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1. INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity is essential for human survival and economic well being and for

the ecosystem function and stability (Thakur and Khare, 2008; Pokriyal et al., 2009).

Forests provides the chief source of human economy and play a vital role in the

socioeconomic development of many nations by providing raw material to various

industries, meeting basic needs of fuel wood, food, fiber, timber (UNEP, 2001;

Khurana, 2009). The forest vegetation also plays an important role in nutrient cycling,

habitat construction and regeneration of plants (Sharma and Upadhyaya, 2002).

In 1992, the set of agreements signed at the Rio de Janeiro “Earth Summit”

included two binding conventions, the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

While the CBD aims at conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity,

ensuring benefit-sharing, UNFCCC targets stabilization of atmospheric concentrations

of greenhouse gases, (Canhos et al., 2004). The second World summit (Rio’ Earth

Summit+10) on sustainable development was held in the Johannesburg, South Africa

in 2002, it includes the emergence of thousands of local agenda 21 initiatives and

enhanced political profile of environmental issues. It led to the formation of the

Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD) and many countries set up

sustainable development commissions and national strategies for sustainable

development. The third earth summit ‘Rio+20’ in 2012 was again held in Rio de

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Janeiro, the objective of the summit are, to secure renewed political commitment to

sustainable development, to assess progress towards internationally agreed goals on

sustainable developments and also focus on the green economy in the context of

poverty eradication and sustainable development and an institutional frame work for

sustainable development. The United Nations General Assembly declared 2011 as the

‘International Year of Forests’ to raise awareness on sustainable management

conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests.

All 233 countries and areas reporting for Forest Resource Assessment (FAO,

2010) provided information on the extent of forests. The total forest area in 2010 was

estimated to be 4 billion hectares, (31 percent of total land area). This corresponds to

an average of 0.6 ha per capita. The area of forest is unevenly distributed. The five

most forest rich countries (Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, United States of

America and China) account for more than half of the total forest area (53 percent),

while 64 countries, with a combined population of 2 billion people, have forest on not

more than 10 percent of their land area. (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2010).

India has rich and varied vegetation with a wide range of climatic conditions

from the torrid to the arctic. India can be divided into eight distinct-floristic-regions,

namely, the Western Himalayas, the Eastern Himalayas, Assam, the Indus plain, the

Ganga plain, the Deccan, Malabar and the Andamans (Research, Reference and

Training Division, 2010).

Indian biodiversity is very rich, based on available data India is placed tenth

position in the world and fourth in Asia. Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata

(Research, Reference and Training Division, 2010) was surveyed about 70% of Indian

geographical area of this over 46,000 species of plants have been described.

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According to State of Forests Report (2005) the total forest cover of the country is

677.088 km2 and this constitutes 20.60% of the total geographic area of the country.

Of this, 54,569 km2 (1.66%) is very dense forest, 332.647 km2 (10.12%) is

moderately dense forest, while 289.872 km2 (8.82%) is open forest cover. According

to Research, Reference and Training Division (2010), the scrub forest accounts for

38,475 km2 (1.17%) (Research, Reference and Training Division, 2010).

The hot arid zones of India occupies an area of 0.32 million km2 forming a

continuous stretch in the north western states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana

and scattered landmasses in the Peninsular states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and

Andhra Pradesh. Rajasthan and Gujarat alone account for 81.5% of the total hot arid

zones in India (Kar et al., 2009). The semi-arid type of vegetation covering dry

regions of eastern Karnataka, Satpura-Mahadeo hills and Vindhyas belt of

Maharashtra, Saurashtra and foothills of Aravallis in Rajasthan, north-western

Madhya Pradesh, Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Puri et al., 1983; Meher-Homji,

2001).

Karnataka has a geographical area of 1, 92,204 km2, it can be divided into two

distinct physiographic regions viz. the ‘Malnad’ or hilly region comprising of

Western Ghats and the ‘Maidan’ or the plain region comprising the inland plateau of

varying heights (FSI, 2009). The State is endowed with great diversity of climate,

topography and soil. Most of the dense forests (Evergreen to Semi-evergreen and

moist deciduous to dry deciduous) are located along Western Ghats region of

Karnataka. The Deccan plateau forms the eastern plains of Karnataka. It accounts for

about 2/3 part of geographical area of Karnataka. This area receives low and scanty

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rainfall and the temperature is very high, therefore, the vegetation is thorny scrub.

(KBB, 2010).

The southern tropical thorn forests in Karnataka are found in eastern part of

the Belgaum, Dharwad and Haveri. Whereas Bijapur, Gadag, Gulbarga, Kolar,

Mandya, Mysore and Tumkur districts are having the sounthern tropical thorn forests

(Ramchandra and Kamakshi, 2005).

Phytosociological studies envisage the existing vegetation structure, species

diversity, soil plant relationship; generate data on seasonal and temporal variation in

available nutrients. There has always been a need to analyze and interpret the plant

communities on different exposures and together first hand information of the

vegetation of this unexplored and floristically rich area (Muller-Dumbois and

Ellenberg, 1974). Understanding species diversity and distribution patterns is

important for helping managers to evaluate the complexity and resources of these

forests (Dash et al., 2009).

1.1 Environmental Variables

1.1.1 Geology

The geological information in the tract dealt with two groups in two

different eras, viz. gneisses, schists and granites belonging to the Archaean era

and Deccan trap rocks belonging to Mesozoic era. The Gadag forest track is

mainly a schist Belt which represents an assembly of volcano sedimentary

group of rocks exposed in the area of north of Tungabhadra river, The starting

point of the south of Gadag and continue south-east for nearly 46 km up to the

Tungabhadra River.

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These Ranges are bare for the most part and have a number of derelict

gold and iron mines (Sheshgiri, 1941). In addition to the gold, till recently

some parts of the Kappath hills around Doni, Dambal have been explored for

iron ore. Hematitic quartzite which is a series of ferruginous and silicaceous

schist owing to its greater hardness and resistance to withering crops out as

long rocky ridges and forms back bone of Kappath hill range.

1.1.2 Soil

Kappath hills falls in the northern dry zone to northern transition zone

in ten agro-climatic classifications and most part of the district has black soil

with intermixed red and lateritic soil. The soil passes through every grade

from bare rock to fairly deep loam with a thin covering of humus. The soil is

poor in hill tops and improves in valleys and lower slopes. The soil in the

valleys is highly fertile but the productivity is limited by the rain fall received.

Lot of canker nodules of lime are seen on flat and undulating land of forest

and even on some agricultural lands. The Mundargi taluka has red gravely and

deep clay soil. Shirahatti has the deep clay, red gravely clay type of soil is

found.

1.1.3 Water

Gadag district is endowed with adequate ground water resources and

limited surface water resources, but the distribution is highly uneven. The

district depends largely on ground water resources for irrigation. Two major

rivers viz. Tungabhadra and Malaprabha flow across the borders of the district

besides other small streams and nalas like Bennihalla etc.

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There is major ground water quality affected in Gadag, Mundargi and

Shirahatti taluks. Gadag and south central parts of Mundargi taluk have

analyzed high Fluoride content (Bharati et al., 2005; Shekhar et al., 2006;

Gudagur and Wodeyar, 2008). It ranges from 4.00 to 10.5 ppm (Bharati,

1996). The peoples of Mundargi taluk consuming water containing more than

2 ppm of fluoride are suffering from both dental and skeletal fluorosis (Bharati

et al., 2005).

1.1.4 Climate

The climate of Gadag district is semi arid. The climate is mainly

governed by the South-West monsoons. The year can be divided in to three

seasons, rainy, mild winter and hot seasons. The limits of these do not very

greatly from year to year and may be taken as mid of June to mid of

September, mid of October to January and end of beginning of June

respectively. The monsoon months are cold and damp, the cold weather brings

with it heavy fog and dew on the hill top. The hot months are very severe.

Relative humidity in the morning hours is expected to be in the range of 84 to

86% and afternoon relative humidity in the range of 77 to 79% (Indian

Meterological Department, 2012).

1.1.5 Temperature

The mean minimum temperature is from 19oC during December to

January and the mean maximum temperature up to 42oC in May. The Kappath

hills experience the heavy wind during the monsoon. There by around the

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hills, Wind mills have been established to harvest the wind energy. Overall the

weather is dry and healthy.

1.1.6 Rainfall

The western parts of the Gadag district received most of the rains

during southwest monsoon, while the eastern part of the district receives the

rain fall during northeast monsoon. There are early showers in the months of

April and May preceding the Southwest monsoons. The annual rainfall is

generally about 750mm. The average rain fall for the last five years is shown

in (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Rainfall data from 2007 to 2011 of Gadag district

(Source: Indian Meterological Department)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Mea

n an

nual

rain

fall

mm

Year

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1.1.7 Vegetation

The distribution of the forest in the Gadag district is generally scattered

and found in patches. The forest comprises of 7.21% of the geographical area.

The floristic composition of the Kappath hill area was spread in three talukas

namely; Shirahatti, Mundargi and Gadag. These forests are comparable to

Southern thorn forests of Champion and Seth classification (1968).

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2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Phillips (1959) in his book ‘Methods of Vegetation Study’ mentioned that the

field study of vegetation provides an excellent introduction to plant ecology, of which

it is a part. Kerner, one of the earliest of the plant ecologists, wrote a book entitled

‘pflanzenlebeen der donauland’ in 1863. The “Scarcely a hundredth part of the

plants in a list contribute materially to the visible garment which spread itself

before us”. This quotation is the essence of the difference between the taxonomic and

ecologic approach to plants. The taxonomist in studying an area makes a list of

species which constitute the flora. The ecologist begins with the floristic list and by

series of sample plots or observations ascertains the quantitative and qualitative

relationships of the various species in the flora, leading to the concept of vegetation

According to the Odum (1971), clumped (contagious) distribution is the

commonest pattern in nature. The random distribution is found only in very uniform

environment and the regular distribution occurs where severe competition between the

individuals exists. Contagious distribution depends on the local habitat differences,

daily and seasonal weather changes and reproductive processes. The tree species

which grow in clumps are, in general better adapted for intra-specific competition

than for inter specific competition.

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The hot arid zones come under the influence of the sub-tropical high pressure

belt extending from north-west Africa to Asia. The Indian hot arid zone occupies an

area of 0.32 million km2 forming a continuous stretch in the north western states of

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and scattered landmasses in the Peninsular states

of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Kar et al., 2009).

The distribution of forests vegetation in the Kappath hill is generally scattered

and found in patches. This forest is comparable to the Southern Thorn Forests

(Champion & Seth, 1968). Thorn forests in the study area an open low forest in which

thorny usually hard wooded species predominate, Acacia catechu in one of its forms

is almost invariably present and though not necessarily predominating, is very often

so. It is associated several other Acacia and allied thorny Mimosae and usually

Zizyphus members. The stunted trees specimens of the dry deciduous forest are

scattering in varying numbers throughout the forest, notably Anogeissus laoresttifolia,

Soymida sp. and the like.

2.1 Floristic Studies

Sir J. D. Hooker and his associates described 14,900 species (Angiosperms) in

his ‘Flora of British India’ (1872-1897). Talbot (1894) collected plants largely in the

southern parts of Bombay Presidency and reported systematic list in the ‘Trees,

shrubs and woody climbers of the Bombay Presidency’. This book included 497 trees,

346 shrubs and 126 woody climbers. Theodare Cooke studied plants of the Bombay

Presidency and he published ‘Flora of the Presidency of Bombay’ (1958) covering

plants of Sind, Gujrat, Maharashtra and North part of Karnataka which includes

Bidar, Gulbarga, Raichur, Bellary, Bijapur, Belgaum, Dharwad (Gadag and Haveri),

North Kanara. ‘The Flora of the Presidency of Madras’ by Gamble (1915-1936) deals

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with the plants of South Kanara, Malabar, Nilgiri, Coimbatore and Tinnevelly are in

western ghats. Similarly Deccan regions of Guntur, Kurnool, Bellary, Anantapur,

Cuddapah, Chittoor, Nellore, part of the Salem and Coimbatore districts. Further it

also included the Alpine region of Nilgiri, Pulney and Anamalais ranges.

Talbot (1909 & 1911) worked mainly on Trees and Shrubs. He reported in the

‘Forest Flora’ of the Bombay Presidency and Sind (in two volumes) around 975

species belongs to the 90 families. Bor (1960) deals with the ‘Grasses of Burma,

Ceylon, India and Pakistan’, reported around 1243 species belongs to 247 genera.

Similarly Blatter & McCann (1984) carried out ‘The Bombay Grasses’ which reports

around 117 genera and 282 species of grasses.

Saldanha (1984 & 1996) was reported 3410 species in his flora the ‘Flora of

Karnataka’ (two volumes published out of six volumes). The ‘Flora of Karnataka

Analysis’ by Sharma et al. in 1984 documented 3924 species belonging to 1323

genera and 199 families, based on (BSI) herbarium specimens and secondary

literature. In ‘Flora of Eastern Karnataka’ by Singh (1988) surveyed Eastern districts

of Karnataka. It includes Bellary, Bidar, Bijapur, Chitradurg, Gulbarga, Kolar,

Raichur and Tumkur districts. In this he reported 1421 species belonging to 696

genera and 140 families. ‘The Flora of Bangalore’ district by Ramaswamy & Razi

(1973) comprises about 979 species of flowering plants. The ‘Flora of Hassan’ district

by Saldanha & Nicholson (1976) and reported about 899 genera belongs to 1782

species, ‘Flora of Chikmagalur’ district by Yoganarasimhan et al. (1977) and reported

about 616 species belongs to 419 genera and 122 families, ‘Flora of Coorg’ (Kodagu)

by Keshava Murthy & Yoganarasimhan (1990) and reported 1332 species belong to

717 genera and 160 families. ‘Flora of Gulbarga’ district by Seetharam et al. (2000)

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mentioned about 600 species of flowering plants belonging to 101 families, ‘Flora of

Shimoga’ district by Ramaswamy et al. (2001). ‘Flora of Udupi’ district by Bhat

(2003) described 1242 species of flowering plants belonging to 694 genera and 171

families. In 2004, ‘Flora of Davangere’ district by Manjunatha et al. documented total

of 861 plants spp. belonging to 498 genera and 112 families.

The plant exploration in Gulbarga district studied by Seetharam & Kotresha

(1992) and reported the 250 species belonging to 100 genera and 60 families in and

around the Gulbarga University. Seetharam et al. (1999) reported total of 95 woody

plants species from 31 families are recorded. 65 (64.15%) were tree species, 24

(24.5%) were shrubs, 6 (6.4%) were scandents and 205 species of herbs in Sandur

taluk. Seetharam et al. (2000) recorded total of 438 species out of which 203 species

are from outside the forest in Bidar district. Transect studies revealed the occurrence

of 80 woody species including 43 tree species and 37 shrubs and lianas have been

reported. Kotresha (2002) recorded the occurrence of 119 species of grasses belongs

to 61 genera of which 13 species are cultivar in the Grasses of Dharwad and its

adjoining area. Kotresha et al. (2011) published a checklist of woody plant species in

Karnatak College Campus, Dharwad they collected 303 plant species, belongs to 238

genera in 75 families. Kunnur (2009) explored the 57 Malvaceous taxa from different

districts of Karnataka, Kunnar et al. (2009) Wissadula contracta was collected for the

first time from Karnataka. Annigeri et al. (2011) recorded the Abutilon bidentatum

from Karnataka state for the first time and is also a new record for Southern

Peninsular India. Kotresha et al. (2011) reported total of 1322 plant species belongs

to 793 genera and 151 families in Dharwad district, of which more than 306 species

are recorded as alien species.

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A number of studies have been carried out on the floristic survey of Gadag

district. The list of plant species were summarized by Parthasarathy (2002) in

Gazetteer of Dharwad district (including Gadag and Haveri district). Shivanna et al.

(2005) reported few farmland tree speices in Gadag district. Further, Plant

Biodiversity and Medico-Botany of Kappath hills, near Gadag, Karnataka carried out

by Kotresha (2005) and reported 438 species belongs to 294 genera and 91 family.

Suryanarayana et al. (2008 a & b) reported the floristic composition in JFM-managed

and adjoining natural forests in Doni and Guddada Budihal area. They documented 19

tree speceis in JFM managed forest in that Hardwickia binata had the higher IVI

value (i.e., 74.7.) Subsequently, Phytodiversity Studies in ecologically sensitive area

of Kappath hills, Gadag district, Karnataka was undertaken by Kotresha (2010) and

recorded 538 species belongs to 294 genera and 91 families of flowering plants.

2.2. Phytosociological Studies

Pound and Clements (1898) worked on the vegetation regions of the Prairie

province and reported halophytic and ruderal formations play a more or less

prominent part in the constitution of the floral covering of the prairie province, but

they are rarely characteristic. Navez and Whittaker (1979) worked on the Structure

and floristic diversity of shrub lands and woodlands in Northern Israel and other

Mediterranean areas. They reported the diversity showed a two-slope response to

grazing with highest species numbers in heavily (but not the most severely) grazed

woodlands and shrublands. These communities have some of the highest plant alpha

diversities in the world, the richness of their floras (especially in annual plants) is the

product of relatively rapid evolution under stress by drought, fire, grazing and cutting.

Similarly Pottinger and Burley (1992) worked on a Review of forest biodiversity

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research in Africa. According to them conservation of the diversity of biological

resources contained within Africa’s forest requires a multidisciplinary approach

involving local people, taxonomists, geneticists, ecologists, economists and forest

managers. Which increasing pressures being placed on forests it is essential that

biodiversity research initiatives are supported in order to identify priority areas and

direct funds towards them.

Pascal (1988) studied on the Wet evergreen forests of the Western Ghats of

India, which reveals the floristic richness was highest in the southernmost types and

also have the highest percentage of the endemism and contain high portion of species

with low tolerance to dryness. These species disappear gradually with increase in

latitude and replaced by species with wider ecological amplitude, i.e., light tolerant

species, which are found throughout the evergreen continuum but are increasingly

abundant towards the north, where they are associated with new species better

adapted to the contrasting conditions and also results show that the climax of the

evergreen forests are, in the whole, very homogeneous from south to north, till about

15o30’ N. After this latitude they were represented by the Memeceylon-Syzygium-

Actinodapne type with very low structural level. In dry tropical forests of Western

Ghats intense overgrazing and looping has been theorized to convert the tree savanna

in to ‘clump thickets’, with the selection of thorny and unpalatable species. The

removal of dominant tree species for timber/fuel wood opens the canopy allowing

more species to compete. Following continual biomass extraction and further

aradification of the soils and micro-climate, unpalatable, small, woody and thorny

species become more dominant.

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Sharma and Kumar (1991) studied the Community structure of some natural

forest stands in Lansdowne forest range of Garhwal Himalaya and they reported that

heavy exploitation of a single species may change the entire structure of the plant

community. The biotic factors also responsible for effecting the soil structures and

ultimately community structure. Ganesh et al. (1996) reported that small scale

altitudinal changes on species composition are largely due to transition in vegetation

types influenced by bioclimatic and edaphic factors.

Fujisaka et al. (1998) worked on Plant community diversity relative to human

land uses in an Amazon forest colony. They and conclude that to conserve diversity

the minimum requirement is the preservation of selected areas of primary forest.

