracts for professional services on the basis ofdemonstrated competence and qualifications for the type of professional servicerequired.b. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept professional commissions on a

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

contingent basis if, under the circumstances, their professional judgments may becompromised.c. Engineers shall not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their, or their associates,academic or professional qualification. They shall not misrepresent or exaggeratetheir degrees of responsibility in or for the subject matter of prior assignments.Brochures or other presentations used to solicit personal employment shall notmisrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers, employees, associates, jointventurers, or their accomplishments.

d. Engineers shall prepare articles for the lay or technical press which are only factual.1) Technical Communications for publication (theses, articles, papers, reports,etc.) which are based on research involving more than one indiv idual(including students and supervising faculty, industrial supervisor/researcher orother co-workers) must recognize all significant contributors. Co-authorslisted on proposed and accepted publications should have entered the jointauthorship arrangement by mutual consent prior to submittal of the documentfor publication and should have received written permission to use anyunpublished work of others which serves as the major basis or key componentof the publication.2) Technical Communications should adhere to clearly defined and appropriatelydisseminated guidelines on authorship. These guidelines should bepromulgated and publicized in corporate, university or other employer policiesand should take cognizance of professional technical socie ty recommendationson ethical practice.3) PLAGIARISM, THE ACT OF SUBSTANTIALLY USING ANOTHER'S IDEAS OR WRITTENMATERIALS WITHOUT DUE CREDIT, IS UNETHICAL. UPSC 2017 MODEL TEST PAPER

e. Engineers shall not maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, injure theprofessional reputation, prospects, practice or employment of another engineer, norshall they indiscriminately criticize another's work.f. Engineers shall not use equipment, supplies, laboratory or office facilities of theiremployers to carry on outside private practice without consent.

6. Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations.a. Engineers shall not knowingly associate with or permit the use of their names orfirm names in business ventures by any person or firm which they know, or havereason to believe, are engaging in business or professional practices of a fraudulentor dishonest nature.b. Engineers shall not use association with non-engineers, corporations, or partnershipsto disguise unethical acts.7. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthfulmanner.a. Engineers shall endeavor to extend public knowledge, and to preventmisunderstandings of the achievements of engineering.b. Engineers shall be completely objective and truthful in all professional reports,statements or testimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent information insuch reports, statements or testimony.

CODES OF ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

c. Engineers, when serving as expert or technical witnesses before any court,commission, or other tribunal, shall express an engineering opinion only when it isfounded on their adequate knowledge of the facts in issue, their background oftechnical competence in the subject matter, and their belief in the accuracy andpropriety of their testimony.d. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on engineering matterswhich are inspired or paid for by an interested party, or parties, unless they prefacetheir comments by identifying themselves, by disclosing the identities of the partyor parties on whose behalf they are speaking, and by revealing the existence of anyfinancial interest they may have in matters under discussion.e. Engineers shall be truthful in explaining their work and merit, and shall avoid anyact tending to promote their own interest at the expense of the integrity and honor ofthe profession or another individual.8. Engineers shall consider environmental impact in the performance of theirprofessional duties.a. Engineers shall concern themselves with the impact of their plans and designs on theenvironment. When the impact is a clear threat to health or safety of the public, thenthe guidelines for this Canon revert to those of Canon 1.9. Engineers shall consider sustainable development in the performance oftheir professional duties.a. Engineers shall consider development that meets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. When theimpact of the trade-off between economic, ecological, and social issues forms a clearthreat to health or safety of the public, then the guidelines for this Canon revert tothose of Canon 1.10. Engineers accepting membership in The American Society of MechanicalEngineers by this action agree to abide by this Society Policy on Ethics andprocedures for its implementation.

IEEE CODE OF ETHICSWE, THE MEMBERS OF THE IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies inaffecting the quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation toour profession, its members and the communities we serve, do hereby commit ourselves tothe highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health, andwelfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger thepublic or the environment;2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclosethem to affected parties when they do exist;3. to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data;4. to reject bribery in all its forms;5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, andpotential consequences6. to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technologicaltasks for others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure ofpertinent limitations;7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and

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By ARUN SHARMA

correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others;8. to treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender,disability, age, or national origin;9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false ormalicious action;10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and tosupport them in following this code of ethics.

FEANI is a federation of professional engineers established in 1951 that unitesnational engineering associations from 34 European Higher Education Area (EHEA)countries

COMPUTER ETHICS

BY ARUN SHARMA

Computers have rapidly become a ubiquitous tool in engineering and business.There are waysin which computers have brought benefi ts to society. Unfortunately,there are also numerousways in which computers have been misused, leading to serious ethical issues. The engineer’sroles as designer, manager, and user of computers bring with them a responsibility to helpfoster the ethical use of computers.

There are two broad categories of computer ethics problems: those in which the computer isused to commit an unethical act, such as the use of a computer to hack into a database andthose in which the computer is used as an engineering tool, but is used improperly.

Computers as a Tool for Unethical Behavior

Our discussion of computer ethics will start with an examination of ways in which computersare used as the means for unethical behavior. Many of these uses are merely extensions tocomputers of other types of unethical acts. For example, computers can be used to more efficiently steal money from a bank. A more traditional bank-robbery method is to put on a mask,hand a note to a bank teller, show your gun, and walk away with some cash. Computers can beused to make bank robbery easier to perform and harder to trace. The robber simply sits at acomputer terminal—perhaps the modern equivalent of a mask—invades the bank’s computersystem, and directs that some of the bank’s assets be placed in a location accessible to him.Using a computer, a criminal can also make it difficult for the theft to be detected and traced.

It is clear that from an ethical standpoint, there is no difference between a bank robberyperpetrated in person and one perpetrated via a computer, although generally the amountstaken in a computer crime far exceed those taken in an armed robbery. The difference betweenthese two types of robbery is that the use of the computer makes the crime impersonal. Thecriminal never comes face to face with the victim. In addition, the use of the computer makes iteasier to steal from a wide variety of people. Computers can be used to steal from an employer:Outsiders can get into a system and steal from an institution such as a bank, or a company canuse the computer to steal from its clients and customers. In these cases, the computer has onlymade the theft easier to perpetrate, but does not alter the ethical issues involved.Unfortunately, the technology to detect and prevent this type of crimegreatly lags behind the computer technology available to commit it. Those seeking to limitcomputer crime are always playing a catch-up game.

Similar computer ethics issues arise with regard to privacy. It is widely held that certaininformation is private and cannot be divulged without consent. This includes information aboutindividuals as well as corporate information. Computers did not create the issues involved inprivacy, but they certainly have exacerbated them. Computers make privacy more difficult toprotect, since large amounts of data on individuals and corporations are centrally stored oncomputers where an increasing number of individuals can access it. Before we look at the waysthat privacy can be abused by the use of computers, we will discuss the issues surroundingprivacy and see what the ethical standing of privacy is.

By privacy, we mean the basic right of an individual to control access to and useof information about himself [ Martin and Schinzinger, 2000 ]. Why is privacy anethical issue? Invasions of privacy can be harmful to an individual in two ways. First, theleaking of private information can lead to an individual’s being harassed or blackmailed. In itssimplest form, this harassment may come in the form of repeated phone calls fromtelemarketers who have obtained information about an individual’s spending habits. Theharassment might also come in the form of subtle teasing or bothering from a coworker whohas gained personal knowledge of the individual. Clearly, individuals have the right not to besubjected to this type of harassment. Second, personal information can also be considered

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BY ARUN SHARMA

personal property. As such, any unauthorized use of this information is theft. This sameprinciple applies to proprietary information of a corporation.

How do computers increase the problems with privacy protection? This phenomenonis most easily seen by looking at the old system of record keeping. For example, medical recordsof individuals were at one time kept only on paper and generally resided with the individual’sphysician and in hospitals where a patient had been treated. Gaining access to these records byresearchers, insurance companies, or other healthcare providers was a somewhat laboriousprocess involving searching through storage for the appropriate fi les, copying them, andsending them through the mail. Unauthorized use of this information involved breaking into theoffi ce where the fi les were kept and stealing them or, for those who had access to the fi les,surreptitiously removing or copying the fi les. Both of these acts involved a substantial risk ofbeing caught and prosecuted. Generally, these records have now been computerized. Althoughcomputerization makes the retrieval of files much easier for those with legitimate needs andreduces the space required to store the files, it also makes the unauthorized use of thisinformation by others easier. Ethical issues also arise when computers are used for “hacking.”This has been widely reported in the newspapers and in popular culture, sometimes with the“hacker” being portrayed as heroic.