However that to conserve viable forests, the size of the areas needed should be

defined by the minimum area requirement of all species (and the organisms they

depend on for pollination, seed dispersal, etc.) to maintain healthy population. Qi and

Yang (1999) worked on the Topographic effect on spatial variation of plant diversity

in California in that spatial variability of elevation was more directly related to plant

diversity. Pitman et al. (1999) conducted an experiment on tree species distribution in

an upper Amazonian forest and reported that most tree species in the regions are

habitat generalists occurring over large areas of the Amazonian lowlands at low

densities but large absolute population sizes. Similarly Steege et al. (2000) worked an

Analysis of the floristic composition and diversity of Amazonian forests including

those of the Guiana Shield and reported the two factors ie., area and disturbance

regime, may be responsible for a large part of the differences in alpha-diversity found

between the Guiana Shield area and eastern Amazonia as compared to central and

western Amazonia.

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Seetharam et al. (1999) studied on the Assessment of plant biodiversity of dry

deciduous forest of Sandur, Karnataka, and reported the dominance of tree species

and the herbaceous species appear to be the characteristic feature of dry deciduous

forests. Since the canopy is open and favours the growth of herbaceous members.

Ayyappan and Parthasarathy (2001) worked on the Patterns of tree diversity

within a large-scale permanent plot of tropical evergreen forest, Western Ghats, India.

This study depicted that extent of variation in tree diversity assemblages in relatively

“homogeneous” forest (for the sample size considered), under the same prevailing

climatic and soil conditions, except for the minimal topographic variations of which

or without streams. The spatio-temporal distribution of tree species assemblages in the

forest stand is possibly governed by a multitude of factors (including the prime

stochastic factor), and being a permanent plot, where studies will continue in

subsequent years, will begin to offer detailed information on the ecology of individual

species and tree communities that will provide further insight on pattern of tree

species diversity and a database for forest management and conservation.

Uma Shankar (2001) worked on a Case study of high tree diversity in a Sal

(Shorea robusta) dominated lowland forest of Eastern Himalaya: floristic

composition, regeneration and conservation, reported that mixed dominance of

species is an important feature of the Sal forest, large, medium and small trees, and

shrubs shared a stem density of 484 ha. Only climbers were less abundant. In each

growth form, except large trees, density was concentrated to one or two species and

rest of the species were rare. Interestingly, large trees that exhibit maximum species

richness are not dominant in terms of density. This is contrary to other Indian

deciduous forests, where the large tree species dominant in numbers. The mixed

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dominance is also evident from the maximum IVI attained by sal which is only 16.2

on Darjeeling compared to >120 in Central Himalaya. Mixed dominance of species

prevailed since different girth classes, in spite of progressive decline in the number of

species from juvenile through mature class.

Stern et al. (2002) while studying the Changes in the composition and

structure of a tropical dry forest following intermittent cattle grazing shows those

cattle grazing changes the floristic composition and decreases the structural

complexity of the vegetation in tropical dry forest. The grazing by the domestic

livestock in native ecosystem results in changes in plant species composition,

disruption of ecosystem function, alteration of ecosystem structure, and changes in

faunal diversity.

Sharma and Upadhyaya (2002) studied on the Phytosociology, primary

production and nutrient retention in herbaceous vegetation of the forestry arboretum

on the Aravalli hills at Jaipur, the study revealed that the dominance of grasses and

forbs in the forest floor vegetation of the Aravalli hill ecosystem. Both the protected

and unprotected hills differed little in species richness of herbs, but woody species

were certainly higher in number on the protected hill. Both the biomass and

productivity of herbaceous vegetation at the unprotected hill were, however higher

than the protected hill despite of availability of more nutrient in the soil in the latter.

Herbaceous vegetation helped in the conservation of nutrients, especially in the

unprotected hill sites, where it formed the major components of overall vegetation.

Turpie (2003) analyzed the existence value of biodiversity in South Africa:

how interest, experience, knowledge, income and perceived level of threat influence

local willingness to pay. Gordon et al. (2004) worked on Assessing landscapes: a

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case study of tree and shrub diversity in the seasonally dry tropical forest of Oaxaca,

Mexico and Southern Honduras.

Jha and Nanduri (2003) studied the Biodiversity measurement in forests of

various canopy density reported that the forests canopy gets opened up from closed to

scrub forests; change is noticed not only in biodiversity index but also in the overall

composition of the forest crop. As the canopy decreases, the number of different

species reduces significantly in trees and climbers category. Venkateswaran and

Parthasarathy (2003) worked on the Tropical dry evergreen forests on the Coromandel

Coast of India: structure, composition and disturbance and reported the human

disturbance has an impact on forest stand characteristics such as stand height, number

of strata, tree density, and basal area.

Nazarian et al. (2004) worked on the Ecological factors affecting parts of

vegetation in North Iran (Elika and Duna watersheds) by employing eco-

phytosociological method and these study showed that different ecological factors do

not have similar importance and the effect in the region; in such manner that a number

of ecological factors have been effective as principal factor that are moisture, texture,

pH, OM%, OC%, lime% of soil, altitude and slope of degree. They have been able to

affect on formations; some factors could be effective as determinant factors; including

moisture, texture, pH, EC, OM%, OC%, lime% of soil and exposition. These factors

have been effective in the separation of the flora of a formation. Some factors

effective as differential ecological factors; including moisture, pH, EC, OM%, OC%,

lime% of soil and exposition. These factors have been effective in the separation of a

part of flora of formation.

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Padalia et al. (2004) worked on the Phytosociological observation on tree

species diversity of Andaman Islands, India, reported that Andaman Islands are still

rich in tree species diversity, even after great disturbance to the ecology. Therefore,

special priority should be given to conserve these fragile elements of biodiversity,

which are facing pressure from increasing population and developmental activities.

Haleshi et al. (2005) worked on the Life-form and biological spectrum of a dry

deciduous forest at Sandur, Karnataka, and they reported that the vegetation of the

area is predominated by Therophytes, which indicates hot and dry climate in the

region congenial for the growth of annuals and perennial herbs, which have their

perennating buds buried in the soil or beneath.

Sanjeev (2006) studied on the Phytosociological analysis of Arnigad micro-

watershed in Mussoorie hills of Garhwal, Himalayas which show more and more

diverse species exists in tree stratum on forest land compared to lesser number of tree

species in scrub and their near absence on degraded land. The shrub and herb

communities however dominate in scrub forest followed by forest and degraded land

which indicates that more and more space vacated by the tree stratum is taken over by

the shrub and the herb communities. The process of forest degradation ultimately

results into increase in area under degraded land which is characterized by very few

tree species and small number of species of shrub and herb communities.

Jiang et al. (2007) has worked on the Plant biodiversity pattern on Helan

Mountain China and they observed the two phenomenons, namely the altitudinal

sector with the highest value of Shannon-Weiner index coincides with the altitudinal

range within the deciduous broad-leaved forest, the temperate evergreen coniferous

and deciduous broad leaved mixed forests all occur. The other is that the altitudinal

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sector from 1700 to 2200 msl is a region not only with high species richness level, but

also with high diversified vegetation types.

Pimentel et al. (2007) worked on the Spatial variation in the structure and

floristic composition of “Restinga” vegetation in Southeastern Brazil, the result

reveals that dominant species were common throughout sampling locations although

local species richness and composition varied between sites. Within-site variation was

often high, which was related to the proximity of neighboring lagoons. This study

emphasizes that the understanding of plant community structure in “Restinga”

vegetation would benefit from the application of survey methods feasible to be carried

out at special scales broader than the all too common one-hectare plots.

Sahu et al. (2007) worked on the Phytosociological study of tropical dry

deciduous forests of Boudh district, Orissa, India which reports the basal area and

vertical structure of a forest is difficult to summarize as these relies heavily upon the

climate and topographic conditions. Tree heights are heavily influenced by the

abundance of saplings, richness of nutrients and anthropogenic pressure (since forest

fires are recurrent).

Vellend et al. (2007) worked on the Effect of exotic species on evolutionary

diversification and report that exotic species invasions have stimulated evolutionary

diversification across the globe in a range of taxa via a variety of mechanisms. It is

impossible to say what proportion of species invasions lead to diversification, but the

list of documented cases presented here argues that we must take seriously the role of

exotic species invasions in the generation of biodiversity.

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Malik (2007) worked on the Phytosociological attributes of different plant

communities of Pir Chinasi hills of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and they reported that

chemical content of soil played a significant role in giving particular shape of

communities.

Pitchiramu et al. (2008) worked on the Floristic inventory and quantitative

vegetation analysis of tropical dry deciduous forest in Piranmalai forest, Eastern

Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India and reported that history of disturbance accelerated during

the last century has reduced biomass canopy height and tree density in forests. The

forest and soils have thus retained less of the precipitation of the monsoon and

increased the effect of the post monsoon dry season on the vegetation. The

quantitative biodiversity data of Eastern Ghats will be useful in forest management

and conservation. Forest has been cleared for park construction, road construction,

tourist resorts and agricultural land encroachments, there is a need for increased legal

protection, well designed management practices in recent years it has become

increasingly apparent that conservation of tropical forest cannot rely solely on

protected area networks. In the Piranmalai forest sites this is essential to prevent

further expansion of construction and plantation area, as the protection of existing

forests

Upadhyay et al. (2008) while studying the Community structure and diversity

of a moist deciduous forest in Uttar Pradesh observed that secondary forest being

developed on disturbed site may not be exactly compatible to natural forest in species

composition, but it is new niche/biotope to perform the same ecological function. If it

is protected from the biotic disturbance and secondary succession is encouraged, it

22

may accommodate several original species because of an easy access of the plant

propagules from the existing neighboring forest.

Mishra et al. (2008) studied on the Species diversity under different

management systems-a case study in Amlachati range of Midnapore west forest

division, reported that in any forest community the total number of plant species

become maximum during post-monsoon period. The highest number of species was

found during post-monsoon. A large number of plant species specially shrubs and

herbs are newly regenerated in this period because during this period nutrient addition

to soil becomes higher and the microclimate is conductive for the invasion of new

species as a result the optimal vegetational structure is encountered during this period.

The total number of plant species was the lowest during the pre-monsoon period. The

summer is followed by a dry winter season, which causes sharp decline of most of the

herbaceous species and some shrubs also. Moreover, during winter the occasional

forest fire reduces shrubs and herbs and the soil considerably becomes almost dry due

to which almost no regeneration in any layer takes place until the monsoon arrives.

Due to high porosity and coarse texture of the soil and also due to low organic matter,

the water holding capacity of the soil was very low.

Tyagi and Joshi (2008) worked on the Analysis of vegetation in Banj-oak and

Chir pine forest in Central Himalaya observed that the hill base supports more species

than higher slope position, hill base often have water courses, and are subjected to

erosion and deposition of soils. Such heterogeneity in habitat may allow more species

to coexist than other slope positions. Finally it results the hill base often allowed a few

species that were not found at other position along the slopes.

23

Kamalakannan et al. (2008) worked on the Ecological studies on plant

invasion in two dry deciduous forests in Tamil Nadu reported that the intentional and

unintentional disturbance in the dry deciduous forests resulted in exotic plant

invasions. The successful invasion altered the structure and function of herbaceous

community. Therefore it is essential to give immediate attention in ordered to avoid

further shrinkage of grass lands and loss of local biodiversity. The possible exotic

biomass utilization is one of the viable options to reduce the menace of exotic weed.

Ghosh and Mukherjee (2008) worked on the Climbers and lianas of North

Andaman observed that the forests with close canopies and which are wet or moist are

rich in lianas. Herbaceous climbers in contrast are more prevalent in drier sites and in

forest gaps. Their frequency can be taken as indicator of past clearing as also for the

nature of secondary forests. Due to anthropogenic activities the evergreen forests are

gradually decreasing so also the typical liana species in them. The threats are

shrinkages or conversion of forest areas, vine clearing for silvicultural management,

over exploitation and lack of awareness of the importance of vines. Regeneration of

canes needs to be promoted specially because of their wide economic value.

Chauhan et al. (2008) worked in the Regeneration and tree diversity in natural

and planted forest in Terai- Bhabhar forest in Katarniaghat wildlife sanctuary, India

and they reported that tree density and seedling density in natural forest are not

influenced much by soil characteristics, while the same parameters are significantly

influenced by soil characteristics in planted forest, as revealed by multiple regression

analysis. The planted forest is still in the growing stage. Interestingly some natural

species have been regenerating automatically in planted forest, thereby indicating that

good management has been carried out for regeneration of natural species.

24

Joseph et al. (2008) worked on the Distribution of plant communities along

climatic and topographic gradients in Madumalai wildlife sanctuary (Southern India)

and reported that community characterization along various climatic and topographic

gradients (by assessing its structural attributes like species richness, trees per hectare,

basal area per hectare, diversity and dominance), yielded valuable insights into

resource partitioning and niche differentiation. The highest diversity was observed in

areas with high rainfall and drainage density. The medium elevation zones and less

sloping areas also show high diversity. Stepwise multiple regressions indicated that

distance from drainage line in the most influential parameter determining species

diversity, followed by rainfall and elevation.

Kotresha et al. (2008) worked on the Plant diversity and ecology of river

Varahi basin and is environs-Hosangudi, Udupi, Karnataka and they reported 275

species from Angiospermic groups, out of which 29 are rare, 24 endemic, 3

endangered and 2 threatened species were noticed, and they documented 105 species

are medicinally important. Ramanna et al. (2008) worked on the floristic diversity of

Magadi wet land area in Gadag Dstrict, karnataka. And they documented around 52

species, distributed in 32 families.

Raghubanshi and Tripathi (2009) studied the Effect of disturbance, habitat

fragmentation and alien invasive plants on floral diversity in dry forests of Vindhyan

highland: a review, shows that the species rich communities of the dry forests are not

only being reduced in area but they are also becoming species poor and less diverse

due to rapid deforestation and forest fragmentation and also the community

organization is also changing in response to increased anthropogenic disturbance.

25

Lantana invasion is changing the forest structure, leading to species diversity loss and

creation of a homogeneous, monospecific Lantana invaded understorey in the forest.

Shukla (2009) studied the Pattern of plant species diversity across Terai

landscape in North Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India shows that the forest and grasslands

had very little similarity in terms of species (<40%) which is attributed to drastic

differences in habitat conditions. However, forest and scrub had much higher

commonality. The occurrence of true forest element in the secondary scrub or old-

field vegetation may be due to ability of certain shrubs to coppice and persist through

root suckers after clearing of forests. Examples of such species include Croton

oblongifolia, Holarrhena antidysenterica and Kirganelia reticulata. Unlike Western

UP and semiarid regions of India, an alien invasive species Lantana camara has not

dominated the landscape so far, though it has started replacing Clerodendrum

viscosum and Parthenium hysterophorus at some sites. The grass land in the study

area has much higher species richness as compared to the forests. One of the reasons

for higher species diversity in the grasslands could be variation in micro-habitat

features and occurrence of several associations.

Dash et al. (2009) worked on the Diversity and distribution pattern of tree

species in Niyamgiri hill ranges, Orissa, India which reports the estimation of species

diversity helps in understanding the ecological significance of the species in the moist

deciduous forest, also shows the species diversity and stem density were observed to

decrease with increasing the girth class and altitude and also conclude that hill ranges

are rich in tree species even after disturbance due to forest fire, grazing, extraction of

economic/medicinal plants and invasion of exotic species. With the above fact it is

26

necessary to prepare a comprehensive management plan to conserve the ecosystem of

the hill ranges along with its rich biodiversity.

Menon and Suraj (2009) worked on the Phytosociological analysis of woody

vegetation along an altitudinal gradient in Ponmudi hill, Thrissur district, Kerala and

reported that the maximum concentration of dominance observed in the middle slope

indicates that the diversity index value and dominance index values are inversely

proportional. The mean basal area gives an estimate about the actual area of the

ground occupied by the plant species. Basal area values show a gradual increase from

lower slope to upper slope. The actual area covered by the plant species is very less,

which means that the mountaneous region has relatively open vegetation and there is

further scope of introduction of new specie with suitable measure to manage the

forest. The density values do not follow the pattern of basal area. In the middle slope

the density is minimum and the maximum density is seen at the upper slope mainly

because of low anthropogenic influence.

Tripathi and Singh (2009) worked on the Species diversity and vegetation

structure across various strata in natural and plantation forests in Katerniaghat

Wildlife Sanctuary, North India, and reported that basal area is an important indicator

of tree stocking which reflects stand volume or biomass and species diversity was

higher in the natural forest as compared to plantation forest for all strata except in

case of climbers.

Kumar et al. (2009) worked on the Phytosociological analysis in brown oak

dominated forest of Gharwal Himalaya, India, and showed that the anthropogenic

disturbance is changing the species richness and diversity, which influence the soil

and environmental conditions.

27

Mohandass and Devidar (2009) worked on the Floristic structure and diversity

of a Tropical montane evergreen forest (shola) of the Nilgiri mountains, Southern

India and they report that shola forest of the upper plateau of the Nilgiris are a unique

ecosystem that harbors many plant endemic to the Western Ghats. Most of the species

are abundant and widely distributing among the sholas, indicating their tolerance to a

stressful environment. Sholas are extremely vulnerable to disturbance because the

saplings do not regenerate in the open grasslands due to lack of tolerance to fire and

frost.

Rana and Gairola (2009) worked on the Forest community structure and

composition along an elevational gradient of Parshuram Kund area in Lohit District of

Arunachal Pradesh, India, and reported that tree species richness was recorded to be

highest on the middle altitude followed by lower and upper altitude. Species diversity

and dominance were found to be inversely related to each other. Shrub and herb

species richness were also recorded to be higher on middle altitude followed by lower

and upper altitude.

The species diversity was higher in natural forest as compared to the

plantation forests, the high species diversity in natural forest implies that it provides

suitable habitat, the natural forest also showed more heterogeneous composition of

species in comparison to plantation forest (Tripathi & Singh, 2009.)

Tripathi et al. (2010) worked on the Diversity, dominance and population

structure of tree species along fragment-size gradient of a subtropical humid forest of

North East India, and conclude that the Tree species richness was positively related to

fragment size, but was inversely related to the degree of disturbance. Impact of

28

fragment size on density and basal cover did not differ much between the fragments.

Diversity and dominance indices did not varied much along the fragment size

gradient.

Bijalwan (2010) noticed that the average basal area in degraded forest was

lower as compared to the normal forest, this was due to the poor density of trees and

also maximum number of trees distributed in the lower diameter classes.

Dangwal et al. (2012) reported that the decreasing in the number of seedling

and sapling in hill slope due to higher anthropological pressure on trees and another

side increasing in the number of herbs mainly Parthenium hysterophorus and

Cynodon dactylon was reported in Hill Slope, because opening of canopy and

anthropological interference provides greater opportunities for the recruitment of

these species.

Bharali et al. (2012) in his studies reported that variation in species richness

and diversity in altitudinal gradients and the lower altitude has more species richness

and decrease with the increase in altitude may be due to variation in microclimate and

edaphic factors.

Devi Prasad et al. (2012) concluded that the species richness and diversity

may vary among different population due to the variations in environmental gradient

and cumulative disturbance parameters.

29

2.3 Medicinal Plants

Kirthikar et al. (1933) worked on the ‘Indian Medicinal Plants’ which deals

with the therapeutic properties of Indian medicinal plants and assigned the pride of

place to Ayurveda and Yunani.

Anonymous, (1994) in his book ‘Indian Medicinal Plants a compendium of

500 species’ provides the properties and uses of the medicinal plants and also

provides the distribution and popular nomenclature in English, Hindi, Kannada,

Malayalam, Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu.

Bhandary et al. (1995) worked on the Medical ethnobotany of the Siddis of

Uttar Kannada district, Karnataka, India and they 98 medicinal preparations,

involving 69 species of plants used by the Siddis of Uttar Kannda.

Harsha et al. (2002) worked on the Ethnomedical knowledge of plants used by

Kunabi tribe of Karnataka in India and they reported 45 species of plants used by

Kunabi community people, and these plants belongs to 26 families and are used to

treat wide ranges of discomforts like fever, cough, skin diseases, rheumatism,

snakebite, jaundice, dysentery etc.

Pranita et al. (2004) worked on the Ethno-botanical wealth of Bhadra wild life

sanctuary in Karnataka, and they reported the 60 plant species belonging to 50 genera

and 35 families were used for preparing at least 78 herbal drugs by the medicine men.

Shivanna and Rajkumar (2010) worked on the Ethno-medico-botanical knowledge of

rural folk in Bhadravati taluk of Shimoga district, Karnataka and they reported the

total 40 medicinal plants were used to treat 25 human diseases and disorders

30

Prashantkumar and Vidyasagar (2006) documented the 30 plant species

belonging to 29 genera and 20 families largely used as medicine by tribals and local

peoples of Bidar district, Karnataka. Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2009) documented

the 46 plants belonging to 44 genera and 26 families for their therapeutic use against

wounds and related injuries.

Udayan and Balachandran (2009) worked on ‘Medicinal plants of Arya vaidya

sala herb garden’ provides enumeration of 1025 species of medicinal plants.

Das et al. (2009) documented the ethnobotanical uses of some plants by the

indigenous tribe of Tripura and reported the traditional formulation of 33 species

belonging to 32 genera and 25 families. Kalita and Bonoranjan (2009) documented

the 19 species for the treatment of ten diseases namely acidity, anemia, blood

poisoning, constipation, diabetes, gout, rheumatism, piles, stomach pain and tetanus.

Khan and Yadav (2010) reported the 44 plant species belongs to the 24 families were

used for curing the asthma by several ethnic communities of Thoubal district of

Manipur in North East India.

Ahirao and Patil (2010) worked on the Indigenous healthcare practices in

Buldhana district (Maharashtra) and they reported ethnomedicinal uses of 30 species

belonging to 29 genera and 22 families, these remedies scores many ailments such as

rheumatism, fever, headache, piles, diabetes, mouth ulcer, cholera, leucorrhoea,

pneumonia, injuries, toothache, pus formation, dog bite, scorpion sting, etc.

Prakash et al. (2010) worked on the Folk medicine of NR Pura taluk in

Chikmagalur district of Karnataka and they reported total of 59 plant species

belonging to 53 genera and 34 families were reported for different therapeutic uses

31

which include about 31 wild plant species, 18 cultivated species and 10 were both

wild and cultivated species.

Rajakumar and Shivanna (2010) worked on the traditional herbal medicinal

knowledge in Sagar taluk of Shimoga district, Karnataka, India and they documented

48 plant species belonging to 44 genera and 31 families used by folk practitioners to

treat various common to chronic human and veterinary ailments were documented.

Ghatapanadi et al. (2010) reported 13 plants belonging to 10 families are extensively

used to treat kidney stone and urinary tract infections. Kotresha and Kambhar (2010)

worked on the Traditional orthopedic treatment with medicinal plants in Gadag

District.

Jain and Singh (2010) worked on the Traditional medicinal practice among the

tribal people of Raigarh (Chhatisgarh), India and they reported 32 plant species

belonging to 30 genera and 23 families to cure 27 human diseases. Among them 6

were trees, 19 herbs, 2 shrubs and 3 climbers’ species. In most of the cases leaves

(40%) were used for treatment o f various diseases and ailments, followed by stem

bark (20%), fruits and seeds (10%), whole plant (5%) and latex (5%). Maximum

number of plants was used for curing stomach disorders followed by snake bite and

skin diseases. The dose of the drug always depends on the age of patient, type or

severity of illness.

Hiremath et al. (2010) documented the 40 medicinal plants under 36 families

for the treatment of 42 diseases either in single or in combination with some other

ingredients. Hiremath and Taranath (2011) reported the 28 plant species under 24

genera and 20 families from Chitradurga district were used to treat the jaundice.

Suresh et al. (2011) reported the 108 species of ethnomedicinal plants belonging to

32

102 genera and 59 families, among them 31 were herbs, 17 were shrubs, 3 were small

trees, 26 were big trees and 31 were climbers.

In Gadag district quite number of studies has been published on medicinal

plants study of the district. Shaik Shavali (2001) recorded 221 medicinal plant species

in Kappatha gudda. Some valuable information provided on medicinal plants of the

district by Harihar and Kotresh (2010) worked on the wild medicinal plants of

Kappath hills, Gadag district, Karnataka and they documented 43 species belonging to

39 genera and 31 families, and also the parts used and methods of drug preparations

are discussed along with the local name of all the plants. Kotresha (2010) reported the

94 species of medicinal plants belongs to the 47 families, leaves were used

predominantly (50%) for preparation of medicine followed by roots (14%), flowers

and seeds (8%), fruit (7%), whole plant (6%), bark (3%), pulp and latex (2%).

Kotresha & Harihar (2011) report the uses of Cochlospermum religiosum in immunity

system and memory power. Harihar & Kotresha (2012) documented the 27 species of

medicinal plants belonging to 25 genera and 17 families have been recorded in

Kappath hills.

33

3. OBJECTIVES

The present investigation was undertaken with the following objectives.

To inventorization Kappath flora.

Qualitative and quantitative assessment of species diversity in

disturbed and undisturbed forest.

Documentation of phytodiversity status, uses and indigenous

knowledge on herbal medicine and practices in the study area.

To find out the rare, endangered, endemic and threatened (RET)

plants of the study area.

34

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present investigation was carried out from October 2007 to December

2011.

4.1 Study Area

Gadag district was newly created on 1-11-1997, bifurcating Gadag, Mundargi,

Nargund, Ron, Shirhatti taluks from the Dharwad district. Gadag district is located in

northern parts of Karnataka. It is bounded by Koppal district on east, Bagalkot district

on north, Haveri district on south and Dharwad district on west. The main

geographical feature of the district is an elevation ranging from 300 to 1000m msl.

Kappath hills are situated in the taluks of Gadag, Mundargi and Shirahatti. The

Kappath hill is located between 15º16' & 16º55' North latitude and 75º 10' & 75º 55'

East longitude (Fig. 2). The Kappath hill range of Iron-clay and state with traces of

gold, rises little of the south-west of Gadag and with ridges or pointed crests, covering

a tract 6 to 8 km broad, stretches about 45 km south-west of the river Tungbhadra.

Tungabhadra river sub-basin slopes towards southeast to east–northeast direction. The

Hirehalla rises in the Kappath hills near Lakkundi about 12 km south-west of Gadag,

and after flowing south about 32 km joins the Tungbhadra at Rati 10 km south of bare

hill fort of Mundargi.

35

4.2 Field Work

The vegetation was analyzed by means of random sampling to give most

representative composition of both disturbed and undisturbed vegetation sites

covering different vegetation types. Size of the quadrat as arrived at by species area

curve method (Ram and Singh, 2002) was 20 x 20 m2, 5 x 5 m2 and 1 x 1 m2 for trees,

shrubs and herbs respectively (Fig. 3 ). The Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) of all

trees and shrubs within the quadrat plot were measured. Phyto-sociological analyses

were carried out in accordance with the standard method (Phillips, 1959; Mueller-

Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). The quadrats were laid in both disturbed and non

disturbed areas plain valleys and hill top slopes near water body of the sampling sites

to determine the frequency, density, dominance for all the species [Plate I, a to c].

Finally the importance values of each species were computed by adding percentage

value of relative frequency, relative density and relative dominance. .

4.3 Spatial Structure

4.3.1 Vertical Structure:

The vertical structure of the forest diagram was prepared based on the

data of quadrate of 20 x 5m measurements using different scales for each

figure. The data obtained are presented on graph.

4.3.2 Girth Distribution:

Histograms have been made for all the trees of the plot

36

20m

Figure 3. Quadrat structure

4.3.3 Density:

Eighth girth limits (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and >100) have

been considered and correlate with the density of individuals.

37

4.3.4 Basal Area (BA):

The total basal area was calculated from the sum of the total diameter

of emerging stems. In trees, poles and saplings, the basal area was measured at

breast height (1.5m) and by using the formula πr2.

4.4 Floristic Structure: Richness and Diversity

4.4.1 Floristic Richness

The collected plants from the study sites were identified with the aid of

regional floras (Hooker, 1872-1879; Talbot, 1909 & 1911; Saldanha, 1984

&1996; Singh, 1988; Seetharam et al., 2000). They were pressed, dried and

prepared the herbarium by dry method (Jain & Rao, 1977). Dried specimens

were poisoned by dipping the whole plant in a solution of 1% mercuric

chloride in ethyl alcohol. After the specimens were poisoned, they were dried

and affixed (along with a label) on a mounting sheets using fevicol glue.

Identified specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Botany Department,

Karnatak Science College, Dharwad. In the taxonomical survey the rare plants

are identified with the help of red data book and other literature surveys

4.4.2 Floristic Diversity

A number of indices have been used for the measurement of floristic

diversity, total four indices have been used for trees with girth ≥ 10 cm.

4.4.2.1 Species Richness, Diversity and Dominance Indices

The species richness of the vascular plants was calculated by using the

following methods.

38

(a) Margalef’s Index of Richness (DMg) (Magurran, 1988)

Where, S = Total number of species.

N = Total number of individuals.

Species diversity and dominance were evaluated by using the

following methods. Shannon’s diversity index and Simpson’s index of

dominance were calculated using important value index (IVI) of

species.

(b) Shannon–Weaver (Shannon and Weaver, 1949) index of

diversity:

The formula for calculating the Shannon diversity index is

Where, H’ = Shannon index of diversity

pi = the proportion of important value of the ith species ( pi =ni

/ N, ni is the important value index of ith species and N is the

important value index of all the species).

(c) Simpson (1949) Index of Dominance:

The equation used to calculate Simpson’s index was

Where, D = Simpson index of dominance

pi = the proportion of important value of the ith species ( pi =

ni / N, ni is the important value index of ith species and N is the

important value index of all the species).

DMg = (S-1) / (ln N)

H = - ∑ Pi ln Pi

D = - ∑ (Pi)2

39

As ‘D’ increases, diversity decreases and Simpson’s index was

therefore usually expressed as 1 – D or 1/ D.

(d) Sorensen’s Similarity Index (Magurran, 1988):

Where, IS = Index of similarity

A = Total number of species in one community

B = Total number of species in another community

C = Number of species which occur in both community

The similarity index ranges from 0 to 100 to quantify

the range from no similarity to complete similarity.

(e) Curtis and McIntosh Quantitative Analysis:

The important quantitative analysis such as density, frequency,

and abundance of tree species, shrubs and herbs species were

determined as per Curtis and McIntosh (1950).

Density: Density is an expression of the numerical strength of a

species where the total number of individuals of each species in all the

quadrats is divided by the total number of quadrats studied. Density is

calculated by the equation.

Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrat Density =

Total number of quadrat studied

2C IS = X 100 A+B

40

Frequency (%): This term refers to the degree of dispersion of

individual species in an area and usually expressed in terms of

percentage occurrence. It was studied by sampling the study area at

several places at random and recorded the name of the species that

occurred in each sampling units. It is calculated by the equation:

Raunkiaer Frequency Classes

Raunkiaer (1934) recognized the following frequency classes

Class A 1-20% frequency

Class B 21-40% frequency

Class C 41-60% frequency

Class D 61-80% frequency

Class D 61-80% frequency

This is summed up in Raunkiaer’s frequency law of

frequency with the formula:

A>B>C≤D<E

Abundance: It is the study of the number of individuals

of different species in the community per unit area, by quadrats

method, samplings are made at random at several places and

the number of individuals of each species was summed up for

all the quadrats divided by the total number of quadrats in

which the species occurred. It is represented by the equation:

No of quadrat in which species occurred Frequency = X 100

Total number of quadrat studied

41

Importance Value Index:

This index is used to determine the overall importance

of each species in the community structure. In calculating this

index, the percentage values of the relative frequency, relative

density and relative dominance are summed up together and

this value is designated as the Importance Value Index or IVI

of the species (Curtis, 1959).

Relative density: Relative density is the study of

numerical strength of a species in relation to the total number

of individuals of all the species and can be calculated as;

Relative frequency: The degree of dispersion of

individual species in an area in relation to the number of all the

species occurred.

Relative dominance: Dominance of a species is determined by the

value of the basal cover. Relative dominance is the coverage value of a

species with respect to the sum of coverage of the rest of the species in

the area.

Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrats Abundance =

Total number of quadrats in which the species occurred

Number of individuals of the species Relative density = X 100

Number of individuals of the all the quadrats

Number of occurrence of the species Relative frequency = X 100

Number of individuals of the all the species

42

4.4.3 Altitudinal Variation

The Kappath hill ranges contain an undulating hillocks ranging from

500-978 m height from mean sea lavel (msl). It is divided in to five variable

altitudes maintaining the minimum 100 msl.

4.5 Soil Analysis

The soil samples (20 to 40cm deep) were collected in polythene bags from all

quadrat (plots) and were brought to the laboratory for analyses. A portion of soil

sample was analyzed for the moisture content and remaining samples were air-dried

by spreading on polythene sheet for two weeks. The air-dried soil was sieved through

a 2.0 mm mesh, leaving out the gravels and rocks. The resultant fine soil was used for

estimation of micro and macro nutrients.

4.6 Traditional Medicinal Plants of Kappath Hills

Information about the traditional medicinal uses of several plants was

collected through surveys conducted in several villages near by Kappath hills.

Traditional practitioner (Ajjaya) apparently friendly but maintained a deep secrecy

about their traditional knowledge. However, after visiting them for several times and

developing confidence, they finally shared some of their knowledge about the uses of

plants around them. Detailed information regarding local names, part used and mode

of administration was collected through questionnaires [Plate I, d to h].

Total basal area of the species Relative dominance = X 100 Total basal area of all the species

43

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The scrub forest of Kappath hills have rich in herbaceous vegetation. This

variation in the vegetation is the result of the topography, soil characteristics and

climatic regime. Over a period of time, the forests of these areas have under gone

tremendous changes largely due to the influence of human interference, mining and

low rain are resulting in habitat destruction leads to poor regeneration capacity of the

plant species.

Forest ecologists and botanists have tried to identify deciduous species,

associated with forest types and tried to draw relationship with them. [Champion and

Seth (1968), Puri et al., (1983)]. An account of forest ecology with special mention to

dry deciduous forests and savannas and their ecology has been explained in detail by

Puri et al., (1983), Gentry (1995). According to the classification proposed by

Champion and Seth (1968) the vegetation of Eastern Karnataka generally falls into

Southern tropical dry deciduous forests and Southern tropical thorn forests. Whereas

Kappath forest was falls under southern tropical thorn forest, having some

etymological interest [Plate II].

The vegetation is confined mostly to the chains of hillocks favouring rich

growth of trees occurring mostly on the hill slopes. Hilltops are generally barren with

a few shrubs, trees and grasses. These hilltops are subjected to high winds and soil

44

erosion. In Kappth forest the hilltops are the source of high quality of iron and

manganese ores. These forests are characterised by moderate to large sized trees.

Most of the forest areas representing with an open canopy and a few sites with dense

trees are forming a closed canopy. Trees are stunted probably due to unfavourable

climatic conditions. The species occurring in Kappath forest are prickly or spiny and

are characteristically drought resistant. Kappth forest vegetation becomes dry and

trees are leafless on the onset of summer and the trees sets in flowers during this

period. After a brief spell of leafless period with onset of monsoon season presents a

better aspect till the end of winter season. The trend of habitat destruction, cultivation

and grazing of the forest by animals would turn down the forest into mere barren

wastelands of vast stretches. It may become grasslands of inferior quality. Bamboos

are confined to very restricted areas. This forests having some climbers, lianas, root

parasites, a few ferns and epiphyte [Plate III-VII].

5.1 Spatial Structure

5.1.1 Vertical Structure

The vertical structure is illustrated by 2 profiles in two contiguous

bands, each measuring 5 m x 30 m. This forest is mainly composed of

diminutive tree community; it ranged from 2-6 m. height of the plants (Fig. 4,

5 & 6). Species represented by Acacia chundra, Chloroxylon swietenia,

Anogeissus latifolia, Grewia orbiculata and Cassia fistula. Representation of a

few large individuals like Terminalia arjuna, Hardwikia binata etc. in the top

canopy, indicates the anthropogenic disturbances in the past. A profile shows

stunted growth and irregular branching pattern of some plants i.e., Acacia

chundra etc. leads to the forest more or less open.

45

Figure 4. Profile diagrams of Kappath forest representing quadrat

46

Figure 5. Profile diagrams of Kappath forest representing quadrat

47

Figure 6. Profile diagrams of Kappath forest representing quadrat

48

5.1.2 Density

Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) was classified in to eight classes

were represented as follows; I. 10-20 cm, II. 20-30 cm, III. 30-40 cm, IV. 40-

50 cm, V. 50-60 cm, VI. 70-80 cm, VII. 80-90 cm and VIII >100 cm.

Most of the trees were distributed in DBH class II (20-30 cm) with

81.81% (4889 individuals). The least distribution of trees in DBH class V was

0.01% (1 individuals). The remaining DBH class I, III, IV, VI, VII and VIII

with 534(8.93%), 379(6.34%), 148(2.4%), 19(0.31%), 2(0.01%), and 5(0.08

%) individuals respectively (Fig. 7). The lower DBH classes, which is

followed by a considerable decrease in the higher classes. About 90.74% of

tree density was distributed in the I and II DBH classes is normal inverted J-

shape forest indicating the predominance of small and medium sized

individuals in the forest. This could be attributed to high rate of regeneration

but poor recruitment in the forest, which might have been caused by selective

cutting of large sized individuals by the villagers.

Species diversity and stem density were observed to decrease with

increasing the girth class and altitude (Dash et al., 2009). Grewia orbiculata,

Grewia tiliifolia, Terminalia alata, Acacia chundra, Dolichandrone

atrovirens, Anogeissus latifolia, Eucalyptus globulus, Soymida fabrifuga,

Gardenia gummifera, Maytenus emerginata and Morinda pubescens were

contributed to the lowest DBH class in the forest.

49

Figure 7. DBH class and percentage number of individuals.

5.1.3 Basal Area (BA)

As calculated from DBH data, the basal area of all tree species for

Kappath forest was 184894.2 cm2 (Table 1). The diameter class 10-20 cm was

distributed 2.98% of the basal area, which was due to the presence of 21

species, among them Acacia auriculiformis, Dalbargia latifolia, Eriolaena

quinquelocularis, Gardenia gummifera etc. In the diameter class 20.1-30 cm

was distributed 7.27% of the basal area, which was due to the presence of 26

species mainly, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Thevetia nerifolia, Soymida

febrifuga etc. The next diameter class 30.1-40 cm was distributed 6.56% of the

basal area, which was due to the presence of 12 species, among them Ixora

arborea, Mitragyna parviflora, Erythrina variegata etc. In the 40.1-50 cm

diameter class 1.65% of Basal area was distributed which includes 2 species,

namely Syzygium cumini and Buchanania cochinchinensis. In the diameter

class 50.1-60 cm was distributed 1.28% of the Basal area and containing only

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

10=20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 70-80 80-90 >100

% o

f ind

ivid

uals

DBH class (cm)

50

one species i.e, Salvadora persica. The diameter class of 60.1-70 cm and 90.1-

100 cm class don’t have any species.