Hacking comes in many forms: gaining unauthorized access to a database, implantingfalse information in a database or altering existing information, and disseminatingviruses over the Internet.These activities are by no means limited to highly trained computer specialists. Many hackersare bored teenagers seeking a challenge. Computer hacking is clearly ethically troublesome. Asmentioned before, accessing private information violates the privacy rights of individuals orcorporations, even if the hacker keeps this information to himself. In extreme cases, hackershave accessed secret military information, which has obvious implications for national security.Altering information in a database, even information about yourself, is also ethically troubling,especially if the alteration has the intent of engaging in a fraud.

The issuance of computer viruses is also unethical. These viruses frequently destroy datastored on computers. In extreme cases, this act could lead to deaths when hospital records orequipment are compromised, to fi nancial ruin for individuals whose records are wiped out, oreven to the loss of millions of dollars for corporations, individuals, and taxpayers, as completedwork must be redone after being destroyed by a virus.Oftentimes, hackers are not being malicious, but are simply trying to “push the envelope” andsee what they and their computers are capable of. Nevertheless, hacking is an unethical use ofcomputers. Copyright infringement is also a concern in computer ethics. Computers and theInternet have made it easy to share music, movies, software, and other copyrightedmaterials. Afull discussion of the issues surrounding copyright is beyond the scope of this text. Briefl y,copyright exists to protect the rights of authors, musicians, and others to profi t from theircreations. Copyright gives the creator the exclusive right to profi t from his creation. Theprotection of copyright has become increasingly diffi cult as court cases related to musicsharing websites such as Napster and other copycat websites have illustrated. Althoughcomputers make copyright violation easy to do and hard to detect, it is still illegal and unethical.If creators can no longer profi t from their work—if their work is freely distributed withouttheir consent—then the incentive to create will diminish, and this type of creative activity thatenriches everyone’s lives will diminish as well. There are those who advocate eliminatingcopyright altogether, mostly from the practical standpoint that modern technology makescopyright impossible to enforce and therefore useless. Nevertheless, copying music or softwarewithout the permission of the owner of the copyright is illegal and unethical.

COMPUTER ETHICS

BY ARUN SHARMA

Computers as an Engineering Tool

Computers are an essential tool for all engineers. Most often, we use computers for writingdocuments using a word-processing software package. We also keep track of appointmentswith scheduling software, use spreadsheets to make fi nancial calculations, databases to keeprecords of our work, and use commercially available software to develop plans for how ourprojects will proceed. The use of these types of software is not unique to engineering—indeed,they are useful in various areas of business. Unique to engineering are two uses of computers:as design tools and as components integrated into engineered systems.

Computer Design Tools

Numerous software packages are available for the design of engineered devices and structures.This software includes CAD/CAM, circuit analysis, fi nite element analysis, structural analysis,and other modeling and analysis programs. Software also exists that is designed to aid in theprocess of testing engineered devices by performing tests, recording data, and presenting datafor analysis. These all serve to allow an engineer to work more effi ciently and to help take awaysome of the tedious aspects of an engineer’s work. However, the use of this type of softwarealso leads to ethical issues.For example, who is responsible when a flaw in software used to design a bridge leads to thefailure of the bridge? Is it the fault of the engineer who designed the bridge? Or is it the fault ofthe company that designed and sold the defective software? Who is at fault when a softwarepackage is used for a problem that it isn’t really suited for? What happens when existingsoftware is used on a new and innovative engineering design that software hasn’t yet beendeveloped for?

These questions all have the same answer: Software can never be a substitute for goodengineering judgment. Clearly, the engineer who uses software in the design process is stillresponsible for the designs that were generated and the testing that was done using acomputer. Engineers must be careful to make sure that the software is appropriate to theproblem being worked on, and should be knowledgeable about the limitations and applicabilityof a software package. Engineers must also keep up to date on any fl aws that have beendiscovered in the software and ensure that the most recent version of the software is beingused—softwarecompanies make patches and updates available, and engineers must check to make sure theyhave the most up-to-date version. Finally, it is important to verify the results of acomputer-generated design or analysis. Sometimes it’s a great idea to sit down with a piece ofpaper and a pencil to make sure that the output of a computer program makes sense and isgiving the right answer.

Computer software can also give an engineer the illusion that she is qualified to do a design infields beyond her expertise. Software can be so easy to use that you might imagine that by usingit, you are competent in the area that it is designed for. However, it takes an expert in a fi eld tounderstand the limitations and appropriate use of software in any engineering design.

Integration of Computers into Engineered Systems

Computers have also become a component of many engineered systems. For example, modernautomobiles contain multiple computers, dedicated to specific tasks. Computers control theemissions and braking systems on automobiles and allow modern vehicles to operate more efficiently and safely. However, the ability to control aspects of system performance using softwareremoves humans from the control loop. There are numerous examples of situations in whichcomputerized systems malfunctioned without giving the operator any indication that a problem

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existed. In some cases, the operator was unable to intervene to solve a problem because thesoftware design wouldn’t allow it. It is essential when designing systems with embeddedcomputers and software that engineers ensure that software is adequately tested, that humanscan intervene when necessary, and that safety systems have enough hardware redundancywithout relying solely on software to ensure the safe operation of the system.

Autonomous ComputersOther ethical concerns arise because of the increasingly autonomous nature of computers.Autonomy refers to the ability of a computer to make decisions without the interventionof humans. Some of the negative implications of this autonomy are chillingly spelled out in2001: A Space Odyssey , by Arthur C. Clarke, in which an autonomous computer responsible forrunning a spaceship headed for Jupiter begins to turn against the humans it was designed towork for. Certainly, there are applications for which autonomy is valuable. For example,manufacturing processes that require monitoring and control at frequent intervals can greatlybenefi t from autonomous computers. In this case, the autonomy of the computer has very littleimpact beyond the interests of the manufacturer. Other autonomous computer applications arenot so benign. For example, by the 1980s, computers were widely used to automate trading onthe major U.S. stock exchanges. Some brokerages and institutional investors utilized computersthat were programmed to sell stocks automatically under certain conditions, among them whenprices drop sharply. This type of programming creates an unstable situation. As prices drop,computers automatically start selling stocks, further depressing the prices, causing othercomputers to sell, and so on until there is a major market crash. This scenario actually occurredon October 19, 1987, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average (a widely used market-priceindicator) dropped by 508 points, a 22.6% drop in the overall value of the market. Interestingly,during the famous October 1929 stock market crash that launched the Great Depression, thepercent drop in overall market value was only half of this amount. The 1987 crash was widelyattributed to automated computer trading. Federal regulations have since been implemented tohelp prevent a recurrence of this problem.

Autonomy of computer systems has also been called into question with regard to militaryweapons. Many weapons systems rely heavily on computer sensors and computer controls. Dueto the speed with which events can happen on a modern battlefi eld, it would seem valuable tohave weapons that can operate autonomously. However, weapons systems operating withouthuman intervention can suffer from the instability problems described with regard to the financial markets. For example, a malfunctioning sensor might lead a computer to think that anenemy has increased its military activity in a certain area. This would lead to an increasedreadiness on our part, followed by increased activity by the enemy, etc. This unstable situationcould lead to a confl ict and loss of life when really there was nothing happening[Rauschenbakh, 1988]. This problem is of special concern due to the implications for the loss ofhuman life. It is clear from this example that although autonomous computers can greatlyincrease productivity and effi ciency in many areas, ultimately there must be somehuman control in order to prevent disasters.

Computer Codes of EthicsTo aid with decision making regarding these and other computer-related ethics issues, manyorganizations have developed codes of ethics for computer use. The purposes of ethical codesand the way in which codes of ethics function are equally true for codes related to computeruse. They are guidelines for the ethical use of computing resources, but should not be used as asubstitute for sound moral reasoning and judgment. They do, however, provide some guidancein the proper use of computer equipment.APPLICATION

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

One of the most important political issues of the late 20th and early 21st centuries has beenenvironmental protection and the rise of the environmental movement. This movement hassought to control the introduction of toxic and unnatural substances into the environment, toprotect the integrity of the biosphere, and to ensure a healthy environment for humans.Engineers are responsible in part for the creation of the technology that has led to damage ofthe environment and are also working to fi nd solutions to the problems caused by moderntechnology. The environmental movement has led to an increased awareness among engineersthat they have a responsibility to use their knowledge and skills to help protect theenvironment.