51

Table 1: Average girth and Basal area (BA) of all tree species in the Kappath forest

Sl. No. Name of the Plant Average

girth Basal Area

1 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Arn. 280 61575.4 2 Ficus religiosa L. 252.5 50074.2 3 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa. 125 12271.9 4 Ficus sp. 120 11309.8 5 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston 81 5153.0 6 Tamarindus indica L. 71.68 4035.8 7 Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Macbr. 70.62 3917.5 8 Salvadora persica L. 55 2375.8 9 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 45 1590.4 10 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Almeida 43.35 1476.1 11 Ixora arborea Roxb. Ex Smith 40 1256.6 12 Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth var. parviflora 40 1256.6 13 Erythrina variegata L. 37.9 1129.1 14 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. 37.9 1126.4 15 Boswellia serrata Roxb. 37.7 1113.3 16 Terminalia chebula Retz. 37.0 1074.0 17 Casuarina equisitifolia L. 35.1 969.0 18 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 33.8 894.7 19 Stychnous potatorum L.f. 33.2 866.2 20 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 32.9 849.0 21 Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn) Merrill 32 804.2 22 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. 32 804.2 23 Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 30 706.9 24 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. 30 706.9 25 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Juss 29.23 671.0 26 Phyllanthus emblica L. 29.1 665.1 27 Tectona grandis L. 28 615.8 28 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 28 615.8 29 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 27.99 615.2 30 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 27.75 604.6 31 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 27.53 595.0 32 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolsion 27.5 594.0 33 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. 26.25 541.2 34 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk, 26 530.9 35 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. 26 530.9 36 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 25.79 522.2 37 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 25.60 514.9 38 Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. 24.77 481.8 39 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 24.00 452.4 40 Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. 23.88 447.9 41 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth) Sprague 23.00 415.6 42 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 22.89 411.6 43 Azadirachta indica Juss. 22.61 401.5

52

44 Cassia fistula L. 22.17 386.0 45 Morinda pubescens Smith 22.16 385.5 46 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 21.08 349.0 47 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. 21 346.4 48 Capparis grandis L.f. 21 346.4 49 Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn 20 314.2 50 Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. 20 314.2 51 Eriolaena quinquelocularis (W. & A.) Cleghorn 20 314.2 52 Gardenia gummifera L. 19.83 308.9 53 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair 19.50 298.6 54 Grewia orbiculata Rottler 19.18 288.8 55 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou 19.14 287.8 56 Acacia latronum Willd. 19 283.5 57 Mallotus philippensis (Lanm.) Muell-Arg. 19 283.5 58 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. 19 283.5 59 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 18.75 276.1 60 Ziziphus horrida Roth 18.75 276.1 61 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. 18.68 274.0 62 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. 18.60 271.8 63 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. salvifolium 18 254.5 64 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. 18 254.5 65 Capparis divaricata Lam. 17.56 242.1 66 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 17 227.0 67 Santalum album L. 15 176.7 68 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze 14 153.9 69 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 13 132.7

Total 2618.81 184894.2

53

About 4.3% and 2.78% of the Basal area was distributed in the

diameter classes of 70.1-80 cm and 80.1-90 cm, which includes the

Tamarindus indica, Madhuca longifolia and Cochlospermum religiosum.

Finally about 73.13% of the basal area is distributed >100cm class due to the

presence of Terminalia arjuna, Ficus religiosa, Aegle marmelos and Ficus sp.

(Fig. 8).

Figure 8. Basal area distribution over DBH class in the Kappath forest.

Comparison of the basal area and densities in the diameter classes in

the Kappath forest revealed that occurrence of more number of individuals in

the 10-30 diameter classes. However, their contribution to the basal area was

low. The rest diameter classes, which range from 40-280 cm possessed few

individuals and at the same time contributed less to the basal area of the forest.

The species with the largest contribution to BA (Basal Area) can be

considered as the most important tree species in the forest. The mean basal

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

160000

Bas

al a

rea

cm2

DBH class (cm)

54

area gives an estimate about the actual area of the ground occupied by the

plant species (Menon and Suraj, 2009).

The Terminalia arjuna, Ficus religiosa, Aegle marmelos, Ficus sp. and

Cochlospermum religiosum with the largest contribution to BA (Basal Area)

can be considered as the most important tree species in the forest

5.2 Floristic Structure: Richness and Diversity

5.2.1 Floristic Richness

Kotresha in 2005 studied the Plant Biodiversity and Medico-Botany of

Kappath hills has reported 438 species belongs to 294 genera and 91 families.

Shaik Shavali (2001) recorded 221 medicinal plant species in Kappatha gudda.

Suryanarayana et al. (2008 a & b) reported the floristic composition in JFM-

managed and adjoining natural forests in Doni and Guddada Budihal area and

documented 19 tree speceis in JFM managed forest. Whereas the present

work, Floristic studies on flowering plants in Kappath hills were resulted

about 627 species of flowering plants belong to 342 genera and 103 families.

Among the enumerated species 118 trees, 288 herbs (72 grasses), 55 shrubs

and 95 species are climbers. The genera, Cassia is represented by the higher

number of species (12), followed by Crotalaria and Euphorbia (11 each).

Ipomoea (10 species), Acacia and Indigofera with 9 and 8 species respectively

(Table 2, 3 & 5). Wnen compare to the earliear workers nearly 200 species

were documented.

RET Species

The Kappath forest represents three endemic plant species, they are

Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex A. Rich. var. major (Blatt. & Haub.) Bhandari

55

(Sharma & Sanjappa, 1993), Vernonia indica Wall. ex Cl. (Hajra et al., 1995)

and Barleria stocksii T. Andr. (Ahmedullah & Nayar, 1987; Nayar, 1996;

Shendage & Yadav, 2010) are tabulated in table 4. Some species were rarely

collected or one time collecteion [Plate VIII]. Barleria stocksii recollected

after a gap of more than 140 year, in Chik Vaddatti and Bidnahal area of

Kappath hills. The Indigofera hochstetteri Baker species was also recollected

in Jyalawadgi, after a gap of more than nine decades (Kotresha et al., 2012).

56

Table 2. Species composition of different life forms in Kappath forest

Table 3. Predominant families their genera and species composition in Kappath forest

Table 4. Rare and one time collection of species in the study area

Sl. No.

Name Family Remarka

1 Barleria stocksii T. Andr. Acanthaceae Endemic 2 Brachystelma maculatum Hook.f. Asclepiadaceae one time

collected 3 Cordia wallichii F.Don Boraginaceae one time

collected 4 Corbinchonia decumbens (Forsk.)

Exell.

Aizoaceae

one time collected

5 Indigofera hochstetteri Baker Fabaceae Endemic 6 Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.)

Harms Araliaceae one time collected

7 Sophora glauca DC. Caesalpiniaceae one time collected

8 Vernonia indca C.B. Clarke Asteraceae Endemic

Life forms Number of families Number of species Trees 55 118 Herbs 56 289 Climbers 24 95 Shrubs 21 55 Grasses 1 72

Sl. No. Family Genera Species 1 Poaceae 53 72 2 Fabaceae 28 60 3 Asteraceae 25 33 4 Acanthaceae 19 30 5 Euphorbiaceae 14 28 6 Malvaceae 10 23 7 Caesalpiniaceae 8 22 8 Lamiaceae 8 20 9 Asclepiadaceae 18 19

10 Amaranthaceae 9 18

57

Table 5. List of Plant species along with their family

Sl.No. Species Name Family *1 Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Malvaceae 2 Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.) Wight & Arn. Malvaceae 3 Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae 4 Abutilon bidentatum A.Rich. Malvaceae 5 Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet Malvaceae 6 Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Malvaceae 7 Abutilon pannosum (G.Foster) Schlecht. Malvaceae 8 Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn Mimosaceae 9 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae

10 Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. [Plate IX, 1] Mimosaceae 11 Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC. Mimosaceae 12 Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae 13 Acacia ferruginea DC. Mimosaceae 14 Acacia latronum (L.f.) Willd. Mimosaceae 15 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae 16 Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. Mimosaceae 17 Acalypha ciliata Forsskal Euphorbiaceae 18 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae 19 Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae 20 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae 21 Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. Acanthaceae

*22 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Rutaceae 23 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Amaranthaceae 24 Aerva persica (N.Burman) Merr. Amaranthaceae 25 Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume. Amaranthaceae 26 Aeschynomene indica L. Fabaceae 27 Agave americana L. Agavaceae 28 Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae 29 Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae 30 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. salvifolium Alanginaceae 31 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin [Plate IX, 2] Mimosaceae 32 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Mimosaceae 33 Allmania nodiflora (L.) R.Br. ex Wight [Plate IX, 3] Amaranthaceae 34 Aloe vera (L.) N. Burman Liliaceae 35 Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hill. Amaranthaceae 36 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Amaranthaceae 37 Alternanthera pungens Humboldt. Amaranthaceae 38 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. Amaranthaceae 39 Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. var.

bupleurifolius Fabaceae

40 Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) DC. Fabaceae 41 Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edg. Fabaceae 42 Amaranthus graecizans L. Amaranthaceae 43 Amaranthus polygamous L. Amaranthaceae 44 Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae

58

45 Amaranthus tricolor L. Amaranthaceae 46 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae 47 Ammannia baccifera L. Lythraceae 48 Ampelocissus tomentosa (Heyne ex Roth.) Planchon Vitaceae 49 Ampleocissus indica (L.) Planchon Vitaceae 50 Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae 51 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae 52 Andrographis echioides Nees Acanthaceae 53 Andrographis paniculata Nees [Plate IX, 4] Acanthaceae 54 Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. Lamiaceae 55 Anisomeles heyneana Benth. Lamiaceae 56 Anisomeles indica (L.) O.Kuntze Lamiaceae 57 Anisomeles malabarica R.Br. ex Sims Lamiaceae

*58 Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae 59 Anogeissus latifolia (DC) Wall ex Guill & Perr. Combretaceae 60 Apluda mutica L. Poaceae 61 Argemone mexicana L. Papavaraceae 62 Argyreia cymosa (Roxb.) Sw. Convolvulaceae 63 Aristida adscensionis L. Poaceae 64 Aristida hystrix L.f. Poaceae 65 Aristida setacea Retz. Poaceae 66 Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. Aristolochiaceae 67 Aristolochia indica L. Aristolochiaceae 68 Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf. Poaceae 69 Arundinella pumila (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Steud. Poaceae 70 Asclepias curasavica L. Asclepiadaceae 71 Asparagus jacquemonti Baker Liliaceae 72 Asparagus gonocladodes Baker Liliaceae 73 Asparagus laevissimus Steud. Liliaceae 74 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae 75 Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Andr. Acanthaceae 76 Atylosia scarabacoides (L.) Benth. Fabaceae 77 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae 78 Azima tetracantha Lam. Rutaceae 79 Bacopa monnieri (L) Penn. Scrophulariaceae 80 Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Balanitaceae 81 Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Roxb. Poaceae 82 Barleria buxifolia L. Acanthaceae 83 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae 84 Barleria gibsoni Dalz. [Plate IX, 5] Acanthaceae 85 Barleria prionitis L. Acanthaceae 86 Barleria tomentosa Roth. Acanthaceae 87 Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertner Lecythidaceae 88 Basella alba L. Basellaceae 89 Bauhinia purpurea L. Caesalpiniaceae 90 Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Caesalpiniaceae 91 Bauhinia tomentosa L. Caesalpiniaceae 92 Bergia ammannioides Roxb. Elatinaceae

59

93 Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Scherif. Asteraceae 94 Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson Asteraceae 95 Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Heyne ex Roth Acanthaceae 96 Blepharis repens (Vahl) Roth Acanthaceae 97 Boerhaavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae 98 Boerhavia chinensis (L.) Aschers Nyctaginaceae 99 Boerhavia verticillata Poir. Nyctaginaceae

100 Bombyx micranthus (L.f.) Riedl. Malvaceae 101 Boswellia serrata Roxb. Burseraceae 102 Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Nyctanthaceae 103 Brachiaria eruciformis (J. E. Sm.) Griseb Poaceae 104 Brachiaria ramosa Stapf. Poaceae 105 Brachystelma maculatum Hook.f. Asteraceae 106 Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss. Brasicaceae 107 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Euphorbiaceae 108 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Almeida Anacardiaceae 109 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Fabaceae 110 Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce [Plate IX, 6] Capparaceae 111 Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae 112 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. Caesalpiniaceae 113 Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Swartz. Caesalpiniaceae 114 Calotropis gigantea, R.Br. ex Ait. Asclepiadaceae 115 Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br Asclepiadaceae 116 Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC. Fabaceae 117 Canna indica L. Cannaceae 118 Cannabis sativa L. Canabinaceae 119 Cansjera rheedii J. Gmelin [Plate IX, 7] Opiliaceae 120 Canthium coromandelicum (N. Burm.) Alst. Rubiaceae 121 Capparis decidua (Forsk) Edgew. Capparaceae 122 Capparis divaricata Lam. Capparaceae 123 Capparis grandis L.f. [Plate IX, 8] Capparaceae 124 Capparis sepiaria L. Capparaceae 125 Capparis zeylanica L. Capparaceae 126 Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. Asclepiadaceae 127 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae 128 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae 129 Carrissa carandas L. Mantiss. Apocynaceae 130 Carrissa spinarum L. Mantiss. Apocynaceae 131 Cassia absus L. Caesalpinaceae 132 Cassia alata L. Caesalpinaceae 133 Cassia auriculata L. [Plate X, 1] Caesalpinaceae 134 Cassia fistula L. [Plate X, 2] Caesalpiniaceae 135 Cassia italica (Miller) Lam. Caesalpinaceae 136 Cassia mimosoides L. Caesalpinaceae 137 Cassia occidentalis L Caesalpinaceae 138 Cassia sericea Sw. Caesalpinaceae 139 Cassia siamea Lam. Caesalpiniaceae 140 Cassia sophera L. Caesalpiniaceae

60

141 Cassia surattensis N. Burman. Caesalpiniaceae 142 Cassia tora L. Caesalpinaceae *143 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze Celastraceae 144 Casuarina equisetifolia L. Casuarinaceae *145 Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G.Don. Apocynaceae 146 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. Apocynaceae 147 Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Trivengadum [Plate X, 3] Rubiaceae 148 Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Celastraceae 149 Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae 150 Cereus peruvianus (L.) Miller Cactaceae 151 Ceropegia hirsuta Wight & Arn. [Plate X, 4] Asclepiadaceae 152 Ceropegia juncea Roxb. [Plate X, 5] Asclepiadaceae 153 Chloris barbata Sw. Poaceae 154 Chloris virgata L. Poaceae 155 Chlorophytum laxum R.Br. Liliaceae 156 Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker Liliaceae 157 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. [Plate X, 6] Flindersiaceae 158 Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. Poaceae 159 Chrysopogon hackelii (Hook.f.) Fischer Poaceae 160 Cissampelos pareira L. [Plate X, 7] Menispermaceae 161 Cissus arnottiana Shetty & P. Singh Vitaceae 162 Cissus pallida (Wight & Arn.) Steudel Vitaceae 163 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae 164 Cleome chelidonii (L.f.) Suppl. Cleomaceae 165 Cleome felina L.f. Cleomaceae 166 Cleome gynandra L. Cleomaceae 167 Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae 168 Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f. [Plate X, 8] Verbenaceae 169 Clerodendrum serratum Spreng. [Plate XI, 1] Verbenaceae 170 Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Verbenaceae 171 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae 172 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. Cuccurbitaceae 173 Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels [Plate XI, 2] Menispermaceae 174 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston [Plate XI, 3] Cochlospermaceae 175 Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae 176 Coleus barbatus Benth. Lamiaceae 177 Combretum latifolium Blume Combretaceae 178 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae 179 Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae 180 Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb Convolvulaceae 181 Corallocarpus epigaeus (Rottler) Cl. Cuccurbitaceae 182 Corbinchonia decumbens (Forsk.) Exell. Aizoaceae 183 Corchorus aestuans L. Tiliaceae 184 Corchorus olitorius L. Tiliaceae 185 Corchorus trilocularis L. Tiliaceae 186 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Boraginaceae 187 Cordia wallichii G. Don [Plate XI, 4] Boraginaceae 188 Cordiospermum canescens Wall Sapindaceae

61

189 Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees Acanthaceae 190 Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth Fabaceae 191 Crotalaria chinensis L. Fabaceae 192 Crotalaria hebecarpa (DC.) Rudd. Fabaceae 193 Crotalaria hirta Willd. Fabaceae 194 Crotalaria linifolia L.f. Fabaceae 195

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. var. neglecta (Wight & Arn.) Baker

Fabaceae

196 Crotalaria mysorensis Roth Fabaceae 197 Crotalaria orixensis Willd. Fabaceae 198 Crotalaria pallida Aiton. Fabaceae 199 Crotalaria pusilla Heyne ex Roth Fabaceae 200 Crotalaria retusa L. Fabaceae 201 Croton bonplandianus Baillon Euphorbiaceae 202 Cryptolepis buchananii R.Br. & Roem. & Schult. Periplocaceae 203 Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br. Periplocaceae 204 Cucumis melo L. Cuccurbitaceae 205 Cucumis sativus L. Cuccurbitaceae 206 Cucurbita maxima Duch. ex Lam. Cuccurbitaceae 207 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae 208 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cuscutaceae 209 Cyanotis fasciculata Schult. Commelinaceae 210 Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schultes & Schultes.f. Commelinaceae 211 Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Poaceae 212 Cymbopogon coloratus (Nees) Stapf. Poaceae 213

Cymbopogon gidarba (Ham. ex Hook.f.) Haines var. gidarba

Poaceae

214 Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats. Poaceae 215 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae 216 Dactylenium aegypticum (L.) Willd. Poaceae 217 Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. ssp. lanceolaria Fabaceae 218 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Fabaceae 219 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. Fabaceae 220 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. Fabaceae 221 Datura arborea L. Solanaceae *222 Datura metel L. Solanaceae *223 Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.f.) Raf. Fabaceae 224 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae 225 Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. Fabaceae 226 Desmodium laxiflorum DC. Fabaceae 227 Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. Fabaceae 228 Dicanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf. Poaceae 229 Dicanthium pertusum (L.) Clayton Poaceae 230 Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. Mimosaceae 231 Dicliptera foetida Forssk. Acanthaceae 232 Dicoma tomentosa Cass. Asteraceae 233 Digera muricata L. Amaranthaceae 234 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel. Poaceae

62

235 Digitaria pedicellaris Trin. Poaceae 236 Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz. Poaceae 237 Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Dioscoreaceae 238 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. Ebenaceae 239 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Ebenaceae 240 Diospyros montana Roxb. Ebenaceae 241 Dipcadi montanum (Dalz.) Baker Liliaceae 242 Drimia indica Roxb. Liliaceae 243 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey Cuccurbitaceae 244 Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir) Nees Acanthaceae 245 Dodonaea viscosa L. Sapindaceae 246 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth) Sprague Bignoniaceae 247 Dracaena spicata Roxb. Agavaceae 248 Drimia congesta (Wight) Ans. & Ragh. Liliaceae 249 Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop Liliaceae 250 Duranta repens L. Verbenaceae 251 Echinochola colona colona Link. Poaceae 252 Echinops echinatus Roxb. Asteraceae 253 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. Asteraceae 254 Ehretia laevis Roxb. Boraginaceae 255 Ehretia pubescens Benth. Boraginaceae 256 Elytraria aculis (L.f.) Lindau Acanthaceae 257 Emilia sonchifolia DC. Asteraceae 258 Enicostemma axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal Gentinaceae 259 Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor Poaceae 260 Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees Poaceae 261 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. Poaceae 262 Eragrostis tenella (L.) P. Beauv.ex Roem. & Schult. Poaceae 263 Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae 264 Eranthemum malabarica C. B. Clarke Acanthaceae 265 Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb. Poaceae 266

Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wight & Arn.) Cleghorn [Plate XI, 5]

Sterculiaceae

267 Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae 268 Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae 269 Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr. Poaceae 270 Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. Asteraceae 271 Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small Asteraceae 272 Euphorbia antiquorum L. Euphorbiaceae 273 Euphorbia cristata Heyne ex Roth Euphorbiaceae 274 Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. Euphorbiaceae 275 Euphorbia elegans Sprengel Euphorbiaceae 276 Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae 277 Euphorbia heyneana Spreng. Euphorbiaceae 278 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae 279 Euphorbia nivulia Buchanan-Hamilton Euphorbiaceae 280 Euphorbia parviflora L. Euphorbiaceae 281 Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Euphorbiaceae

63

282 Euphorbia tirucalli L. Euphorbiaceae 283 Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Convolvulaceae 284 Fagonia indica Burm.f. Zygophyllaceae 285 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae 286 Ficus hispida L.f.Suppl. Moraceae 287 Ficus microcarpa L.f. Moraceae 288 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae 289 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae 290 Fioria vitifolia (L.) Matte Malvaceae 291 Flacourtia indica (N.Burman) Merr. Flacourtiaceae 292 Gardenia gummifera L.f. Rubiaceae 293 Gardenia latifolia Ait. Rubiaceae 294 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. [Plate XI, 6] Euphorbiaceae 295 Glinus lotoides L. Aizoaceae 296 Glinus oppositifolius (L.) DC. Aizoaceae 297 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Steud. Fabaceae 298 Glossocardia bosvallea (L.f.) DC. Asteraceae 299 Glycine wightii (Graham ex Wight & Arn.) Verdcourt Fabaceae 300 Gomphrena celosioides Mart. Amaranthaceae 301 Gracilea royleana Hook.f. Poaceae 302 Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteraceae 303 Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R.Br. Proteaceae 304 Grewia orbiculata Rottler Tiliaceae 305 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. Tiliaceae 306 Grewia villosa Willd. Tiliaceae 307 Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. Asclepiadaceae 308 Hardwickia binata Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae 309 Hedyotis aspera Heyne ex Roth Rubiaceae 310 Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. Rubiaceae 311 Hedyotis herbacea L. Rubiaceae 312 Helianthus annus L. Asteraceae 313 Helicteres isora L. Sterculiaceae 314 Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae 315 Heliotropium marifolium Retz. var. marifolium Boraginaceae 316 Heliotropium subulatum (Hochst. ex DC.) Vatke Boraginaceae 317 Heliotropium zeylanicum N. Burman Boraginaceae 318 Helitropium ovalifolium Forssk. Boraginaceae 319 Hemidesmus indicus R.Br. Periplocaceae 320 Heteropogon contortus Roem. & Schult. Poaceae 321 Hibiscus lobatus (J. A. Murry) O. Kuntz. Malvaceae 322 Hibiscus panduriformis Byrm.f. Malvaceae *323 Hibiscus ros-sinensis L. Malvaceae *324 Hibiscus schizopetalus (Mast) Hook. Malvaceae 325 Holarrhena pubescens (Buch-Ham) Wall. [Plate XI, 7] Malvaceae 326 Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planchon, Ulmaceae 327 Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. [Plate XI, 8] Asclepiadaceae 328 Homonoia retusa Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae 329 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.V. Muell. Violaceae

64

330 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae 331 Hygrophila salicifolia (Vahl) Nees Acanthaceae 332 Hymenachne pseudointerrupta C. Muell. Poaceae 333 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae 334 Impatiens balsamina L. Balsaminaceae 335 Indigofera caerulea Roxb. Fabaceae 336 Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth Fabaceae 337 Indigofera glandulosa Willd. Fabaceae 338 Indigofera hochstetteri Baker Fabaceae 339 Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retwius Fabaceae 340 Indigofera linnaei Ali. Fabaceae 341 Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk. Fabaceae 342 Indigofera tinctoria L. Fabaceae 343 Iphigenia pallida L. Liliaceae 344 Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Convolvulaceae 345 Ipomoea campanulata L. Convolvulaceae 346

Ipomoea carnea Jacq. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin

Convolvulaceae

347 Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. Convolvulaceae 348 Ipomoea hederifolia L. Convolvulaceae 349 Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae 350 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. Convolvulaceae 351 Ipomoea maxima (L.f.) G. Don Convolvulaceae 352 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolvulaceae 353 Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Sch. Convolvulaceae 354 Ischaemum pilosum Hack. Poaceae 355 Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Poaceae 356 Iseilema laxum Hack. Poaceae 357 Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith Rubiaceae 358 Ixora pavetta Andr. Rubiaceae 359 Jasminum roxburghianum Wall. Oleaceae 360 Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. Euphorbiaceae 361 Jatropha gossypifolia L. Euphorbiaceae 362 Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. Cuccurbitaceae 363 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen Scrophulariaceae 364 Kirganelia reticulata (Poiret) Baillon Euphorbiaceae 365 Lagascea mollis Cav. Asteraceae 366 Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Stand. Cuccurbitaceae 367 Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight [Plate XII, 1] Lythraceae 368 Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn) Merr. [Plate XII, 2] Anacardiaceae 369 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae 370 Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajgopal Asteraceae 371 Launaea samentosa (Willd.) Alston Asteraceae 372 Lavandula bipinnata (Roth) O. Ktze. [Plate XII, 3] Lamiaceae 373 Lawsonia inermis L. Anacardiaceae 374 Lemna gibba L. Lemnaceae 375 Leonotis nepetifolia R.Br. Lamiaceae 376 Lepidagathis cristata Willd. Acanthaceae

65

377 Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wight & Arn. Asclepiadaceae 378 Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees Poaceae 379 Leucas aspera Spreng. Lamiaceae 380 Leucas ciliata Benth. Lamiaceae 381 Leucas lanata Benth. Lamiaceae 382 Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. Lamiaceae 383 Leucas stricta Benth. Lamiaceae 384 Lindernia oppositifolia (Roxb.) Mukh. Scrophulariaceae 385 Linum mysorense Benth. Linaceae 386 Lophopogon tridentatus (Roxb.) Hack. Poaceae 387 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara Onagraceae 388 Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae 389 Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbride [Plate VIII, 4] Sapotaceae 390 Maerua oblongifolia (Forssk.) A. Rich. Capparaceae 391 Mallotus philippensis (Lanm.) Muell-Arg. Euphorbiaceae *392 Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae 393 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae 394 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae 395 Maytenus emarginata (Will) Dingtlou [Plate XII, 5] Celastraceae 396 Melhania incana Heyne ex Wight & Arn. Steruliaceae *397 Melia azadirachta L. Meliaceae 398 Melochia corchorifolia L. Steruliaceae 399 Meyenia hawtayneana Nees [Plate XII, 6] Acanthaceae 400 Michelia champaca L. Magnoliaceae 401 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair [Plate XII, 7] Annonaceae 402 Millingtonia hortensis L.f. Bignoniaceae 403 Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae 404

Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth var. parviflora [Plate XII, 8]

Rubiaceae

405 Mnesithea granularis (L.) Koning & Sosef. Poaceae 406 Mollugo cerviana (L.) Seringe Aizoaceae 407 Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. Aizoaceae 408 Mollugo pentaphylla L. Aizoaceae *409 Momordica charantia L. Cuccurbitaceae 410 Momordica subangulata Blume Cuccurbitaceae 411 Morinda pubescens Smith [Plate XIII, 1] Rubiaceae 412 Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae 413 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roemer Cuccurbitaceae 414 Muntingia calabura L. Tiliaceae 415 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC [Plate XIII, 2] Ranunculaceae 416 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson Rutaceae *417 Nerium indicum Mill. Apocynaceae 418 Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. Solanaceae 419 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Nyctaginaceae 420 Ocimum americanum L. Lamiaceae 421 Ocimum basilicum L. Lamiaceae 422 Ocimum gratissimum L. Lamiaceae 423 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae

66

424 Opuntia elatior (Willd.) Miller Cactaceae 425 Oropetium roxburghianum (Steud.) S. M. Philips Poaceae 426 Oropetium thomaeum (L.f.) Trin. Poaceae 427 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. Hydrocharitaceae 428 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae 429 Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.) R.Br. [Plate XIII, 3] Asclepiadaceae 430 Pancratium triflorum Roxb. Amarylidaceae 431 Pandanus odorastissimus L.f. Pandanaceae 432 Panicum paludosum Roxb. Poaceae 433 Panicum trypheron Schult. Poaceae 434 Parkinsonia aculeata L. Caesalpiniaceae 435 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae 436 Paspalidium flavidum A. Camus. Poaceae 437 Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf. Poaceae 438 Paspalum vaginatum Sw. Poaceae 439 Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae 440 Pavetta hispidula Wight & Arn. Rubiaceae 441 Pavonia odorata Willd. [Plate XIII, 4] Rubiaceae 442 Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav. [Plate XIII, 5] Malvaceae 443 Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker ex Heyne Caesalpiniaceae 444 Pennisetum alopecuros Nees Poaceae 445 Pennisetum americanum (L.) K. Schum. Poaceae 446 Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin. Poaceae 447 Pentanema indicum (L.) Ling [Plate XIII, 6] Asteraceae 448 Pentatropis capensis (L.f.) Bullock Asclepiadaceae 449 Pergularia pallida Wight & Arn. Asclepiadaceae 450 Peristrophae paniculata (Forsk) Burmmit. Acanthaceae 451 Perotis indica (L.) O. Ktze. Poaceae 452 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) Gomez. Polygonaceae 453 Phaseolus vulgaris L. Fabaceae 454 Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. Arecaceae 455 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Asteraceae 456 Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. Euphorbiaceae 457 Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae 458 Phyllanthus fraternus Webster. Euphorbiaceae 459 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Euphorbiaceae 460 Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. in Lam. Euphorbiaceae *461 Physalis minima L. Solanaceae 462 Pimpinella heyneana (DC.) Kurz. Apiaceae 463 Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae 464 Plectranthus incanus Link. Lamiaceae 465 Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Lamiaceae 466 Plectranthus mollis (Ait.) Spreng. Lamiaceae 467 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae 468 Plumeria alba L. Apocynaceae 469 Plumeria rubra L. Apocynaceae 470 Polianthes tuberosa L. Agavaceae 471 Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. Annonaceae

67

472 Polycarpaea aurea Wight & Arn. Caryophyllaceae 473 Polygala arvensis Willd. Polygalaceae 474 Polygala elongata Klein ex Willd.L. Polygalaceae 475 Polygala erioptera DC. Polygalaceae 476 Polygonum plebeium R.Br. Polygonaceae 477 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae 478 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae 479 Portulaca pilosa L Portulacaceae 480 Premna integrifolia L. Verbenaceae 481 Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce Verbenaceae 482 Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Mimosaceae 483 Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. Fabaceae 484 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. [Plate XIII, 7] Fabaceae 485 Pulicaria wightiana C. B. Clrke Asteraceae 486 Punica granatum L. Punicaceae 487 Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. var. lappacea Amaranthaceae 488 Pycnospora lutescens (Poir.) Sxhindl. Fabaceae 489 Quirivelia frutescens (L.) M.R. & S.M. Almeida Apocynaceae 490 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurtz Acanthaceae 491 Rhus sinuata Thunb. Anacardiaceae 492 Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C. E. Hubb. Poaceae 493 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Fabaceae 494 Rhynchosia viscosa DC. [Plate XIII, 8] Fabaceae 495 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae 496 Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr.) Choisy [Plate XIV, 1] Convolvulaceae 497 Rostellularia crinita Nees Acanthaceae 498 Rostellularia diffusa (Willd.) Nees Acanthaceae 499 Rostellularia japonica (Thunb.) Ellin Acanthaceae 500 Rottboelia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. D. Clayton Poaceae 501 Rotula aquatica Lour. Boraginaceae 502 Ruellia prostrata Poir Acanthaceae 503 Ruellia tuberosa L. Acanthaceae 504 Rungia elegans Dalz. & Gibs. Acanthaceae 505 Rungia repens (L.) Nees Acanthaceae 506 Saccharum officinarum L. Poaceae 507 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae 508 Sacciolepis indica (L.) A. Chase Poaceae 509 Salvadora persica L. Salvadoraceae 510 Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Mimosaceae 511 Santalum album L. Santalaceae 512 Sapindus emarginata Vahl Sapindaceae 513 Sarcostemma intermedium Decne. [Plate XIV, 2] Asclepiadaceae 514 Sarcostemma viminale (L.) R.Br. ssp. Viminale Asclepiadaceae 515 Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.) Harms Araliaceae 516 Schrebera swieteniodes Roxb. [Plate XIV, 3] Oleaceae 517 Scilla hyacinthina (Roxb.) McBride [Plate XIV, 4] Liliaceae 518 Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae 519 Securinga leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell-Arg. Euphorbiaceae

68

520 Securinga virosa (Willd.) Baillon Euphorbiaceae 521 Sehima sulcatum (Hack.) A. Camus Poaceae 522 Semecarpus anacardium L.f. Anacardiaceae 523 Senecio tenuifolius Burm. Asteraceae 524 Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Wight Fabaceae 525 Setaria glauca Beauv. Poaceae 526 Setaria intermedia Roem. & Schult. Poaceae 527 Setaria verticillata (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae 528 Sida acuta Burm. Malvaceae 529 Sida cordata (N.Burman) Borssum Malvaceae 530 Sida mysorensis Wight & Arn. [Plate XIV, 5] Malvaceae 531 Sida spinosa L. Malvaceae 532 Solanum erianthum D. Don. Solanaceae 533 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae 534 Solanum pubescens Willd. Solanaceae 535 Solanum trilobatum L. [Plate XIV, 6] Solanaceae 536 Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. Solanaceae 537 Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae 538 Sopubia delphiniifolia G. Don. [Plate XIV, 7] Scrophulariaceae 539 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Adr. Juss. [Plate XIV, 8] Meliaceae 540 Spermacoce pusilla Wall. Rubiaceae 541 Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae 542 Sphaeranthus indicus L. Asteraceae 543 Spilanthes clava DC. Asteraceae 544 Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Sch. Lemnaceae 545 Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth. Poaceae 546 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl [Plate XV, 1] Verbenaceae 547 Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Scrophulariaceae 548 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. [Plate XV, 2] Bignoniaceae 549 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae 550 Striga densiflora Benth. Scrophulariaceae 551 Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke Scrophulariaceae 552 Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze Scrophulariaceae 553 Strychnos potatorum L.f. Strychnaceae 554 Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retzius) Alston Fabaceae 555 Stylosanthes hamata (L.) Taub. Fabaceae 556 Symphorema polyandrum Wight Symphoraceae 557 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae 558 Syzygium gardneri Thwaites Myrtaceae 559 Tabebuia argentea (Bur. & Schum.) Britt. Bignoniaceae 560 Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae 561 Tamarix ericoides Rottler Tamaricaceae 562 Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth Bignoniaceae 563 Tectona grandis L.f. Verbenaceae 564 Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Pers. Fabaceae 565 Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Fabaceae 566 Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pres. Fabaceae 567 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth. [Plate XV, 3] Combretaceae

69

568 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. Combretaceae 569 Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae 570 Terminalia chebula Retz. [Plate XV, 4] Combretaceae 571 Tetrapogon tenellus (Koen. ex Roxb.) Chiov. Poaceae 572 Themeda triandra Forsk. Poaceae 573 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. Malvaceae 574 Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa Malvaceae 575 Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Schum.. Apocynaceae 576 Thunbergia alata Bojer Acanthaceae 577 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. [Plate XV, 5] Menispermaceae 578 Trachys muricata (L.) Pers. Poaceae 579 Tragia hildebrandtii Muell-Arg. Euphorbiaceae 580 Tragus roxburghii Panigrahi Poaceae 581 Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae 582 Trichodesma indicum R.Br. Boraginaceae 583 Trichodesma zeylanicum R.Br. Boraginaceae 584 Tricholepis amplexicaulis Clke. Asteraceae 585 Tricholepis radicans (Roxb.) DC. Asteraceae 586 Trichosanthes cucumerina L. Cuccurbitaceae 587 Trichurus monsoniae (L.f) Townsend Amaranthaceae 588 Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae 589 Tripogon bromoides Roem. & Schult. Poaceae 590 Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae 591 Triumfetta rhomboidea N. Jacquin Tiliaceae 592 Triumfetta rotundifolia Lam. Tiliaceae 593 Turnera ulmifolia L. Turneraceae 594 Tylophora dalzellii Hook.f. Asclepiadaceae 595 Tylophora fasiculata Buch. Asclepiadaceae 596 Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Asclepiadaceae 597 Typha angustata Bory & Chaub. Typhaceae 598 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae 599 Urochloa helopus Stapf. Poaceae 600 Urochloa reptans Stapf. Poaceae 601 Vallaris solanacea Kuntze Apocynaceae 602 Ventilago madraspatana Gaertner. Rhamnaceae 603 Verbascum chinense (L.) Sant. Scrophulariaceae 604 Vernonia cinerea Less. Asteraceae 605 Vernonia indica C. B. Clarke Asteraceae 606 Vetiveria lawsoni (Hook.f.) Blatt. & McC. Poaceae 607 Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marcechal Fabaceae 608 Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek var. radiata Fabaceae 609 Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper Fabaceae 610 Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdcourt Fabaceae 611 Viscum nepalense Spreng. Loranthaceae 612 Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae 613 Waltheria Americana L. Steruliaceae 614 Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf Asclepiadaceae 615 Withania somnifera Dunal [Plate XV, 6] Solanaceae

70

616 Wolffia arrhiza (L.) Harkel ex Wimmer Lemnaceae 617 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. [Plate XV, 7] Apocynaceae 618 Xanthium indicum Koen. Asteraceae 619 Xenostegia tridenta (L.) Austin & Staples Convolvulaceae 620 Zaleya decandra (L.) N. Burman Aizoaceae 621 Zaleya govindia (Don.) Nair Aizoaceae 622 Ziziphus horrida Roth [Plate XV, 8] Rhmnaceae 623 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhmnaceae 624 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. Rhmnaceae 625 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Rhmnaceae 626 Zizipus mauritiana Lam. Rhmnaceae 627 Zornia gibbosa Spanoghe. Fabaceae

* Cultivated Species

71

5.2.2. Habitwise Species Composition

Trees

A total 118 tree species belonging to 45 families were recorded during

the study. Family Fabaceae form the most dominant family in the Kappath

hills with 7 genera and 10 species followed by the Mimosaceae with 4 genera

and 9 species, Caesalpiniaceae with 6 genera and 8 species, respectively, while

genus Acacia, Zizyphus and Ficus is the most species rich genus with 5 species

followed by the Terminalia and Dalbergia genus with 4 species each.

Shrubs

Fifty five species of shrubs were encountered in the study area

dominated by the family Acanthaceae and Mimosaceae with 6 species and

Verbenaceae with 5 species. Dodonea viscosa and Lantana camara are almost

common in all the study area.

Herbs

About 289 species of herbs were encountered in the study area, which

indicates the rich herbaceous diversity, because the forest is open. The

dominated families were Fabaceae, Asteraceae with 31 species and

Acanthaceae and Lamiaceae with 22 and 20 species. Dominant herbs in the

Kappath hills are Andrographis paniculata, Vernonia cineria and Pulicaria

wightiana etc. 289 speceies of herbs in the small area of Kappath hill indicates

rich herbaceous diversity.