This duty is even spelled out in many of the engineering codes of ethics. Sometimes anengineer’s responsibility for the environment is denoted with phrases such as “sustainabledesign” or “green engineering.” These concepts incorporate ideas about ensuring that ourdesigns do not harm the environment. By using sustainable design principles, engineers willhelp to maintain the integrity of the environment and ensure that our quality of life can besustained. Sustainable design includes not only ensuring that a product has minimalenvironmental impact during its use, but also that it can be manufactured and disposed ofwithout harming the natural world. These concepts have been incorporated into some of

Fundamental to discussing ethical issues in environmentalism is a determination of the moralstanding of the environment. Our Western ethical tradition is anthropocentric, meaning thatonly human beings have moral standing. Animals and plants are important only in respect totheir usefulness to humans. This type of thinking is often evident even within theenvironmental movement when a case is sometimes made for the protection of rare plantsbased on their potential for providing new medicines. If animals, trees, and other componentsof the environment have no moral standing, then we have no ethical obligations toward thembeyondmaintaining their usefulness to humans. There are, however, other ways to view the moralstanding of the environment.

One way to explore the environment’s moral status is to try to answer some questionsregarding the place of humans in our environment. Do we belong to nature, or does naturebelong to us? If animals can suffer and feel pain like humans, should they have moral standing?If animals have moral standing, how far does this moral standing then extend to other lifeforms, such as trees? Clearly, these questions are not easily answered, and not everyone willcome to the same conclusions. However, there are signifi cant numbers of people who feel thatthe environment,and specifi cally animals and plants, do have standing beyond their usefulness to humans. Inone form, this view holds that humans are just one component of the environment and that allcomponents have equal standing. For those who hold this view, it is an utmost duty of everyoneto do what is required to maintain a healthy biosphere for its own sake.

Regardless of the goal (i.e., either protecting human health or protecting the overall health ofthe biosphere for its own sake), there are multiple approaches that can be taken to resolvingenvironmental problems. Interestingly, these approaches mirror the general approaches toethical problem solving. The fi rst approach is sometimes referred to as the “cost-obliviousapproach” [ Martin and Schinzinger, 2000 ]. In this approach, cost is not taken into account, butrather the environment is made as clean as possible. No level of environmental degradation isseen as acceptable. This approach bears a striking resemblance to rights and duty ethics.There are obvious problems with this approach. It is diffi cult to uphold, especially in a modernurbanized society. It is also very diffi cult to enforce, since the defi nition of “as clean aspossible” is hard to agree on, and being oblivious to cost isn’t practical in any realistic situationin which there are not infi nite resources to apply to a problem.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

A second approach is based on cost–benefi t analysis, which is derived from utilitarianism.Here, the problem is analyzed in terms of the benefi ts derived by reducing thepollution—improvements in human health, for example—and the costs required to solve theproblem. The costs and benefi ts are weighed to determine the optimum combination. In thisapproach, the goal is not to achieve a completely clean environment, but rather to achieve aneconomically benefi cial balance of pollution with health or environmental considerations.

There are problems associated with the cost–benefi t approach. First, there is an implicitassumption in cost–benefi t analysis that cost is an important issue. But what is the true cost ofa human life or the loss of a species or a scenic view? These values are diffi cult, if notimpossible, to determine. Second, it is diffi cult to accurately assess costs and benefi ts, andmuch guesswork must go into these calculations.

Third, this approach doesn’t necessarily take into account who shoulders the costs and whogets the benefi ts. This is frequently a problem with the siting of landfi lls and other wastedumps. The cheapest land is in economically disadvantaged areas, where people don’tnecessarily have the political clout, education, or money required to successfully oppose alandfi ll in their neighborhood. Although dumps have to go somewhere, there should be someattempt to share the costs as well as share the benefi ts of an environmentally questionableproject. Finally, cost–benefi t analysis doesn’t necessarily take morality or ethics into account.The only considerations are costs and benefi ts, with no room for a discussion of whether whatis beingdone is right or not.

Given the complexity of these issues, what then are the responsibilities of the engineer to theenvironment? When looking at the environmental aspects of his work, an engineer can appealto both professional and personal ethics to make a decision. Of course, the minimalrequirement is that the engineer must follow the applicable federal, state, and municipal lawsand regulations.

Professional codes of ethics tell us to hold the safety of people and the environment to be ofparamount importance. So clearly, engineers have a responsibility to ensure that their work isconducted in the most environmentally safe manner possible. This is true certainly from theperspective of human health, but for those who feel that the environment has moral standing ofits own, the responsibility to protect the environment is clear.

Often, this responsibility must be balanced somewhat by consideration of the economicwell-being of our employer, our family, and our community. Our personal ethics can also beused to determine the best course when we are confronted with an environmental problem.Most of us have very strong beliefs about the need to protect the environment. Although thesebeliefs may come into confl ict with our employer’s desires, we have the right and duty tostrongly expressour views on what is acceptable. An engineer should not be compelled by his employer to workon a project that he fi nds ethically troubling, including projects with severe environmentalimpacts.

In trying to decide what the most environmentally acceptable course of action is, it is alsoimportant to remember that a basic tenet of professional engineering codes of ethics states thatan engineer should not make decisions in areas in which he isn’t competent. For manyenvironmental issues, engineers aren’t competent to make decisions, but should instead seekthe counsel of others—such as biologists, public health experts, and physicians—who have the

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

By ARUN SHARMA

knowledge to help analyze and understand the possible environmental consequences of aproject.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The Brundtland Report, published in 1987 by the United Nations World Commission onEnvironment and Development, coined the term "sustainable development" and defined it as"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs."

DDT

The Full Form of DDT is Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethane. (DDT was the first modernpesticide and is arguably the best known organic pesticide

It is an organochlorine insecticide that was first synthesized in 1874.

DDT was a commonly-used pesticide for insect control in the United States until it was canceledin 1972 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Why was DDT used?

DDT was initially used by the military in WW II to control malaria, typhus, body lice, andbubonic plague. Cases of malaria fell from 400,000 in 1946 to virtually none in 1950 (3). DDT isstill used today in South America, Africa, and Asia for this purpose.

Farmers used DDT on a variety of food crops in the United States and worldwide. DDT was alsoused in buildings for pest control.

The reason why DDT was so widely used was because it is effective, relatively inexpensive tomanufacture, and lasts a long time in the environment.

Rachel Carson’s 1962 book Silent Spring. Carson made a compelling case that pesticides,in particular dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), were killing creatures beyond theirintended target, insects.

Rowland, Molina, and Paul Crutzen (a Dutch scientist who showed that nitric oxide [NO]and nitrogen dioxide [NO2] react catalytically with ozone) were awarded the Nobel Prizein Chemistry in 1995, the first time the prize was given for applied environmentalscience.

Prudency means exercising good judgement in handling matters related to environment

HUMAN VALUES

BY ARUN SHARMA

Definition

Humans have the unique ability to define their identity, choose their values and establish theirbeliefs. All three of these directly influence a person’s behavior. People have gone to great lengthsto demonstrate the validity of their beliefs, including war and sacrificing their own life! Conversely,people are not motivated to support or validate the beliefs of another, when those beliefs arecontrary to their own. People will act congruent with their personal values or what they deem to beimportant.

A value is defined as a principle that promotes well-being or prevents harm.” Another definitionis: Values are our guidelines for our success—our paradigm about what is acceptable.” Personalvaluesare defined as: “Emotional beliefs in principles regarded as particularly favorable or importantfor the individual.” Our values associate emotions to our experiences and guide our choices,decisions and actions. A person’s observations on its environment are filtered through his values todetermine whether or not he should expend energy to do something about his experiences. Aperson who values gold and sees a large bag of gold (a positive value) in his path as he walks, will bemotivated to reach down and pick it up. A person who values his life and knows about venomoussnakes will retreat from the sound of a rattlesnake (a negative value) from nearby, when he iswalking in the desert. Said in another way, “Values are the scales we use to weigh our choices forour actions, whether to move towards or away from something.”

Not all values have the same weight or priority. Some are more important than others and mustbe satisfied before others can be addressed. Dr. Abraham Maslow illustrated this with his hierarchyof human needs. Survival has a higher priority than security, which has a higher priority than socialacceptance. Self-esteem can only be addressed to the degree that social acceptance is fulfilled.Similarly, self-actualization can only be pursued to the degree that self-esteem has been satisfied.A person’s beliefs, values and identity are usually acquired unconsciously based on his personalexperience or observations of others’ experiences as to what produces desirable or undesirableresults in the environment. A baby’s learning to walk and talk is a clear example of identifying withhuman adults, valuing the act of being able to have the mobility and communication ability of anadult and the belief, based on unconscious observation, that humans can do walk and do talk witheach other.