72

Climbers

Forest in the Kappath hills are well represented by the climbers. A total

of 95 species from 21 families were occurred.

5.2.3 Floristic Diversity

In agreement with the work of Tripathi et al. (2010), Yattin gudda and

Marul Siddeshwar temple forest area converted in to patchy formation due to

the forest fragmentaton which leads to the reduction of total amount of forest

areas. Isolation of smaller patches and habitat losses are increases in

disturbance level was also seen in the above mentioned areas. All these factors

are responsible for decreases in tree diversity in the smaller fragments.

5.2.3.1 Shannon-Weaver index

The diversity of the woody species in the forest was generally high.

Shannon-Wieners index for dominance shows that H=1.39, the floristic

diversity index of Simpson 1-D shows 0.068 and species richness of

Margalef's index is 67.74.

5.2.3.2 Habitwise Species Density, Frequency and Abundance

Kappath forest constitutes variety of plant species, various

biotic and edaphic factors have played dominant role in determining its

growth in the study area. The most dominant species in the Kappath

forests were Terminalia alata (Tree), Dodonaea viscosa (Shrub),

Vernonia cineria (Herb) and Atylosia scarabacoides (Climber). The

least dominant species were Terminalia arjuna (Tree), Abutilon

73

bidentatum (Shrub), Eleiotis trifoliolata (Herb), Argyreia cymosa

(Climber) and other species are least dominant in the forest.

Density and Abundance: Terminalia alata (D=9.26, A=27.23)

tree having the highest density and abundance followed by Acacia

chundra (D=8.85, A=17.35) and Grewia orbiculata (D=8.13, A=12.13).

Mitragyna parviflora, Lannea coromandelica, Terminalia arjuna and

others species having the least density and abundance (D=0.01, A=1). In

case of shrubs, Dodonaea viscosa (D=5.13, A=11.4), Lantana camara

(D=2.57, A=6.76) and Cassia auriculata (D=0.95, A=2.96) are having

the highest density and abundance. Schefflera venulosa, Maerua

oblongifolia, Abutilon bidentatum and others species having the least

density and abundance (D=0.01, A=1). While in herbs layer, Vernonia

cineria (D=4.56, A=5.84), Lavandula bipinnata (D=3.55, A=5.74) and

Pulicaria wightiana (D=3.09, A=5.72) are having the highest density

and abundance. Striga lutea, Allmania nodiflora, Eleiotis trifoliolata

and others species having the least density and abundance (D=0.01,

A=1). Whereas in climbers, Atylosia scarabacoides (D=1.3, A=3.61),

Asparagus laevissimus (D=0.54, A=2.57) and Rhynchosia minima

(D=0.52, A=2.88) are having the highest density and abundance.

Desmodium triflorum, Ceropegia juncea, Argyreia cymosa and other

species having the least density and abundance (D=0.01, A=1) tabulated

in the table 6, 7, 8 and 9.

Frequency: Grewia orbiculata (F=67), Acacia chundra (F=51)

and Terminalia alata (F=34) trees are having the highest frequency.

74

Mitragyna parviflora, Lannea coromandelica, Terminalia arjuna and

others species having the least frequency (F=1). The shrubs of

Dodonaea viscosa (F=45), Lantana camara (F=38) and Cassia

auriculata (F=32) are having the highest frequency. Schefflera

venulosa, Maerua oblongifolia, Abutilon bidentatum and others species

having the least frequency (F=1). While in herb layer Vernonia cineria

(F=78), Pulicaria wightiana (F=54) and Lavandula bipinnata (F=49)

are having the highest frequency. Striga lutea, Allmania nodiflora,

Eleiotis trifoliolata and others species having the least frequency (F=1).

The climbers of Atylosia scarabacoides (F=36), Asparagus laevissimus

(F=21), Rhynchosia minima (F=18) are having the highest frequency.

Desmodium triflorum, Ceropegia juncea, Argyreia cymosa and other

species having the least frequency (F=1) tabulated in the table 6, 7, 8

and 9.

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Table 6. Tree species composition of Kappath forest with their density, abundance and frequency

Sl. No.

Name of the plant (Trees) Density Abundance Frequency

1 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 9.26 27.23 34 2 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. 8.85 17.35 51 3 Grewia orbiculata Rottler 8.13 12.13 67 4

Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth) Sprague

7.2

13.09

55

5

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr.

6.2

18.23

34

6 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 5.68 23.66 24 7 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Juss. 4.34 9.23 47 8 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. 2.63 4.69 56 9 Gardenia gummifera L. 2.58 5.60 46 10 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 2.47 10.29 24 11 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou 1.81 5.48 33 12 Morinda pubescens Smith 1.76 3.74 47 13 Cassia fistula L. 1.28 2.90 44 14 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 1.22 6.1 20 15 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. 1.21 5.76 21 16 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 0.83 5.18 16 17 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 0.66 3.14 21 18 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 0.4 5.71 7 19 Acacia latronum (L.f.) Willd. 0.36 2.57 14 20 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 0.31 2.38 13 21 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.)

Almeida 0.26 5.2 5

22 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 0.26 2.88 9 23 Terminalia chebula Retz. 0.26 3.25 8 24 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. 0.23 3.83 6 25 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. 0.23 3.28 7 26 Casuarina equisitifolia L. 0.17 8.5 2 27 Erythrina variegata L. 0.17 5.66 3 28 Tamarindus indica L. 0.16 5.33 3 29 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. 0.15 15 1 30 Capparis divaricata Lam. 0.14 1.4 10 31 Phyllanthus emblica L. 0.13 1.3 10 32 Stychnous potatorum L.f. 0.13 13 1 33 Tectona grandis L. 0.13 2.6 5 34 Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wight &

Arn.) Cleghorn 0.11 11 1

35 Boswellia serrata Roxb.ex Colebr. 0.08 1.6 5 36 Ixora arborea Roxb ex Smith 0.07 3.5 2 37 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 0.06 1.2 5 38 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 0.05 1.66 3 39 Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 0.04 2 2 40 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 0.03 1.5 2

76

41 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze 0.03 3 1 42 Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Macbr. 0.03 1.5 2 43 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. 0.03 1.5 2 44 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. 0.03 3 1 45 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.03 1.5 2 46 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp.

salvifolium 0.02 2 1

47 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 0.02 2 1 48 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. 0.02 2 1 49 Ficus sp. 0.02 2 1 50 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. 0.02 2 1 51 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell-Arg. 0.02 2 1 52 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair 0.02 2 1 53 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. 0.02 2 1 54 Ziziphus horrida Roxb. 0.02 2 1 55 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 0.01 1 1 56 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk, 0.01 1 1 57 Capparis grandis L.f. 0.01 1 1 58 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston 0.01 1 1 59 Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. 0.01 1 1 60 Ficus religiosa L. 0.01 1 1 61 Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn) Merrill 0.01 1 1 62

Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth var. parviflora

0.01 1 1

63 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolsion 0.01 1 1 64 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 0.01 1 1 65 Salvadora persica L. 0.01 1 1 66 Santalum album L. 0.01 1 1 67 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 0.01 1 1 68

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.

0.01 1 1

69 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. 0.01 1 1 70 Acacia eburnean (L.f.) Willd. 0.01 1 1 71 Acacia ferruginea DC. 0.01 1 1 72 Acacia nilotica L. 0.01 1 1 73 Agave americana L. 0.01 1 1 74 Albizia lebbeck Benth. 0.01 1 1 75 Annona squamosa L. 0.01 1 1 76 Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. 0.01 1 1 77 Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertner 0.01 1 1 78 Bauhinia purpurea L. 0.01 1 1 79 Cassia siamea Lam. 0.01 1 1 80 Combretum latifolium Blume 0.01 1 1 81 Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. 0.01 1 1 82 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 0.01 1 1 83 Delonix regia Rafin 0.01 1 1 84 Diospyros montana Roxb. 0.01 1 1 85 Ficus benghalensis L. 0.01 1 1

77

86 Ficus hispida L.f.Suppl. 0.01 1 1 87 Ficus racemosa L. 0.01 1 1 88 Ficus religiosa L. 0.01 1 1 89 Gardenia latifolia Ait. 0.01 1 1 90 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp 0.01 1 1 91

Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planchon,

0.01 1 1

92 Lawsonia inermis L. 0.01 1 1 93 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson 0.01 1 1 94 Mangifera indica L. 0.01 1 1 95 Melia azadirachta L. 0.01 1 1 96 Michelia champaca L. 0.01 1 1 97 Millingtonia hortensis L.f. 0.01 1 1 98 Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. 0.01 1 1 99 Plumeria alba L. 0.01 1 1

100 Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. 0.01 1 1 101 Terminalia catappa L. 0.01 1 1 102 Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa 0.01 1 1 103

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don

0.01 1 1

104 Ficus microcarpa L.f. 0.01 1 1 105 Plumeria rubra L. 0.01 1 1 106 Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. 0.01 1 1 107 Anacardium occidentale L. 0.01 1 1 108 Semecarpus anacardium L.f. 0.01 1 1 109 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. 0.01 1 1 110 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. 0.01 1 1 111 Muntingia calabura L. 0.01 1 1 112 Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. 0.01 1 1

78

Table 7. Shrubs species composition of Kappath forest with their density, abundance and frequency

Sl.No. Name of the plant Density Abundance Frequncy 1 Dodonaea viscosa L. 5.13 11.4 45 2 Lantana camara L. 2.57 6.76 38 3 Cassia auriculata L. 0.95 2.96 32 4 Cissus pallida (Wight & Arn.) Steudel 0.25 2.5 10 5 Carissa spinarum L. Mantiss. 0.21 2.3 9 6 Grewia villosa Willd. 0.2 3.33 6 7 Canthium parviflorum Lam. 0.19 1.9 10 8 Grewia flavescens Juss. 0.12 4 3 9 Barleria prionitis L. 0.11 2.75 4

10 Solanum anguivi Lam. 0.11 5.5 2 11 Clerodendrum serratum Spreng. 0.09 4.5 2 12 Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small 0.09 9 1 13 Grewia tenax (Forsk) Fiori. 0.09 4.5 2 14 Prosopis chilensis Stuntz 0.09 1.8 5 15 Acacia lotronum (L.f.) Willd. 0.08 4 2 16 Azima tetracantha Lamk. 0.06 3 2 17 Barleria buxifolia L.(undershrub) 0.06 6 1 18 Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Swartz. 0.06 3 2 19 Barleria gibsoni Dalz. 0.05 2.5 2 20 Barleria tomentosa Roth. 0.05 2.5 2 21 Securinga virosa (Willd.) Baillon 0.05 1.66 3 22 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. 0.04 4 1 23 Rhus sinuata Thunb. 0.04 2 2 24 Solanum incanum L. 0.04 1.33 3 25 Capparis decidua (Forsk) Edgew. 0.03 3 1 26 Securinga leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell-Arg. 0.03 1.5 2 27 Bauhinia racemosa Lam. 0.02 1 2 28 Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. 0.02 2 1 29

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don

0.02

2

1

30 Indidofera tinctoria L. 0.02 2 1 31 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 0.02 2 1 32 Solanum erianthum D. Don 0.02 2 1 33 Sophora glauca DC. 0.02 2 1 34 Vitex negundo L. 0.02 2 1 35 Ximenia americana L. 0.02 2 1 36 Zizyphus horrida Roth. 0.02 2 1 37 Abutilon bidentatum A.Rich. 0.01 1 1 38 Adhatoda zelanica Medikus 0.01 1 1 39 Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce 0.01 1 1 40 Calotropis gigantea, R.Br. ex Ait. 0.01 1 1 41 Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br 0.01 1 1 42 Capparis sepiaria L. 0.01 1 1 43 Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f. 0.01 1 1 44 Helicteres isora L. 0.01 1 1

79

45 Kirganelia reticulata (Poiret) Baillon 0.01 1 1 46 Mimosa hamata Willd. 0.01 1 1 47 Symphorema polyandrum Wight 0.01 1 1 48 Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench 0.01 1 1 49 Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. 0.01 1 1 50 Carissa carandas L. Mantiss. 0.01 1 1 51 Cassia sophera L. 0.01 1 1 52 Cassia surattensis N. Burman 0.01 1 1 53 Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Trivengadum 0.01 1 1 54 Cissus quadrangularis L. 0.01 1 1 55 Duranta repens L. 0.01 1 1 56 Eupatorium Sp 0.01 1 1 57 Euphorbia antiquorum L. 0.01 1 1 58 Fioria vitifolia (L.) Mattei 0.01 1 1 59 Grewia damine Gaertner 0.01 1 1 60 Jatropha curcas L. 0.01 1 1 61 Maerua oblongifolia (Forsk) A. Richard 0.01 1 1 62 Nerium indicum Mill. 0.01 1 1 63 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. 0.01 1 1 64 Prosopis chilensis Stuntz 0.01 1 1 65 Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.) Harms 0.01 1 1 66 Sesbania bispinosa (Jacquin) W.F. Wight 0.01 1 1 67 Solanum torvum Swartz. 0.01 1 1 68 Tamarix ericoides Rottler 0.01 1 1 69 Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth 0.01 1 1 70 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. 0.01 1 1 71 Zizyphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. 0.01 1 1 72 Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br. 0.01 1 1 73 Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. 0.01 1 1

80

Table 8. Climber species composition of Kappath forest with their density, abundance and frequency

Sl.No. Name of the plant (Climbers) Density Abundance Frequncy 1 Atylosia scarabacoides (L.) Benth. 1.3 3.61 36 2 Asparagus laevissimus Steud in Hohen 0.54 2.57 21 3 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. 0.52 2.88 18 4 Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. 0.37 4.62 8 5 Tylophora fasiculata Buch. 0.32 2.28 14 6 Tylophora indica (N.Burman) Merr. 0.29 1.81 16 7 Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels 0.26 1.85 14 8 Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. 0.25 2.08 12 9 Passiflora foetida L. 0.23 1.64 14

10 Meyenia hawtayneana (Wall.) Nees 0.17 5.66 3 11 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. 0.11 1.83 6 12 Convolvus arvensis L 0.09 1.8 5 13 Aristolochia indica L. 0.08 1.6 5 14 Gymnema sylvestre (Rottler) Willd. 0.07 1.4 5 15 Ventilago madraspatana Gaertner 0.07 3.5 2 16 Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. 0.06 3 2 17 Pycnospora lutescens (Poir.) Sxhindl 0.06 6 1 18 Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt. 0.06 2 3 19 Ceropegia hirsuta Wight & Arn. 0.05 2.5 2 20 Cissampelos Pareira L. 0.05 1.66 3 21 Desmodium laxiflorum DC. 0.05 2.5 2 22 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roemer 0.05 2.5 2 23 Dioscorea oppositifolia L. 0.04 1.33 3 24 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey 0.04 2 2 25 Rivea hypocreteriformis Choisy 0.04 1.33 3 26 Ampelocissus tomentosa (Roth.) Planchon 0.03 1.5 2 27

Cryptolepis buchananii R.Br. & Roem. & Schult.

0.03

3

1

28 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. 0.03 1.5 2 29 Tylophora dalzelli Hook. 0.03 3 1 30 Abrus precatorius L. 0.02 1 2 31 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. 0.02 1 2 32 Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth. 0.02 2 1 33 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. 0.02 2 1 34 Pentatropis capensis (L.f.) Bullock 0.02 2 1 35 Pergularia pallida Wight & Arn. 0.02 2 1 36 Rhynchosia viscosa DC. 0.02 1 2 37 Sarcostemma intermedium Decaisne 0.02 2 1 38 Crtptostegia grandiflora R.Br. 0.01 1 1 39 Jasminum roxburghianum Wall. 0.01 1 1 40 Asparagus gonocladodes Baker 0.01 1 1 41 Asparagus racemosus Willd. 0.01 1 1 42 Asparagus jacquemonti Baker 0.01 1 1 43 Atylosia albicans (Wight & Arn.) Benth. 0.01 1 1 44 Basella alba L. 0.01 1 1

81

45 Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. 0.01 1 1 46 Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC. 0.01 1 1 47 Cansjera rheedii J. Gmelin 0.01 1 1 48 Capparis zeylanica L. 0.01 1 1 49 Celastrus paniculatus Willd. 0.01 1 1 50 Clitoria ternatea L. 0.01 1 1 51 Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb 0.01 1 1 52 Cucumis melo L. 0.01 1 1 53 Curbita maxima Duchesne 0.01 1 1 54 Cuscuta reflex Roxb. 0.01 1 1 55 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. 0.01 1 1 56 Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. 0.01 1 1 57

Glycine wightii (Grah. Ex Wight & Arn.) Verd.

0.01 1 1

58 Ipomoea sepiaria Koenig 0.01 1 1 59 Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Sch. 0.01 1 1 60 Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. 0.01 1 1 61 lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley 0.01 1 1 62 Leptadenia reticulata Wight & Arn. 0.01 1 1 63 Momordica charantia L. 0.01 1 1 64 Momordica subangulata Blume 0.01 1 1 65 Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.) R.Br. 0.01 1 1 66

Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker ex Heyne

0.01 1 1

67 Salanum trilobatum L. 0.01 1 1 68 Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers 0.01 1 1 69 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. 0.01 1 1 70 Tragia hildebrandtii Muell-Arg. 0.01 1 1 71 Trichosanthes cucumerina L. 0.01 1 1 72 Vigna mungo (L.) Heppe 0.01 1 1 73 Vigna radiate (L.) Wilczek 0.01 1 1 74 Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf 0.01 1 1 75 Aeschynomene indica L. 0.01 1 1 76 Ampleocissus indica (L.) Planchon 0.01 1 1 77 Argyreia cymosa (Roxb.) Sw. 0.01 1 1 78 Ceropegia juncea Roxb. 0.01 1 1 79 Corallocarpus epigaeus (Rottler) Cl. 0.01 1 1 80 Cucumis sativus L. 0.01 1 1 81 Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. 0.01 1 1

82

Table 9. Herbs species composition of Kappath forest with their density, abundance and frequency

Sl.No. Herbs Density Abundance Frequncy 1 Vernonia cinerea Less. 4.56 5.84 78 2 Lavandula bipinnata (Roth) O. Ktze. 3.55 7.24 49 3 Pulicaria wightiana C. B. Clrke, 3.09 5.72 54 4 Pentanema indicum (L.) Ling 2.33 5.97 39 5 Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retzius) Alston. 1.35 5 27 6 Justicia simplex G. Don, 1.04 6.5 16 7 Hedyotis puberula (G.Don) Arn. 1 5.26 19 8 Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. 0.96 3.42 28 9 Lepidagathis cristata Willd. 0.91 3.64 25 10 Rungia elegans Dalz. & Gibs. 0.86 4.52 19 11 Tridax procumbens L. 0.84 4 21 12 Spermacoco hispida L. 0.82 4.82 17 13 Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze 0.81 5.06 16 14 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl 0.76 9.5 8 15 Sopubia delphiniifolia G. Don. 0.75 4.68 16 16 Leucas aspera Spreng. 0.7 4.375 16 17 Scilla hyacinthina (Roxb.) McBride 0.68 4.25 16 18 Parthenium hysterophorus L. 0.67 11.16 6 19 Spermacoco pusilla Wall. 0.66 11 6 20 Striga densiflora Benth. 0.6 4.28 14 21 Asparagus laevissimus Steud in Hohen 0.54 2.57 21 22 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. 0.54 3.17 17 23 Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth. 0.53 4.07 13 24 Euphorbia hirta L. 0.51 3.92 13 25 Enicostemma axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal 0.5 5 10 26 Polygala chinensis L. 0.48 4.36 11 27 Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop 0.39 2.78 14 28 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. 0.38 3.8 10 29 Waltheria Americana L. 0.38 5.42 7 30 Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. 0.37 4.625 8 31

Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schultes & Schultes.f.