Physiologists have identified the parts of the human brain that are involved in producing behaviorin accordance with beliefs and values. All information collected by human senses is passed throughanet-like group of cells, known as the Reticular Activating System (RAS), located near the top of thebrain stem. The RAS compares the data received with accepted values, positive and negative(threats), and beliefs stored in memory and determines whether or not immediate action isrequired. The results of the RAS’s comparison are communicated to the ‘amygdala’ near themid-brain. The ‘amygdala’ produces neuro-chemicals that cause emotions consistent with thenature of and proportional to the match between environment and values and beliefs. Theneuro-chemicals initiate the chemical processes needed for the action to be taken. If the emotionsproduced are strong enough, the perceived information is blocked from reaching the logical,rational and conscious executive center of the brain, the pre-frontal lobes. In which case, theresulting behavior will be automatic, not necessarily logical or rational, and completely inaccordance with the person’s strongest held beliefs, values and/or identity.By positive affirmations, one can modify or create new beliefs about a person’s identity and/orwhat is important to him (values). Verbal repetition of statements intended to become new beliefs,and values will result in these being stored for use by the RAS for comparison with the environmentbeing experienced. This is the mechanism how the beliefs or values are modified.

HUMAN VALUES

BY ARUN SHARMA

Types of Values

The five core human values are: (1) Right conduct, (2) Peace, (3) Truth, (4) Love, and (5)Nonviolence.

1. Values related to RIGHT CONDUCT are:(a) SELF-HELP SKILLS: Care of possessions, diet, hygiene, modesty, posture, selfreliance, and tidy appearance(b) SOCIAL SKILLS: Good behavior, good manners, good relationships, helpfulness, Nowastage, and good environment, and(c) ETHICAL SKILLS: Code of conduct, courage, dependability, duty, efficiency,ingenuity, initiative, perseverance, punctuality, resourcefulness, respect for all, andresponsibility (UPSC 2017)

2. Values related to PEACE are: Attention, calmness, concentration, contentment, dignity,discipline, equality, equanimity, faithfulness, focus, gratitude, happiness, harmony, humility,inner silence, optimism, patience, reflection, satisfaction, self-acceptance, self-confidence,self-control, self-discipline, self-esteem, self-respect, sense control, tolerance, andunderstanding

3. Values related to TRUTH are: Accuracy, curiosity, discernment, fairness, fearlessness, honesty,integrity (unity of thought, word, and deed), intuition, justice, optimism, purity, quest forknowledge, reason, self-analysis, sincerity, sprit of enquiry, synthesis, trust, truthfulness,and determination.

4. Values related to LOVE are: Acceptance, affection, care, compassion, consideration,dedication, devotion, empathy, forbearance, forgiveness, friendship, generosity, gentleness,humanness, interdependence, kindness, patience, patriotism, reverence, sacrifice, selflessness,service, sharing, sympathy, thoughtfulness, tolerance and trust

5. Values related to NON-VIOLENCE are:(a) PSYCHOLOGICAL: Benevolence, compassion, concern for others, consideration,forbearance, forgiveness, manners, happiness, loyalty, morality, and universal love(b) SOCIAL: Appreciation of other cultures and religions, brotherhood, care of environment,citizenship, equality, harmlessness, national awareness, perseverance, respect forproperty, and social justice.

PERSEVERANCE is defined as persistence, determination, resolution, tenacity, dedication,commitment, constancy, steadfastness, stamina, endurance and indefatigability. To persevere isdescribed as to continue, carry on, stick at it (in formal), keep going, persist, plug away, (informal),remain, stand firm, stand fast, hold on and hang on. Perseverance builds character.

ACCURACY means freedom from mistake or error; conformity to truth or to a standard ormodel and exactness. Accuracy is defined as correctness, exactness, authenticity, truth, veracity,closeness to truth (true value) and carefulness. The value of accuracy embraces a large area and hasmany implications. Engineers are encouraged to demonstrate accuracy in their behavior through themedium of praise and other incentives. Accuracy includes telling the truth, not exaggerating, andtaking care over one’s work.

DISCERNMENT means discrimination, perception, penetration, and insight. Discernment means

HUMAN VALUES

BY ARUN SHARMA

the power to see what is not obvious to the average mind. It stresses accuracy, especially in readingcharacter or motives. Discrimination stresses the power to distinguish or select what is true orgenuinely excellent. Perception implies quick and often sympathetic discernment, as of shades offeelings. Penetration implies a searching mind that goes beyond what is obvious or superficial.Insight suggests depth of discernment.Evolution of Human ValuesThe human values evolve because of the following factors:1. The impact of norms of the society on the fulfillment of the individual’s needs or desires.2. Developed or modified by one’s own awareness, choice, and judgment in fulfilling the needs.3. By the teachings and practice of Preceptors (Gurus) or Saviors or religious leaders.4. Fostered or modified by social leaders, rulers of kingdom, and by law (government).

Compassion : a feeling of deep sympathy and sorrow for another who is stricken bymisfortune, accompanied by a strong desire to alleviate the suffering.

Empathy : the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.

Humility : the quality of having a modest or low view of one's importance.

Courage is the ability to face danger, difficulty, uncertainty, or pain without being overcome byfear.

Integrity : the state of being whole and undivided.

QUALITIES OF ETHICAL LEADERS

By ARUN SHARMA

1. JusticeAn ethical leader is always fair and just. They have no favorites, and treat everyone equally.Under an ethical leader, no employee has any reason to fear biased treatment on the basis ofgender, ethnicity, nationality, or any other factor.

2. Respect othersOne of the most important traits of ethical leadership is the respect that is given to followers.An ethical leader shows respect all members of the team by listening to them attentively,valuing their contributions, being compassionate, and being generous while consideringopposing viewpoints.

3. HonestyIt goes without saying that anyone who is ethical will also be honest and loyal. Honesty isparticularly important to be an effective ethical leader, because followers trust honest anddependable leaders. Ethical leaders convey facts transparently, no matter how unpopular theymay be.

4. HumaneBeing humane is one of the most revealing traits of a leader who is ethical and moral. Ethicalleaders place importance in being kind, and act in a manner that is always beneficial to theteam.

5. Focus on teambuildingEthical leaders foster a sense of community and team spirit within the organization. When anethical leader strives to achieve goals, it is not just personal goals that they’re concerned about.They make genuine efforts to achieve goals that benefit the entire organization – not justthemselves.

6. Value driven decision-makingIn ethical leadership, all decisions are first checked to ensure that they are in accordance withthe overall organizational values. Only those decisions that meet this criterion areimplemented.

7. Encourages initiativeUnder an ethical leader, employees thrive and flourish. Employees are rewarded for coming upwith innovative ideas, and are encouraged to do what it takes to improve the way things aredone. Employees are praised for taking the first step rather than waiting for somebody else todo it for them.

8. Leadership by exampleEthical leadership is not just about talking the talk, this type of leader also walks the walk. Thehigh expectations that an ethical leader has of employees are also applicable on the individuallevel. Leaders expect others to do the right thing by leading from example.

9. Values awarenessAn ethical leader will regularly discuss the high values and expectations that they place onthemselves, other employees, and the organization. By regularly communicating and discussingvalues, they ensure that there is consistent understanding across the organization.

QUALITIES OF ETHICAL LEADERS

By ARUN SHARMA

10. No tolerance for ethical violationsAn ethical leader expects employees to do the right thing at all times, not just when it isconvenient for them. Don’t expect a leader of such high values to overlook or tolerate ethicalviolations.

Morale : the confidence, enthusiasm, and discipline of a person or group at a particulartime.

Cohesion : the action or fact of forming a united whole. Communiication :the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or

using some other medium.( UPSC 2017)

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS AND WHISTLE BLOWING

By ARUN SHARMA

1. PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES

A. Confidentiality and Proprietary InformationA hallmark of the professions is the requirement that members of the profession keep certaininformation of their client secret or confidential. Confidentiality is mentioned in mostengineering codes of ethics. This is a well-established principle in professions such as medicine,where the patient’s medical information must be kept confidential, and in law, whereattorney–client privilege is a well-established doctrine. This requirement applies equally toengineers, who have an obligation to keep proprietary information of their employer or clientconfidential.

Why must some engineering information be kept confidential? Most information about how abusiness is run, its products and its suppliers, directly affects the company’s ability to competein the marketplace. Such information can be used by a competitor to gain advantage or to catchup. Thus, it is in the company’s (and the employee’s) best interest to keep such informationconfidential to the extent possible.