0.37 3.36 11

32 Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav. 0.37 3.36 11 33 Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth. 0.36 3.27 11 34 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurtz 0.36 4.5 8 35 Cassia tora L. 0.35 5 7 36 Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pres. 0.31 5.16 6 37 Blepharis repens (Vahl) Roth. 0.28 4 7 38 Trichodesma indicum R.Br. 0.26 3.25 8 39 Andrographis echioides Nees 0.25 2.27 11 40 Justicia procumbens L. 0.24 8 3 41 Boerhavia chinensis (L.) Aschers 0.23 3.83 6 42 Euphorbia cristata Roth. 0.21 3 7 43 Melhania incana Heyne ex Wight & Arn. 0.21 2.625 8

83

44 Pavonia odorata Willd. 0.21 3.5 6 45 Polygala arvensis Willd. 0.21 3.5 6 46 Urena lobata L. 0.21 5.25 4 47 Cassia sericea Sw. 0.2 4 5 48 Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. 0.19 3.8 5 49 Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson 0.18 4.5 4 50 Phyllanthus fraternus Webster. 0.18 3 6 51 Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 0.18 6 3 52 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.17 8.5 2 53 Crotalaria retusa L. 0.17 4.25 4 54 Mollugo pentaphylla L. 0.17 3.4 5 55 Boerhaavia diffusa L. 0.16 3.2 5 56 Cleome viscosa L. 0.16 4 4 57 Echinops echinatus Roxb. 0.16 2 8 58 Euphorbia elegans Sprengel 0.16 8 2 59 Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng 0.16 5.33 3 60 Tribulus terrestris L. 0.16 3.20 5 61 Acalypha indica L. 0.14 4.66 3 62 Cassia mimosoides L. 0.14 2 7 63 Crotalaria chinensis L. 0.14 2.80 5 64 Emilia sonchifolia DC. 0.14 3.50 4 65 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen 0.14 7 2 66 Phyllanthus virgatus Forster f. 0.14 3.50 4 67 Dicoma tomentosa Cass. 0.13 4.33 3 68 Flacourtia indica (N.Burman) Merr. 0.13 4.33 3 69 Linaria ramosissima Wall. 0.13 4.33 3 70 Peristrophae paniculata (Forsk) Burmmit. 0.13 4.33 3 71 Plectrnnthus barbatus Andr. 0.13 6.5 2 72 Rungia repens (L.) Nees 0.13 3.25 4 73 Barleria cristata L.(H) 0.12 04 3 74 Crotalaria linifolia L.f. 0.12 03 4 75 Cyanotis fasciculata Schult. 0.12 04 3 76 Digera muricata L. 0.12 03 4 77 Homanoia retusa Muell. 0.12 06 2 78 Lagascea mollis Cav. 0.12 04 3 79 Leucas lanata Benth. 0.12 06 2 80 Linum mysorense Benth. 0.12 06 2 81 Mollugo cerviana (L.) Seringe 0.12 04 3 82 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Grene 0.12 06 2 83 Ruellia prostrata Poir 0.12 12 1 84 Andrographis paniculata Nees 0.11 2.2 5 85 Eranthemum malabarica C. B. Clarke 0.11 3.66 3 86 Hibiscus lobatus (J. A. Murry) O. Kuntz. 0.11 3.66 3 87 Ichnocarpus frutescens Ait. 0.11 5.5 2 88 Leucas ciliata Benth. 0.11 5.5 2 89 Oxalis corniculata L. 0.11 2.75 4 90 Coleus barbatus Benth. 0.1 05 2 91 Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Pers. 0.1 05 2

84

92 Zornia gibbosa Spanoghe 0.1 3.33 3 93 Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet 0.09 03 3 94

Aspidopterys cordata (Heyne. ex Wall.) ex Wall.

0.09 03 3

95 Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss. 0.09 03 3 96

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. var. neglecta (Wight & Arn.) Baker,

0.09 4.5 2

97

Heliotropium subulatum (Hochst. ex DC.) Vatke

0.09 4.5 2

98 Heliotropium zeylanicum N. Burman 0.09 4.5 2 99 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.V. Muell 0.09 03 3

100

Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke

0.09 4.5 2

101 Polycarpaea aurea Wight & Arn. 0.09 4.5 2 102 Stemodia viscosa Roxb. 0.09 4.5 2 103 Coldenia procumbens L. 0.08 04 2 104 Dicliptera foetida Forssk. 0.08 2.66 3 105 Indigofera tinctoria L. 0.08 4 2 106 Plectranthus mollis (Ait.) Spreng. 0.08 2.66 3 107 Senecio tenuifolius Burm. 0.08 8 1 108 Sida cordata (N.Burman) Borssum 0.08 2.66 3 109 Typha angustata Bory & Chaub. 0.08 08 1 110 Acalypha ciliata Forsskal 0.07 3.5 2 111 Anisomeles indica (L.) O.Kuntze 0.07 3.5 2 112 Glinus lotoides L. 0.07 3.5 2 113 Indigofera oblongifolia Forskal 0.07 3.5 2 114 Justicia heterocrpa Anders. 0.07 3.5 2 115 Justicia trinervia Vahl, 0.07 2.33 3 116 Pavetta siphonantha Dalz. 0.07 3.5 2 117 Sida mysorensis Wight & Arn. 0.07 2.33 3 118 Trichodesma africanum R.Br. 0.07 2.33 3 119 Amaranthus spinosus L. 0.06 2 3 120 Bidens biternata (Lour) Merr. 0.06 2 3 121 Cassia absus L. 0.06 2 3 122 Cleome felina L.f. 0.06 2 3 123 Grangea madraspatana Poir. 0.06 3 2 124 Heliotropium indicum L. 0.06 6 1 125 Hygrophila salicifiolia (Vahl) Nees 0.06 6 1 126 Impatiens balsamina L. 0.06 2 3 127 Leucas stricta Benth. 0.06 3 2 128 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. 0.06 6 1 129 Tricholepis radicans DC. 0.06 2 3 130 Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume. 0.05 2.5 2 131 Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hill. 0.05 5 1 132 Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. 0.05 5 1 133 Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Heyne

ex Roth 0.05 1.66 3

134 Celosia argentea L. 0.05 2.5 2

85

135 Indigofera caerulea Roxb. 0.05 2.5 2 136 Indigofera glandulosa Roxb.ex Roth. 0.05 2.5 2 137 Mimosa pudica L. 0.05 1.66 3 138 Pogostemon paniculatus Benth. 0.05 5 1 139 Polygala erioptera DC. 0.05 2.5 2 140 Polygonum plebeium R.Br. 0.05 2.5 2 141 Aloe vera (L.) N. Burman 0.04 4 1 142 Anisomeles malabarica R.Br. 0.04 4 1 143 Bergia ammannioides Roxb. 0.04 4 1 144 Chlorophytum laxum R.Br. 0.04 2 2 145 Commelina sps. 0.04 2 2 146 Crotalaria pallida Aiton. 0.04 2 2 147 Crotalaria pusilla Heyne ex Roth. 0.04 2 2 148 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.04 2 2 149 Elytraria aculis (L.f.) Lindau 0.04 4 1 150 Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retwius 0.04 2 2 151 Portuloca oleracea L. 0.04 4 1 152 Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. 0.04 2 2 153 Verbascum chinense (L.) Sant. 0.04 4 1 154 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.03 3 1 155 Alternanthera pungens Humboldt. 0.03 3 1 156 Amaranthus viridis L. 0.03 3 1 157 Fimbristylis sp. 0.03 1.5 2 158 Kalanchoe olivacea Dalz. & Gibs. 0.03 3 1 159 Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. 0.03 3 1 160 Cleome chelidonii (L.f.) Suppl. 0.03 3 1 161 Corchorus trilocularis L. 0.03 3 1 162 Crotalaria orixensis Willd. 0.03 3 1 163 Crozophora rottleri (Geiseler) A. Juss. 0.03 3 1 164 Kalanchoe glandulosa Hochst. 0.03 3 1 165 Lenotis nepetifolia R.Br. 0.03 1.5 2 166 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. 0.03 3 1 167 Pimpinella heyneana (DC.) Kurz. 0.03 3 1 168 Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce 0.03 3 1 169 Sida acuta N. Burm.f. 0.03 3 1 170 Sida spinosa L. 0.03 1.5 2 171 Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet 0.02 2 1 172 Acanthospermum hispidum DC. 0.02 2 1 173 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. 0.02 2 1 174 Argemone mexicana L. 0.02 2 1 175 Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. 0.02 2 1 176 Cassia italica (Miller) Lam. 0.02 2 1 177 Cassia occidentalis L. 0.02 2 1 178 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. 0.02 2 1 179 Cleome gynandra L. 0.02 2 1 180 Corbinchonia decumbens (Forsk.) Exell. 0.02 2 1 181 Crotalaria hirta Willd. 0.02 2 1 182 Ehretia pubescens Benth. 0.02 2 1

86

183 Fagonia indica N. Burman 0.02 2 1 184 Hedyotis herbacea L. 0.02 2 1 185 Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees 0.02 2 1 186 Indigofera hochstetteri Baker 0.02 2 1 187 Jatropha gossypifolia L. 0.02 2 1 188 Justicia betonica L. 0.02 2 1 189 Ocimum basilicum L. 0.02 2 1 190 Premna integrifolia L. 0.02 1 2 191 Sophora glauca DC. 0.02 2 1 192 Tragia hildenbrandtii Muell-Arg. 0.02 2 1 193 Vernonia indica C. B. Clarke 0.02 2 1 194 Croton bonplandianus Baillon 0.01 1 1 195 Hyptis suaveolens Poit. 0.01 1 1 196 Indigofera linnaei Ali. 0.01 1 1 197 Solanum nigrum L. 0.01 1 1 198 Viscum nepalense Spreng. 0.01 1 1 199 Withania somnifera Dunal 0.01 1 1 200 Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.) Wight & Arn. 0.01 1 1 201 Abutilon pannosum (G.Foster) Schlecht. 0.01 1 1 202 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. 0.01 1 1 203 Aerva persica (N.Burman) Merr. 0.01 1 1 204 Allmania nodiflora (L.) R.Br. 0.01 1 1 205 Amaranthus graecizans L. 0.01 1 1 206 Amaranthus tricolor L. 0.01 1 1 207 Anagallis arvensis L. 0.01 1 1 208 Anisomeles heyneana Benth. 0.01 1 1 209 Arachis hypogea L. 0.01 1 1 210 Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. 0.01 1 1 211 Asclepias curasavica L. 212 Aspidopterys cordata (Heyne. ex

Wall.) ex Wall. 0.01 1 1

213 Bacopa monnieri (L) Penn. 0.01 1 1 214 Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson 0.01 1 1 215

Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Heyne ex Roth

0.01 1 1

216 Cannabis sativa L. 0.01 1 1 217 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. 0.01 1 1 218 Cassia alata L. 0.01 1 1 219 Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G.Don. 0.01 1 1 220 Centella asiatica L. 0.01 1 1 221 Cereus peruvianus (L.) Miller 0.01 1 1 222 Cordiospermum canescens Wall 0.01 1 1 223 Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees 0.01 1 1 224 Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir) Nees 0.01 1 1 225 Drimia congesta (Wight) Ans. & Ragh. 0.01 1 1 226 Eleiotis trifoliolata Cooke. 0.01 1 1 227 Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. 0.01 1 1 228 Euphorbia prostrata Aiton 0.01 1 1

87

229 Euphorbia tirucalli L 0.01 1 1 230 Glinus oppositifolius (L.) DC. 0.01 1 1 231 Gomphrena celosioides Mart. 0.01 1 1 232 Helianthus annus L. 0.01 1 1 233 Heylandia laterbrosa DC. 0.01 1 1 234 Hibiscus panduriformis Byrm.f. 0.01 1 1 235 Hibiscus ros-sinensis L. 0.01 1 1 236 Hibiscus schizopetalus (Mast) Hook. 0.01 1 1 237 Kyillinga nemoralis (Forster) Dandy ex Hutch 0.01 1 1 238 Launaea samentosa (Willd.) Alston 0.01 1 1 239 Lemna gibba L. 0.01 1 1 240 Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. 0.01 1 1 241 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara 0.01 1 1 242

Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Karsten

0.01 1 1

243 Malva sylvestris L. 0.01 1 1 244 Digera muricata L. 0.01 1 1 245 Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. 0.01 1 1 246 Opuntia elatior (Willd.) Miller 0.01 1 1 247 Pavetta hispidula Wight & Arn. 0.01 1 1 248 Physalis minima L. 0.01 1 1 249 Plectranthus incanus Link. 0.01 1 1 250 Plumbago zeylanica L. 0.01 1 1 251 Polianthes tuberosa L. 0.01 1 1 252 Portuloca pilosa L. 0.01 1 1 253 Punica granatum L. 0.01 1 1 254 Pycnospora lutescens (Poir.) Sxhindl. 0.01 1 1 255 Ricinus communis L. 0.01 1 1 256 Rostellularia japonica (Thunb.) Ellis 0.01 1 1 257 Rotula aquatica Lour. 0.01 1 1 258 Rumax vesicarius L. 0.01 1 1 259 Scoparia dulcis L. 0.01 1 1 260 Sesamum orientale L. 0.01 1 1 261 Sonchus oleraceus L. 0.01 1 1 262 Spilanthes clava DC. 0.01 1 1 263 Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid 0.01 1 1 264 Streblus asper Lour. 0.01 1 1 265 Striga lutea Lour 0.01 1 1 266 Stylosanthes hamata (L.) Taub. 0.01 1 1 267 Tagetes erecta L. 0.01 1 1 268 Trichodesma zeylanicum R.Br. 0.01 1 1 269 Tricholepis amplexicaulis Clke. 0.01 1 1 270 Triumfetta rhomboidea N. Jacquin, 0.01 1 1 271 Triumfetta rotundifolia Lam. 0.01 1 1 272 Turnera ulmifolia L. 0.01 1 1 273 Typha angustata Bory & Chaub. 0.01 1 1 274 Vallaris solanacea Kuntze 0.01 1 1 275 Vicoa indica DC. 0.01 1 1

88

276 Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. 0.01 1 1 277 Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) DC. 0.01 1 1 278 Brachystelma maculatum Hook.f. 0.01 1 1 279

Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker

0.01 1 1

280 Commelina benghalensis L. 0.01 1 1 281 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. 0.01 1 1

89

5.2.2.3 Tree Density

The overall density of tree species in Kappath forest with DBH

≥10 cm was 7055 individuals. This was classified in to five density

classes: I (0.1- 2), II (2.1-4), III (4.1-6), IV (6.1-8), V (8.1-10).

Percentage and number of species in the density classes (Fig. 9), and

number of individuals per of each tree species is described in the Table

9. Terminalia alata representing the density class V (9.26), the other

two tree species were Acacia chundra and Grewia orbiculata are

contribute 8.85 and 8.13 respectively. Two tree species in density class

IV (13.4), contributed the highest number of individuals. This is due to

the dominance of Dolichandrone atrovirens (7.2) and Anogeissus

latifolia (6.2). In density class III accounted for 11.70% of the density

class with Eucalyptus globulus and Soymida febrifuga each

representing 568 and 434 individuals. Which comes next density class

II accounted for 7.68% of the density class which comprises the

Grewia tiliifolia and Gardenia gummifera and Hardwickia binata each

representing the 263, 258 and 247 individuals, majority of the tree

species are represented in the density class 1 distribution (13.18%)

were represented with more number of tree species but contributed less

density (number of stems). They are Terminalia arjuna, Santalum

album, Salvadora persica, Lannea coromandelica, Cochlospermum

religiosum, Stereospermum chelonoides Miliusa tomentosa, Mallotus

philippensis, Givotia rottleriformis, Schrebera swietenioides etc which

are represented with less number of species need conservation

attention.

90

Figure 9. Density of all tree species by size class in the Kappath forest

5.2.2.4 Tree Frequency

Based on the percentage frequency values, the tree species were

classified in to four frequency classes: A) 0-20, B) 21-40, C) 41-60, D)

61-80. The frequency and percentage frequency values of each species

are described. 54 Tree species were distributed in frequency class A. In

class B Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia alata, Maytenus emarginata,

Eucalyptus globulus, Hardwickia binata, Chloroxylon swietenia and

Dalbergia paniculata species were distributed .with the remaining

species were distributed in class A are Grewia orbiculata,

Dolichandrone atrovirens, Acacia auriculiformis, Soymida fabrifuga,

Morinda pubescens, Gardenia gummifera and Cassia fistula.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0-2 2.1-4 4.1-6 6.1-8 8.1-10

% o

f num

ber

of sp

ecie

s

Density class

91

Finally in the class ‘D’, Grewia orbiculata alone containing

67% of the frequency respectively. The present study revealed a

progressive increase in the number of species from lower to higher

frequency class (Fig. 10). The result in the frequency class distribution

of Kappath forest confirms the existence of high degree of floristic

heterogeneity or it may be disturbed forest.

Figure 10. Frequeny distribution of tree species in the Kappath forest

The frequency of all the tree species in the Kappath forest is

given in Table 10. Four species with the most frequent occurrence

were Grewia orbiculata, Grewia tiliifolia, Dolichandrone atrovirens

and Acacia chundra in 67, 56, 55 and 51 quadrats respectively. In the

study area, trees with more than 40% distribution were Morinda

pubescens, Soymida fabrifuga, Gardenia gummifera and Cassia fistula

while Cochlospermum religiosum, Givotia rottleriformis, Lannea

coromandelica, Mallotus philippensis, Santalum album,

Stereospermum chelonoides are the least contributing each to the

frequency distribution

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80

% n

umbe

r of

spec

ies

Frequency class

92

Table 10. Frequency and Density of tree species in the Kappath forest

Sl. No

Species Density Frequency

1 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth. 9.26 34 2 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. 8.85 51 3 Grewia orbiculata Rottler 8.13 67 4 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth) Sprague 7.2 55 5

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall.ex Guill. & Perr.

6.2 34

6 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 5.68 24 7 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Juss. 4.34 47 8 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. 2.63 56 9 Gardenia gummifera L. 2.58 46

10 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 2.47 24 11 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou 1.81 33 12 Morinda pubescens Smith 1.76 47 13 Cassia fistula L. 1.28 44 14 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 1.22 20 15 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. 1.21 21 16 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 0.83 16 17 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 0.66 21 18 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 0.4 7 19 Acacia latronum (L.f) Willd. 0.36 14 20 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 0.31 13 21 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Almeida 0.26 5 22 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 0.26 9 23 Terminalia chebula Retz. 0.26 8 24 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. 0.23 6 25 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. 0.23 7 26 Casuarina equisitifolia L. 0.17 2 27 Erythrina variegata L. 0.17 3 28 Tamarindus indica L. 0.16 3 29 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Willd. 0.15 1 30 Capparis divaricata Lam. 0.14 10 31 Phyllanthus emblica L. 0.13 10 32 Stychnous potatorum L.f. 0.13 1 33 Tectona grandis L. 0.13 5 34 Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wight & Arn.)