What types of information should be kept confi dential? Some of these types are very obvious,including test results and data, information about upcoming unreleased products, and designsor formulas for products. Other information that should be kept confi dential is not as obvious,including business information such as the number of employees working on a project, theidentity of suppliers, marketing strategies, production costs, and production yields. Mostcompanies have strict policies regarding the disclosure of business information and requirethat all employees sign them. Frequently, internal company communications will be labelledas “proprietary.” Engineers working for a client are frequently required to sign anondisclosure agreement. Of course, those engineers working for the government, especially inthe defense industry, have even more stringent requirements about secrecy placed on them andmay even require a security clearance granted after investigation by a governmental securityagency before being able to work. It seems fairly straightforward for engineers to keepinformation confidential, since it is usually obvious what should be kept confidential and fromwhom it should be kept. However, as in many of the topics that we discuss in the context ofengineering ethics, there are gray areas that must be considered. For example, a commonproblem is the question of how long confidentiality extends after an engineer leavesemployment with a company. Legally, an engineer is required to keep information confidentialeven after she has moved to a new employer in the same technical area. In practice, doing socan be diffi cult. Even if no specific information is divulged to a new employer, an engineer takeswith her a great deal of knowledge of what works, what materials to choose, and whatcomponents not to choose. This information might be considered proprietary by her formeremployer. However, when going to a new job, an engineer can’t be expected to forget all of theknowledge already gained during years of professional experience. The courts have consideredthis issue and have attempted to strike a balance between the competing needs and rights ofthe individual and the company. Individuals have the right to seek career advancementwherever they choose, evenfrom a competitor of their current employer. Companies have the right to keep informationaway from their competitors. The burden of ensuring that both of these competing interests arerecognized and maintained lies with the individual engineer.

2. Conflict of InterestAvoiding conflict of interest is important in any profession, and engineering is no exception. Aconflict of interest arises when an interest, if pursued, could keep a professional from meetingone of his obligations [Martin and Schinzinger, 2000]. For example, a civil engineer working fora state department of highways might have a financial interest in a company that has a bid on aconstruction project. If that engineer has some responsibility for determining which company’sbid to accept, then there is a clear conflict of interest. Pursuing his fi nancial interest in the

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS AND WHISTLE BLOWING

By ARUN SHARMA

company might lead him not to objectively and faithfully discharge his professional duties to hisemployer, the highway department. The engineering codes are very clear on the need to avoidconfl icts of interest like this one.There are three types of conflicts of interest that we will consider [ Harris,Pritchard, and Rabins, 2000]. First, there are actual conflicts of interest, such as the one described in the previous paragraph,which compromise objective engineering judgment. There are also potential conflicts ofinterest, which threaten to easily become actual conflicts of interest. For example, an engineermight find herself becoming friends with a supplier for her company. Although this situationdoesn’t necessarily constitute a conflict, there is the potential that the engineer’s judgmentmight become confl icted by the desire to maintain the friendship. Finally, there are situationsin which there is the appearance of a confl ict of interest. This might occur when an engineer ispaid based on a percentage of the cost of the design. There is clearly no incentive to cut costs inthis situation, and it may appear that the engineer is making the design more expensive simplyto generate a larger fee. Even cases where there is only an appearance of a confl ict of interestcan be significant, because the distrust that comes from this situation compromises theengineer’s ability to do this work and future work and calls into question the engineer’sjudgment. A good way to avoid conflicts of interest is to follow the guidance of the companypolicy. In the absence of such a policy, asking a coworker or your manager will give you asecond opinion and will make it clear that you aren’t trying to hide something. In the absence ofeither of these options, it is best to examine your motives and use ethical problem-solvingtechniques. Finally, you can look to the statements in the professional ethics codes thatuniformly forbid confl icts of interest. Some of the codes have very explicit statements that canhelp determine whether or not your situation is a conflict of interest.

3. Competitive BiddingHistorically, the codes of ethics of the engineering societies included a prohibition oncompetitive bidding for engineering services. This ban mirrored similar prohibitions in thecodes of ethics of other professions such as law and medicine and forbid engineers to competefor engineering work based on submitting price proposals rather than soliciting work andcharging customers based on a fixed fee structure.

Competitive bidding was prohibited for several reasons. Primarily, bidding was consideredto be undignified and not at all in keeping with the image that the engineering professiondesired to put forth to the public. In addition, there were concerns that if engineers engaged incompetitive bidding, it would lead to price being the most significant (or perhaps only) basis forawarding engineering contracts. This could lead to engineers cutting corners on design workand could ultimately undermine engineers’ duty to protect the safety and welfare of the public.

In 1978, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that professional societies may no longer prohibitcompetitive bidding. This ruling was based on the Sherman Anti-trust Act of 1890 and heldthat banning bidding was an unfair restraint on free trade. This ruling did not compel individualfirms or engineers to participate in competitive bidding. Rather, it said that professionalsocieties could not attempt to prohibit the practice. The ruling did, however, permit thelicensure boards of the individual states to continue to prohibit competitive bidding. This rulingalso allowed engineers to advertise, which similarly used to be prohibited by the engineeringcodes of ethics. The rationale behind the Supreme Court ruling was that competitive biddingallows less experienced but competent engineers to compete effectively for work, serves thepublic interest by helping to keep engineering costs down, and might help promote innovationthat leads to better designs and lower costs. Even though engineers in many states can nowparticipate in competitive bidding, there are many ethical issues related to this practice thatengineers should consider. From the engineer’s perspective, competitive bidding can lead totemptations such as submitting an unrealistically low bid in order to secure work (lowballing?)and then making up for this through change orders once the work has been secured, overstating

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS AND WHISTLE BLOWING

By ARUN SHARMA

of qualifications to secure work, making negative and disparaging comments about potentialother bidders, and attempting to subvert the bidding process through back channel contacts.There are also concerns that if an engineering firm submits a lowball bid that is accepted, theyare then in the position of having to cut corners in order to complete the work at the bid price.Of course, these sorts of concerns are not unique to the engineering profession nor are theyunique to the competitive bidding process. But when participating in a competitive bid process,engineers must be sure to be fair, honest, and ethical. The competitive bidding process alsocreates ethical concerns from the perspective of an engineer’s prospective clients. For example,how does a potential client effectively weigh the relative importance of cost, the qualificationsof the engineer, and the proposed approach in determining which engineer wins the job?And, how does the potential client ensure that the decision process is fair, especiallysince it is easy to skew the results?

PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS

We have seen how the professional status of engineering confers many responsibilitieson the engineer. Engineers also have rights that go along with these responsibilities. Not all ofthese rights come about due to the professional status of engineering. There are rights that individuals have regardless of the professional status, including the rightto privacy, the right to participate in activities of one’s own choosing outside of work, the rightto reasonably object to company policies without fear of retribution, and the right to dueprocess.The most fundamental right of an engineer is the right of professional conscience[ Martin and Schinzinger, 2000 ]. This involves the right to exercise professional judgment indischarging one’s duties and to exercise this judgment in an ethical manner. This right is basicto an engineer’s professional practice. However, it is no surprise that this right is not alwayseasy for an employer to understand.

The right of professional conscience can have many aspects. For example, one of these aspectsmight be referred to as the “Right of Conscientious Refusal” [ Martin and Schinzinger, 2000 ].This is the right to refuse to engage in unethical behavior. Put quite simply, no employercan ask or pressure an employee into doing something that she considers unethical andunacceptable. Although this issue is very clear in cases for which an engineer is asked to falsifya test result or fudge on the safety of a product, it is less clear in cases for which the engineerrefuses an assignment based on an ethical principle that is not shared by everyone. Forexample, an engineer ought to be allowed to refuse to work on defense projects orenvironmentallyhazardous work if his conscience says that such work is immoral. Employers should bereasonably accommodating of that person’s request. We will amplify this point with regard todefense work in the next section.

Engineers and the Defense Industry

One of the largest employers of engineers worldwide is the defense industry. This is by nomeans a modern trend; throughout history, many innovations in engineering and science havecome about as the result of the development of weapons. Since fundamentally, weapons aredesigned for one purpose—to kill human beings—it seems important to look at this type ofengineering work in the context of engineering ethics and the rights of engineers.

An engineer may choose either to work or not to work in defense-related industries and beethically justified in either position. Many reasonable engineering professionals feel thatethically, they cannot work on designs that will ultimately be used to kill other humans. Theirremoteness from the killing doesn’t change this feeling. Even though they won’t push the button

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS AND WHISTLE BLOWING

By ARUN SHARMA

or may never actually see the victims of the use of the weapon, they still find it morallyunacceptable to work on such systems.On the other hand, equally morally responsible engineers find this type of work ethicallyacceptable. They reason that the defense of our nation or other nations from aggressionis a legitimate function of our government and is an honourable goal for engineers tocontribute to. Both of these positions can be justified using moral theories and ethicalproblem-solving techniques.Even if an engineer finds defense work ethically acceptable, there might be uses of theseweapons or certain projects that he considers questionable. For example, is it acceptable to work on weapons systems that will only be sold to otherNations? Is the use of weapons to guarantee our “national interests,” such as maintaining a steady supplyof foreign oil, an acceptable defense project?Given the issues that surround defense work, what is an engineer to do when asked to work ona weapons project he considers questionable? As with many of the ethical dilemmas there is no simple solution, but rather the answer mustbe determined by each individual after examination of his values and personal feelings aboutthe ethics of defense work. It is important to avoid working on any project that you deemunethical, even if it might lead to a career advancement, or even if it is a temporary job. (Thisprinciple also holds true for projects that you feel are unsafe, bad for the environment, etc.) Itcan be argued that weapons work is the most important type of engineering, given itsconsequencesfor mankind. Because of the implications to human life, this type of engineering requires aneven more stringent examination of ethical issues to ensure responsible participation.

WHISTLE-BLOWINGThere has been increased attention paid in the last 30 years to whistle-blowing, both ingovernment and in private industry. Whistle-blowing is the act by an employee ofInforming the public or higher management of unethical or illegal behaviour by anemployer or supervisor. There are frequent newspaper reports of cases in which an employeeof a company has gone to the media with allegations of wrongdoing by his or her employer or inwhich a government employee has disclosed waste or fraud. In this section, we will examine theethical aspects of whistle-blowing and discuss when it is appropriate and when it isn’tappropriate. We will also look at what corporations and government agencies can do to lessenthe need for employees to take this drastic action.According to the codes of ethics of the professional engineering societies, engineers have a dutyto protect the health and safety of the public, so in many cases, an engineer is compelled to blowthe whistle on acts or projects that harm these values. Engineers also have the professionalright to disclose wrongdoing within their organizations and expect to see appropriate actiontaken.

Types of Whistle-BlowingWe will start our discussion of whistle-blowing by looking at the different forms thatwhistle-blowing takes. A distinction is often made between internal and externalWhistle-blowing. Internal whistle-blowing occurs when an employee goes over the head of an immediatesupervisor to report a problem to a higher level of management. Or, all levels of managementare bypassed, and the employee goes directly to the president of the company or the board ofdirectors. However it is done, the whistle-blowing is kept within the company or organization.

External whistle-blowing occurs when the employee goes outside the company and reportswrongdoing to newspapers or law-enforcement authorities. Either type of whistle-blowing islikely to be perceived as disloyalty. However, keeping it within the company is often seen asless serious than going outside of the company.

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS AND WHISTLE BLOWING

By ARUN SHARMA

There is also a distinction between acknowledged and anonymous whistleblowing.

Anonymous whistle-blowing occurs when the employee who is blowing the whistle refuses todivulge his name when making accusations. These accusations might take the form ofanonymous memos to upper or of anonymous phone calls to the police or FBI. The employeemight also talk to the news media but refuse to let her name be used as the source of theallegations of wrongdoing. Acknowledged whistle-blowing, on the other hand, occurs when the employee puts his namebehind the accusations and is willing to withstand the scrutiny brought on by his accusations.

Whistle-blowing can be very bad from a corporation’s point of view because it can lead todistrust, disharmony, and an inability of employees to work together.Similarly, in business, whistle-blowing is perceived as an act of extreme disloyalty to thecompany and to coworkers.

When Should Whistle-Blowing Be Attempted?

During the course of your professional life, you might come across a few cases of wrongdoing.How do you know when you should blow the whistle? We will start to answer this question byfi rst looking at when you may blow the whistle and then looking at when you should blow thewhistle. Whistle-blowing should only be attempted if the following four conditions are met [Harris, Pritchard, and Rabins, 2000 ]:1. Need. There must be a clear and important harm that can be avoided by blowing the whistle.In deciding whether to go public, the employee needs to have a sense of proportion. You don’tneed to blow the whistle about everything, just the important things. Of course, if there is apattern of many small things that are going on, this can add up to a major and important matterrequiring that the whistle be blown. For example, if an accident occurs at your company,resulting in a spill of a small quantity of a toxic compound into a nearby waterway that isimmediately cleaned up, this incident probably does not merit notifying outside authorities.However, if this type of event happens repeatedly and no action is taken to rectify the problemdespite repeat attempts by employees to get the problem fi xed, then perhaps this situation isserious enough to warrant the extreme measure of whistle-blowing.

2. Proximity. The whistle-blower must be in a very clear position to report on the problem.Hearsay is not adequate. Firsthand knowledge is essential to making an effective case aboutwrongdoing. This point also implies that the whistleblower must have enough expertise in thearea to make a realistic assessment of the situation. This condition stems from the clauses inseveral codes of ethics which mandate that an engineer not undertake work in areas outsideherexpertise. This principle applies equally well to making assessments about whetherwrongdoing is taking place.

3. Capability. The whistle-blower must have a reasonable chance of success in stopping theharmful activity. You are not obligated to risk your career and the financial security of yourfamily if you can’t see the case through to completion or you don’t feel that you have access tothe proper channels to ensure that the situation is resolved.

4. Last resort. Whistle-blowing should be attempted only if there is no one else morecapable or more proximate to blow the whistle and if you feel that all other lines ofaction within the context of the organization have been explored and shut off.These four conditions tell us when whistle-blowing is morally acceptable.

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS AND WHISTLE BLOWING

By ARUN SHARMA

But when is an engineer morally obligated to blow the whistle? There may be situationsin which you are aware of wrongdoing and the four conditions discussed abovehave been met. In this case, the whistle may be blown if you feel that the matter issufficiently important. You are only obligated to blow the whistle when there is greatimminent danger of harm to someone if the activity continues and the four conditionshave been met. A great deal of introspection and reflection is required before Whistle-blowingis undertaken. It is important for the whistle-blower to understand his motives beforeundertaking this step. It is acceptable to blow the whistle to protect the public interest,but not to exact revenge upon fellow employees, supervisors, or your company. Noris it acceptable to blow the whistle in the hopes of future gains through book contractsand speaking tours.

Preventing Whistle-Blowing

So far, our discussion of whistle-blowing has focused on the employee who finds herself in asituation in which she feels that something must be done. We should also look atwhistle-blowing from the employer’s point of view. As an employer, I should seek to minimizethe need for employees to blow the whistle within my organization. Clearly, any time thatinformation about wrongdoing becomes public, it is harmful to the organization’s image andwill negatively affect the future prospects of the company. How, then, do I stop this type ofdamage?

In answering this question, we must acknowledge that it is probably impossible to eliminate allwrongdoing in a corporation or government agency. Even organizations with a very strongethical culture will have employees who, from time to time, succumb to the temptation to dosomething wrong. A typical corporate approach to stemming whistle-blowing and the resultingbad publicity is to fire whistle-blowers and to intimidate others who might seem likely to blowthe whistle. This type of approach is both ineffective and ethically unacceptable. No one shouldbe made to feel bad about trying to stop ethically questionable activities.

There are four ways in which to solve the whistle-blowing problem within a corporation.

First, there must be a strong corporate ethics culture. This should include a clear commitmentto ethical behavior, starting at the highest levels of management, and mandatory ethics trainingfor all employees. All managers must set the tone for the ethical behavior of their employees.

Second, there should be clear lines of communication within the corporation. This opennessgives an employee who feels that there is something that must be fi xed a clear path to air hisconcerns.

Third, all employees must have meaningful access to high-level managers in order to bring theirconcerns forward. This access must come with a guarantee that there will be no retaliation.Rather, employees willing to come forward should be rewarded for their commitment tofostering the ethical behavior of the company.

Finally, there should be willingness on the part of management to admit mistakes, publiclyif necessary. This attitude will set the stage for ethical behavior by all employees.

BART system had its genesis in late 1947 when a joint Army–Navy review boardrecommended the construction of a tunnel underneath San Francisco Bay for high

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PROFESSIONAL RIGHTS AND WHISTLE BLOWING

By ARUN SHARMA

speed train service between San Francisco and Oakland [ Friedlander, 1972 ]. TheCalifornia state legislature then formed the San Francisco BART Commission,which was to study the transportation needs of the Bay area and makerecommendations to the legislature.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS

By ARUN SHARMA

Ethical (or moral) dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or inwhich the applications of moral values are unclear, and it is not immediately obvious whatshould be done.

Steps in Resolving Ethical Dilemmas

1. Moral clarity: Identify the relevant moral values. The most basic step in confrontingethical dilemmas is to become aware of them! This means identifying the moral valuesand reasons applicable in the situation, and bearing them in mind as furtherinvestigations are made. These values and reasons might be obligations, rights, goods,ideals (which might be desirable but not mandatory), or other moral considerations.

2. Conceptual clarity: Be clear about key concepts. Professionalism requires being afaithful agent of one’s employer, but does that mean doing what one’s supervisor directsor doing what is good for the corporation in the long run? These might be differentthings, in particular when one’s supervisor is adopting a short-term view that couldharm the long-term interests of the corporation. Again, what does it mean to “holdparamount the safety, health, and welfare of the public” in the case at hand? Does itpertain to all threats to public health, or just serious threats, and what is a “serious”threat? Again, does being “objective and truthful” simply mean never lying(intentionally stating a falsehood), or does it mean revealing all pertinent facts(withholding nothing important) and doing so in a way that gives no preference to theinterests of one’s employer over the needs of the public to be informed of hazards?

3. Informed about the facts: Obtain relevant information. This means gatheringinformation that is pertinent in light of the applicable moral values (as identified in step1). Sometimes the primary difficulty in resolving moral dilemmas is uncertainty aboutthe facts, rather than conflicting values per se. Certainly in the case at hand, thechemical engineer needs to check and recheck her findings, perhaps asking colleaguesfor their perspectives. Her corporation seems to be violating the law, but is it actuallydoing so? We, like the engineer, need to know more about the possible harm caused bythe minute quantities of lead and arsenic over time. How serious is it, and how likely tocause harm?

4. Informed about the options: Consider all (realistic) options. Initially, ethical dilemmasseem to force us into a two-way choice: Do this or do that. Either bow to a supervisor’sorders or blow the whistle to the town authorities. A closer look often reveals additionaloptions. (Sometimes writing down the main options and suboptions as a matrix ordecision tree ensures that all options are considered.) The chemical engineer might beable to suggest a new course of research that will improve the removal of lead andarsenic. Or she might discover that the city’s law are needlessly restrictive and shouldbe revised. Perhaps she can think of a way to convince her supervisor to be moreopen-minded about the situation, especially given the possible damage to thecorporation’s image if it should later be found in violation of the law. Unless anemergency develops, these and other steps should be attempted before informingauthorities outside the corporation—a desperate last resort, especially given the likelypenalties for whistle-blowing..

5. Well-reasoned: Make a reasonable decision. Arrive at a carefully reasoned judgment byweighing all the relevant moral reasons and facts. This is not a mechanical process thata computer or algorithm might do for us. Instead, it is a deliberation aimed atintegrating all the relevant reasons, facts, and values—in a morally reasonable manner.If there is no ideal solution, as is often the case, we seek a satisfactory one, what HerbertSimon dubbed “satisficing.”

RISK, SAFETY, AND ACCIDENTS

BY ARUN SHARMA

One of the most important duties of an engineer is to ensure the safety of the people who will beaffected by the products that he designs. All of the codes of ethics of the professional engineeringsocieties stress the importance of protecting the health and safety of the public in the engineer’sduties. What responsibility does the engineer have for ensuring that these types of mistakes are notmade? How can products be designed to minimize the risk to the user.

INTRODUCTIONNo duty of the engineer is more important than her duty to protect the safety and well-being of thepublic. Indeed, the codes of ethics of the professional engineering societies make it clear that safetyis of paramount importance to the engineer. In this chapter, we will look into safety and risk. Wewill also examine the nature of accidents and try to determine what the engineer’s role is inpreventing accidents and ensuring the safety of the public. Nothing can be 100% safe, but engineersare required to make their designs as safe as reasonably possible. Thus, safety should be an integralpart of any engineering design.

SAFETY AND RISK

Safety is at the same time a very precise and a very vague term. It is vague because, to some extent,safety is a value judgment, but precise because in many cases, we can readily distinguish a safedesign from an unsafe one. It is impossible to discuss safety without including a discussion of risk.Risk is a key element in any engineering design; it is impossible to design anything to be completelyrisk free. How much risk is appropriate? How safe is safe enough? To answer these questions, wemust fi rst study the nature of safety and risk.The American Heritage Dictionary defines risk as the possibility of suffering harm or loss. Risk issometimes used synonymously with danger. The same dictionary defines safety as freedom fromdamage, injury, or risk. There is some circularity to these defi nitions: We engage in risky behaviorwhen we do something that is unsafe, and something is unsafe if it involves substantial risk.

Although these definitions are precise, safety and risk are essentially subjective and depend onmany factors:

1. Voluntary vs. involuntary risk. Many consider something safer if they knowingly take on therisk, but would find it unsafe if forced to do so. If the property values are low enough, somepeople will be tempted to buy a house near a plant that emits low levels of a toxic wasteinto the air. They are willing to assume the risk for the benefi t of cheap housing. However,if a person already living near a plant finds that toxic fumes are emitted by the plant and hewasn’t informed, the risk will appear to be larger, since it was not voluntarily assumed. Thisprinciple is true even if the level of emission is identical to that in the example of a personchoosing to move near the plant.

2. Short-term vs. long-term consequences. Something that might cause a short-lived illness ordisability seems safer than something that will result in permanent disability. An activity forwhich there is a risk of getting a fractured leg will appear much less risky than an activitywith a risk of a spinal fracture, since a broken leg will be painful and disabling for a fewmonths, but generally full recovery is the norm. Spinal fractures, however, can lead topermanent disability.

3. Expected probability. Many might find a one-in-a-million chance of a severe injury to be anacceptable risk, whereas a 50:50 chance of a fairly minor injury might be unacceptable.Swimming at a beach where there is known to be a large concentration of jellyfish would be

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BY ARUN SHARMA

unacceptable to many, since there would be a high probability of a painful, though rarelyfatal, sting. Yet, at the same beach, the risk of a shark attack is low enough that it doesn’tdeter anyone from swimming, even though such an attack would very likely lead to death ordismemberment. It is important to remember here that the expected probability is only aneducated guess.

4. Reversible effects. Something will seem less risky if the bad effects are ultimately reversible.This concept is similar to the short-term vs. long-term risk question discussed previously.

5. Threshold levels for risk. Something that is risky only at fairly high exposures will seem saferthan something with a uniform exposure to risk. For example, the probability of being in anautomobile accident is the same regardless of how often you drive. (Of course, you canreduce the likelihood of being in an accident by driving less often.) In contrast, studies haveshown that low levels of nuclear radiation actually have benefi cial effects on humanhealth, while only at higher levels of exposure are there severe health problems or death. Ifthere is a threshold for the effects, generally there will be a greater tolerance for risk.

6. Delayed vs. immediate risk. An activity whose harm is delayed for many years will seemmuch less risky than something with an immediate effect. For example, for several yearsnow, Americans have been warned about the adverse longterm health effects of a high-fatdiet. This type of diet can lead to chronic heart problems or stroke later in life. Yet, manyignore these warnings and are unconcerned about a risk that is so far in the future. Thesesame people might find an activity such as skydiving unacceptably risky, since an accidentwill cause immediate injury or death.Thus, whether something is unsafe or risky often depends on who is asked. Something thatone person feels is safe may seem very unsafe to someone else. This creates someconfusion for the engineer who has to decide whether a project is safe enough to bepursued. In making a decision, some analysis methods, especially line drawing and fl wcharting, can be used. Ultimately, it is up to the engineer and company management to usetheir professional judgment to determine whether a project can be safely implemented.

Engineers and Safety

Since safety is an essential aspect of our duties as engineers, how can we be sure that our designsare safe? There are four criteria that must be met to help ensure a safe design.

First, the minimum requirement is that a design must comply with the applicable laws. Thisrequirement should be easy to meet, since legal standards for product safety are generally wellknown, are published, and are easily accessible.

Second, a design must meet the standard of “accepted engineering practice.” You can’t create adesign that is less safe than what everyone else in the profession understands to be acceptable. Forexample, federal safety laws might not require that the power supply in a home computer be madeinaccessible to the consumer who opens up her computer. However, if most manufacturers havedesigned their supplies so that no potentially lethal voltages are accessible, then that standardshould be followed by all designers, even if doing so increases the cost of the product.To address this issue, an engineer must continually upgrade her skills by attending conferences andshort courses, discussing issues with other engineers, and constantly surveying the literature andtrade magazines for information on the current state of the art in the fi eld.

RISK, SAFETY, AND ACCIDENTS

BY ARUN SHARMA

Third, alternative designs that are potentially safer must be explored. This requirement is alsodifficult to meet, since it requires a fair amount of creativity in seeking alternative solutions. Thiscreativity can involve discussing design strategies with others in your field and brainstorming newalternatives with them. The best way to know if your design is the safest available is to compare itto other potential designs.

Fourth, the engineer must attempt to foresee potential misuses of the product by the consumer andmust design to avoid these problems. Again, this requires a fair amount of creativity and research. Itis always tempting to think that if someone is stupid enough to misuse your product and is injured,then it’s his own fault and the misuse and its consequences shouldn’t bother you too much.However, an engineer should execute designs in such a way as to protect even someone whomisuses the product. Juries aren’t always concerned with the stupidity of the user and might returna substantial judgment against you if they feel that a product was not properly designed. Placing awarning label on a product is not suffi cient and is not a substitute for doing the extra engineeringwork required to produce a safe design.

Finally, once the product is designed, both prototypes and fi nished devices must be rigorouslytested. This testing is not just to determine whether the product meets the specifi cations. It shouldalso involve testing to see if the product is safe.It is essential that in any engineering design, all safety systems be tested to ensurethat they work as intended.

Designing for Safety

How should safety be incorporated into the engineering design process? Texts on engineeringdesign often include some variation on a basic multistep procedure for effectively executingengineering designs. One version of this process is found in Wilcox [1990] and is summarized asfollows:1. Defi ne the problem. This step includes determining the needs and requirements and ofteninvolves determining the constraints.2. Generate several solutions. Multiple alternative designs are created.3. Analyze each solution to determine the pros and cons of each. This step involves determining theconsequences of each design solution and determining whether it solves the problem.4. Test the solutions.5. Select the best solution.6. Implement the chosen solution.

In step 1, it is appropriate to include issues of safety in the product defi nition and specifi cation.During steps 2 through 5, engineers typically consider issues of how well the solution meets thespecifi cations, how easy it will be to build, and how costly it will be. Safety and risk should also becriteria considered during each of these steps. Safety is especially important in step 5, where theengineer attempts to assess all of the trade-offs required to obtain a successful fi nal design. Inassessing these trade-offs, it is important to remember that safety considerations should beparamount and should have relatively higher weight than other issues.

Minimizing risk is often easier said than done. There are many things that make this a difficult taskfor the engineer. For example, the design engineer often must deal in uncertainties. Many of therisks can only be expressed as probabilities and often are no more than educated guesses.Sometimes, there are synergistic effects between probabilities, especially in a new and innovative

RISK, SAFETY, AND ACCIDENTS

BY ARUN SHARMA

design for which the interaction of risks will be unknown. Risk is also increased by the rapid pace atwhich engineering designs must be carried out. The prudent approach to minimizing risk in a designis a “go slow” approach, in which care is taken to ensure that all possibilities have been adequatelyexplored and that testing has been suffi ciently thorough. However, this approach isn’t alwayspossible in the real world.

Are minimizing risks and designing for safety always the more expensive alternatives?

Spending a long time engineering a safer product may seem like a very expensive alternative,especially early in the design cycle before the product has been built or is on the market. This,however, is a very short-term view. A more long-term view looks at the possible consequences ofnot minimizing the risk. There is a great deal of guesswork involved here, but it is clear that anyunsafe product on the market ultimately leads to lawsuits that are expensive to defend even if youdon’t lose and are very costly if you do lose. The prudent and ethical thing to do is to spend asmuch time and expense as possible up front to engineer the design correctly so as to minimizefuture risk of injury and subsequent criminal or civil actions against you.

Risk–Benefi t Analysis

One method that engineers sometimes use to help analyze risk and to determine whether a projectshould proceed is called risk–benefi t analysis. This technique is similar to cost–benefi t analysis. Inrisk–benefi t analysis, the risks and benefi ts of a project are assigned dollar amounts, and the mostfavorable ratio between risks and benefi ts is sought. Cost–benefi t analysis is tricky because it isfrequently diffi cult to assign realistic dollar amounts to alternatives. This task is especially diffi cultin risk– benefi t analysis because risks are much harder to quantify and more diffi cult to puta realistic price tag on. Still, this can be a useful technique if used as part of a broader analysis, butonly if used objectively. In doing a risk–benefi t analysis, one must consider who takes the risks andwho reaps the benefi ts. It is important to be sure that those who are taking the risks are also thosewho are benefi ting. This consideration is fundamental to issues of economic justice in our societyand can be illustrated by the concept of “environmental racism,” which is the placing ofhazardous-waste sites, factories with unpleasant or noxious emissions, etc. near the leasteconomically advantaged neighborhoods.

This practice is sometimes thought of as racism because in the United States, these types ofneighborhoods are generally disproportionately occupied by minority groups. The only ethical wayto implement risk–benefi t analysis is for the engineer to ensure to the greatest extent possible thatthe risks as well as the benefi ts of her design are shared equally in society.

ACCIDENTS

There are many ways in which accidents can be categorized and studied. Onemethod is to groupaccidents into three types: procedural, engineered, and systemic [ Langewiesche, 1998 ]. Procedural accidents are perhaps the most common and are the result of someone making a badchoice or not following established procedures.For example, in the airline industry, procedural accidents are frequently labeled as “pilot error.”These are accidents caused by the misreading of an important gauge, fl ying when the weathershould have dictated otherwise, or failure to follow regulations and procedures. In the airlineindustry, this type of error is not restricted to the pilot; it can also be committed by air-traffi ccontrollers and maintenance personnel. Engineers must also guard against procedural problemsthat can lead to accidents. These problems can include failure to adequately examine drawingsbefore signing off on them, failure to follow design rules, or failure to design according to accepted

RISK, SAFETY, AND ACCIDENTS

BY ARUN SHARMA

engineering practice. Procedural accidents are fairly well understood and are amenable to solutionthrough increased training, more supervision, new laws or regulations, or closer scrutiny byregulators.Engineered accidents are caused by flaws in the design. These are failures of materials, devices thatdon’t perform as expected, or devices that don’t perform well under all circumstances encountered.For example, microcracks sometimes develop in turbine blades in aircraft engines. When thesecracks become severe enough, the blade can fail and break apart. Sometimes, this has resulted inthe penetration of the cabin by metal fragments, causing injury to passengers. Engineered failuresshould be anticipated in the design stage and should be caught and corrected during testing.However, it isn’t always possible to anticipate every condition that will be encountered, andsometimes testing doesn’t occur over the entire range of possible operating conditions. These typesof accidents can be understood and alleviated as more knowledge is gained through testing andactual experience in the fi eld.

Systemic accidents are harder to understand and harder to control. They are characteristic of verycomplex technologies and the complex organizations that are required to operate them. A perfectexample of this phenomenon is the airline industry. Modern aircraft are very complicated systems.Running them properl requires the work of many individuals, including baggage handlers,mechanics, fl ight attendants, pilots, government regulators and inspectors, and air-traffic controllers. At many stages in the operation of an airline, there are chances for mistakes to occur,some with serious consequences. Often, a single, minor mistake isn’t signifi cant, but a series ofminor mistakes can add up to a disaster. Valujet crash, in which several individuals committed a series of small errors, none of which was

signifi cant alone. These small errors came together to cause a major accident. The airline industry isnot the only complex engineered system in our society that is susceptible to systemic accidents.Both modern military systems, especially nuclear weapons, for which complicated detection andcommunication systems are relied on for control, and nuclear power plants with complicatedcontrol and safety systems, have documented failures in the past that can be attributed to this typeofsystemic problem.

What are the implications of this type of accident for the design engineer?

Because it is diffi cult to take systemic accidents into account during design, especially since thereare so many small and seemingly insignifi cant factors that come into play, it may seem that theengineer bears no responsibility for this type of accident.

However, it is important for the engineer to understand the complexity of the systems that he isworking on and to attempt to be creative in determining how things can be designed to avert asmany mistakes by people using the technology as possible. As designers, engineers are also partiallyresponsible for generating owner’s manuals and procedures for the use of the devices they design.Although an engineer has no way of ensuring that the procedures will be followed, it is importantthat he be thorough and careful in establishing these procedures. In examining the Valujet accident,we will try to see how engineers could have designed some things differently so that the accidentmight have been averted.

VIRTUES FOR ETHICALLY RESPONSIBLE ENGINEERS BY MICHAEL PRITCHARD1. Expertise/Professionalism2. Clear And Informative

Communication3. Cooperation4. Willingness To Make Compromises

5. Objectivity6. Being Open To Criticism7. Stamina8. Creativity9. Striving For Quality

RISK, SAFETY, AND ACCIDENTS

BY ARUN SHARMA

10. Having An Eye For Detail11. Being In The Habit Of Reporting On

Your Work Carefully