Cleghorn 0.11 1

35 Boswellia serrata Roxb.ex Colebr. 0.08 5 36 Ixora arborea Roxb ex Smith 0.07 2 37 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 0.06 5 38 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 0.05 3 39 Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 0.04 2 40 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 0.03 2 41 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze 0.03 1 42 Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Macbr. 0.03 2 43 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. 0.03 2

93

44 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. 0.03 1 45 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.03 2 46 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. salvifolium 0.02 1 47 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 0.02 1 48 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. 0.02 1 49 Ficus sp. 0.02 1 50 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. 0.02 1 51 Mallotus philippensis (Lanm.) Muell-Arg. 0.02 1 52 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair 0.02 1 53 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. 0.02 1 54 Ziziphus horrida Roxb. 0.02 1 55 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 0.01 1 56 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk, 0.01 1 57 Capparis grandis L.f. 0.01 1 58 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston 0.01 1 59 Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. 0.01 1 60 Ficus religiosa L. 0.01 1 61 Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn) Merrill 0.01 1 62 Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth var. parviflora 0.01 1 63 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolsion 0.01 1 64 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 0.01 1 65 Salvadora persica L. 0.01 1 66 Santalum album L. 0.01 1 67 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 0.01 1 68 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Arn. 0.01 1 69 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. 0.01 1

94

5.2.2.5 Family Diversity and Density

A total of 33 families were recorded in the 100 quadrat plots

(Table 11). Caesalpiniaceae formed the most speciose family with 7

genera and 7 species (10.29%). Similarly Fabaceae, 4 genera and 5

species (7.35%), Mimosaceae, 2 genera & 5 species (7.35%),

Combretaceae, 2 genera and 4 species (5.88%), Euphorbiaceae, 4

genera and 4 species (5.88%), Rubiaceae, 4 genera and 4 species

(5.88%), Rhamnaceae, 1 genera and 3 species (4.41%),

Anacardiaceae, 2 genera and 2 species (2.94%), Apocynaceae, 2

genera and 2 species (2.94%), Bignoniaceae, 2 genera and 2 species

(2.94%), Capparaceae, 2 genera and 2 species (2.94%), Ebenaceae, 2

genera and 2 species (2.94%), Meliaceae, 2 genera and 2 species

(2.94%), Moraceae, 2 genera and 2 species (2.94%), Myrtaceae, 2

genera and 2 species (2.94%), Rutaceae, 2 genera and 2 species

(2.94%), Tiliaceae, 2 genera and 2 species (2.94%), in case of

remaining 13 families (23.52%) had single species in the whole study

sites.

The high total abundance of Terminalia alata (926 stems) in

the study sites placed the family Combretaceae is the first position of

FIV (22.33). The families like Tiliaceae (15.43), Mimosaceae (15.09),

Bignoniaceae (10.25), Myrtaceae (8.08), Meliaceae (6.60), Rubiaceae

(6.27), Caesalpinaceae (5.66). Celastraceae (2.57), Fabaceae (2.42) and

Ebenaceae (1.20). other families having less than one FIV.

95

Table 11. Contribution of families to tree genera, species, density, basal area (BA) and family importance value (FIV) for the study plots.

Sl. No Family Genera Species Density BA FIV 1. Combretaceae 2 4 1573 1866.88 22.33 2. Tiliaceae 1 2 1087 5988.67 15.43 3. Mimosaceae 2 5 1063 2518.75 15.09 4. Bignoniaceae 2 2 722 2376.61 10.25 5. Myrtaceae 1 2 569 453.17 8.08 6. Meliaceae 1 2 465 1867.67 6.60 7. Rubiaceae 4 4 442 3399.95 6.27 8. Caesalpinaceae 7 7 399 1978.4 5.66 9. Celastraceae 1 1 181 855.3 2.57 10. Fabaceae 4 5 171 437.46 2.42 11. Ebenaceae 1 2 85 201.84 1.20 12. Flinderniaceae 1 1 66 346.36 0.93 13. Apocynaceae 2 2 41 39.26 0.58 14. Euphorbiaceae 4 4 40 108.37 0.56 15. Rhamnaceae 1 3 28 42.4 0.39 16. Anacardiaceae 2 2 27 20.41 0.38 17. Capparaceae 1 2 15 79.32 0.21 18. Strychnaceae 1 1 13 0.78 0.18 19. Verbenaceae 1 1 13 19.63 0.18 20. Burseraceae 1 1 8 19.63 0.11 21. Causarinaceae 1 1 8 3.14 0.11 22. Lythraceae 1 1 4 3.14 0.05 23. Moraceae 1 2 3 1.56 0.04 24. Oleaceae 1 1 3 0.78 0.04 25. Sapindaceae 1 1 3 3.14 0.04 26. Sapotaceae 1 1 3 0.78 0.04 27. Rutaceae 1 2 2 1.56 0.02 28. Alanginaceae 1 1 2 0.78 0.02 29. Annonaceae 1 1 2 0.78 0.02 30. Cordiaceae 1 1 1 0.78 0.01 31. Cochlospermaceae 1 1 1 0.78 0.01 32. Salvadoraceae 1 1 1 0.78 0.01 33. Santalaceae 1 1 1 0.78 0.01

96

5.2.2.6 Importance Value Index (IVI)

Importance value index (IVI) combines relative density,

relative frequency and relative dominance can be used to indicate the

ecological influence of each species in the forest. Species with the

greatest importance value are the most dominant of particular

vegetation. The importance value indexes of tree species are shown in

Table 12.

Analysis of IVI of a species can be used to recognize the

pattern of association of dominant species in a community. Based on

their higher IVI value, the ten dominant and ecologically most

significant trees of Kappath forest are Grewia orbiculata, Acacia

chundra, Dolichandrone atrovirens, Grewia tiliifolia, Terminalia

alata. Soymida febrifuga, Gardenia gummifera, Anogeissus latifolia,

Morinda pubescens, and Cassia fistula. These species might also be

the most successful species in regeneration.

97

Table 12. Tree Species Importance Value Index

Sl.No. Name of the Plant Relative density

Relative frequency

Relative dominance

IVI

1 Grewia orbiculata Rottler 11.52 9.05 17.46 38.04 2 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex

Rottler) Willd. 12.54 6.89 10.11 29.55

3 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth) Sprague

10.2 7.43 11.76 29.4

4 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. 3.72 7.56 12.2 23.49 5 Terminalia alata Heyne ex

Roth 13.12 4.59 4.49 22.21

6 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Juss.

6.15 6.35 8.59 21.09

7 Gardenia gummifera L. 3.65 6.21 8.23 18.1 8 Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex

DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr. 8.78 4.59 4.49 17.88

9 Morinda pubescens Smith 2.49 6.35 8.59 17.44 10 Cassia fistula L. 1.81 5.94 7.53 15.29 11 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 8.05 3.24 2.24 13.53 12 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.)

Ding Hou 2.56 4.45 4.23 11.26

13 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 3.50 3.24 2.24 8.98 14 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. 1.71 2.83 1.71 6.26 15 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 1.72 2.7 1.55 5.98 16 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 0.93 2.83 1.71 5.48 17 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.)

Kostel. 1.17 2.16 0.99 4.33

18 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 0.51 1.89 0.76 3.16 19 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 0.43 1.75 0.65 2.85 20 Capparis divaricata Lam. 0.19 1.35 0.38 1.93 21 Phyllanthus emblica L. 0.18 1.35 0.38 1.92 22 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 0.36 1.21 0.31 1.89 23 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 0.56 0.94 0.19 1.7 24 Terminalia chebula Retz. 0.36 1.08 0.24 1.69 25 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.)

Willd. 0.32 0.94 0.19 1.46

26 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. 0.32 0.81 0.14 1.27 27 Buchanania cochinchinensis

(Lour.) Almeida 0.36 0.67 0.09 1.14

28 Tectona grandis L. 0.18 0.67 0.09 0.95 29 Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex

Colebr. 0.11 0.67 0.09 0.88

30 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 0.08 0.67 0.09 0.85 31 Erythrina variegata L. 0.24 0.4 0.03 0.68 32 Tamarindus indica L. 0.22 0.4 0.03 0.66 33 Casuarina equisitifolia L. 0.24 0.27 0.01 0.52 34 Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. 0.07 0.4 0.03 0.51 35 Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 0.099 0.27 0.015 0.38

98

36 Acacia latronum (L.f) Willd. 0.21 0.13 0.003 0.35 37 Lagerstroemia microcarpa

Wight 0.056 0.27 0.01 0.34

38 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd.

0.042 0.27 0.01 0.32

39 Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Macbr.

0.042 0.27 0.01 0.32

40 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. 0.042 0.27 0.01 0.32 41 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.042 0.27 0.01 0.32 42 Stychnous potatorum L.f. 0.18 0.13 0.003 0.32 43 Eriolaena quinquelocularis

(Wight & Arn.) Cleghorn 0.15 0.13 0.003 0.29

44 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze

0.04 0.13 0.003 0.18

45 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb.

0.042 0.13 0.0038 0.18

46 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. Salvifolium

0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16

47 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16 48 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. 0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16 49 Ficus sp. 0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16 50 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. 0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16 51 Mallotus philippensis (Lanm.)

Muell-Arg. 0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16

52 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair

0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16

53 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC.

0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16

54 Ziziphus horrida Roxb. 0.028 0.13 0.0038 0.16 55 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 56 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 57 Capparis grandis L.f. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 58 Cochlospermum religiosum

(L.) Alston 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15

59 Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 60 Ficus religiosa L. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 61 Lannea coromandelica

(Houttuyn) Merr. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15

62 Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth

0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15

63 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolsion

0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15

64 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 65 Salvadora persica L. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 66 Santalum album L. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 67 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15 68 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.ex

DC) Wight & Arn. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15

69 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. 0.014 0.13 0.0038 0.15

99

5.3 Assessment of Species Diversity in Disturbed and Undisturbed Forest

For the assessment of species diversity in disturbed and undisturbed forest

total 100 quadrats were laid, out of which 38 quadrats were laid in the disturbed forest

and 62 quadrats were laid in the undisturbed forest.

5.3.1 Qualitative Characters

In the disturbed forest 41 trees were occurred, whereas 60 tree species

were in the undisturbed forest. In case of shrubs 26 species were noticed in the

disturbed forest and 37 species were found in undisturbed forests. While the

herbs 120 species were occurred in the disturbed forest and 169 in undisturbed

forest. In case of climbers 23 species were occurred in the disturbed forest and

35 species are occurred in the undisturbed forest.

5.3.2 Quantitaive analysis

5.3.2.1 Tree Density and Basal Area

The total of 7070 individual trees (≥10 cm dbh) was

enumerated (mean 70 stems per 20 x 20 m) in the hundred quadrats.

The density ranged from a highest of 170 and lowest is 22 per quadrat

in the undisturbed site, while in the disturbed forest highest is 149 and

lowest 12 trees were noticed.

The basal area of the disturbed site was as low as 19.99 cm2

and high as 309.49 cm2. Whereas undisturbed forest having 640.76

cm2 highest basal area and lowest was 21.25cm2. The basal area

contribution by the individual tree species are varied greatly. Grewia

100

orbiculata predominant tree in the forests contributed 3525.66 cm2 of

basal area. The other dominant trees in the study area that contributed

to greater basal area include Grewia tiliifolia (2463.0144),

Dolichandrone atrovirens (2375.83cm2), Acacia chundra

(2042.82cm2), Morinda pubescens (1734.94cm2) and Soymida

febrifuga (1734.94cm2), Gardenia gummifera (1661.90cm2), Cassia

fistula (1520.53cm2), Anogeissus latifolia and Terminalia alata

(907.92 cm2) the remaining 59 species were contributed less than

855.30 cm2 to the basal area.

In disturbed forest, Terminalia arjuna predominant tree in the

forests contributed 61575 cm2 to the basal area, the other dominant

trees in the disturbed forest that contribute to the greater basal area

include, Tamarindus indica (13199.84 cm2), Aegle marmelos (12271.8

cm2), Madhuca longifolia (3191.91 cm2), Ixora arborea (1590.4 cm2)

and the remaining 35 species were contributed 1359 cm2 to the basal

area. Basal area is an important indicator of tree stocking which

reflects stand volume or biomass and shows species diversity was

higher in the natural forest as compared to plantation forest (Tripathi

and Singh, 2009)

5.3.2.2 Species Population Density

The population density of individual tree species varied

considerably in the undisturbed and disturbed sites (Table 13). In the

undisturbed forest site Terminalia alata species belongs to the family

Combretaceae scored high density with 901 stems (18.36%),

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Anogeissus latifolia with 515 stems (10.49%) and 14 species were

represented by one individuals. In the disturbed forest sites Acacia

chundra species belongs to the family Mimosaceae scored high density

with 478 stems (21.67%), Eucalyptus globulus ranked next with 381

stems (17.27%), Dolichandrone atrovirens with 271 stems (12.29%),

6 species were represented by the just two individuals (0.09%) and 2

species were represented by the one individuals (0.04%).

102

Table 13. Density of all tree species ≥ 10 cm gbh encountered in the study plots of disturbed and undisturbed forest of the Kappath forest

Sl.No. Plant name Density Total Disturbed Undisturbed

1 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottler) Willd. 478 427 905 2 Acacia latronum (L.f) Willd. 15 - 15 3 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 11 23 34 4 Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. 4 1 5 5 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 1 - 1 6 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp.

salvifolium 2 - 2

7 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 106 16 122 8 Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.)

Wall.ex Guill. & Perr. 146 474 620

9 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 20 11 31 10 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. - 1 1 11 Boswellia serrata Roxb.ex Colebr. - 8 8 12 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. 12 11 23 13 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.)

Almeida - 26 26

14 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 3 - 3 15 Capparis divaricata Lam. 2 12 14 16 Capparis grandis L.f. - 1 1 17 Cassia fistula L. 63 65 128 18 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze 3 - 3 19 Casuarina equisitifolia L. 2 15 17 20 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 13 53 66 21 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston - 1 1 22 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. - 2 2 23 Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. - 1 1 24 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. 4 117 121 25 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 38 45 83 26 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. - 2 2 27 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex

Roth) Sprague 271 449 720

28 Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wight & Arn.) Cleghorn

- 11 11

29 Erythrina variegata L. - 17 17 30 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 381 188 569 31 Ficus religiosa L. - 1 1 32 Ficus sp. - 2 2 33 Gardenia gummifera L. 95 163 258 34 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. - 2 2 35 Grewia orbiculata Rottler 145 668 813 36 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. 32 231 263 37 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 88 159 247 38 Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 2 5 7

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39 Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 2 2 4 40 Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn)

Merr. - 1 1

41 Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Macbr. 2 1 3 42 Mallotus philippensis (Lanm.) Muell-

Arg. - 2 2

43 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou

69 112 181

44 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair - 2 2 45 Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth

var. parviflora - 1 1

46 Morinda pubescens Smith 70 106 176 47 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolsion - 1 1 48 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 1 - 1 49 Phyllanthus emblica L. - 13 13 50 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 3 3 6 51 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 6 20 26 52 Salvadora persica L. 1 1 53 Santalum album L. 1 - 1 54 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. - 3 3 55 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. - 3 3 56 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Juss. 78 356 434 57 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. - 2 2 58 Stychnous potatorum L.f. - 13 13 59 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels - 1 1 60 Tamarindus indica L. 7 9 16 61 Tectona grandis L. - 13 13 62 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 25 901 926 63 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC)

Wight & Arn. 1 - 1

64 Terminalia chebula Retz. - 26 26 65 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. - - 66 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 11 29 40 67 Ziziphus horrida Roxb. 2 - 2 68 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. - 3 3 69 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. 8 15 23

104

Tree density decreased with increasing girth class, thus

exhibiting the reverse J-shaped stand structure in the disturbed and

undisturbed study sites (Fig. 11). The lowest girth class 10-30 cm

contributed 90.74% of the forest stand density in disturbed forests and

in undisturbed forests is 76.87%, it decreased with increasing tree size

class. Tree density in girth class (30-60 cm) was greater in undisturbed

sites (21.14%) and in disturbed sites (5.99%). Both disturbed and

undisturbed sites scored maximum number of species in the lower girth

class and that was suddenly decreased with increasing girth class. The

forest is characterized by high density of trees in the lower class than

in the higher. Thus, the forest is in good state of recruitment.

Figure 11. Size class distribution of tree density in the disturbed and undisturbed study sites of Kappath hills.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10 to 30 30 to 60 60 to 90 >90

% o

f no.

of i

ndiv

idua

ls

Girth class

Disturbed

Undisturbed

105

Tree size class distributions can be used as indicators of changes in

population structure and species composition (Newbery and Gartlan, 1996).

Most of the species in the study plot shows the reverse J-shaped distribution

with greater number of individuals in small size classes. Such trend has been

reported from the forests of Andaman (Rasingam and Parthasarathy, 2009),

Tropical rain forest fragments of the Western Ghats (Muthuramkumar et al.,

2006), Tropical rainforest in the Eastern Himalaya (Deb et al., 2003), Dry

deciduous forests of Boudh District (Sahu et al., 2007), Tropical Evergreen

forests of Western Ghats of india (Ayyappan and Parthasarathy, 2001) and

also observed in the Evergreen forest of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve, Western Ghats of India (Ganesh et al., 1996).

5.3.3 Floristic Diversity

5.3.3.1 Species Richness and Diversity

In the disturbed forest 41 trees were occurred, whereas 60 tree

species were occurred in the undisturbed forest. In case of shrubs 26

species were noticed in the disturbed forest and 37 species were found

in undisturbed forests. While the herbs 120 species were occurred in

the disturbed forest and 169 in undisturbed forest. In case of climbers

23 species were occurred in the disturbed forest and 35 species are

occurred in the undisturbed forest (Table. 14).

106

Table 14: Species Richness and Diversity

Variables Disturbed forest Undisturbed forest Species richness 41 60

Number of genera 31 52

Number of families 20 31

Shannon diversity index 1.38 1.43

Simpson diversity index 0.049 0.053

Sorensen’s similarity index 50% 50%

Maximum tree gbh 63.8 280

Average tree gbh 23.19 41.4

Simpson’s index of dominance (C) for trees was higher in

undisturbed (0.053) than in disturbed forest (0.049). Sorensen’s

similarity indices between the disturbed and undisturbed forest

revealed that these stands have 50% similarities in species composition

of the trees, also in case Shannon-Wiener's index (H') was higher at

undisturbed (1.43) than at disturbed forest (1.38), The tree density was

low in the disturbed forest area compared to the undisturbed forest area

due to interference of human disturbance and grazing, this kind of

impacts affects the species survival rate in the seedling stage to

reproductive stage, resulting a poor stand density (Rasingam, 2008).

The data on tree species richness reflects the low diversity

status of the forest. The human-interference and natural disasters

(forest fire, soil erosion) considerably reduced the species diversity at

the disturbed forest when compared to the undisturbed forest. The

species richness varied from disturbed to undisturbed forest of the

107

Kappath forest, the disturbed forest has 41 species and undisturbed

forest has the 59 species, it indicates the influence of the human

interference and natural disasters in the forest ecosystem.

The species richness found in the study area in both disturbed

and undisturbed forest is 360 among these 69 species were identified

as tree species. 49 shrubs, 39 climbers and 204 herbs species were

segretated. The tree species richness reflects the low diversity status of

the forest. The human-interference and natural disasters (forest fire,

soil erosion) considerably reduced the species diversity at the disturbed

sites when compared to the undisturbed sites. The species richness

varied from 18 species of the disturbed and undisturbed sites of the

Kappath hills, the disturbed sites has 41 species and undisturbed sites

has the 59 species, it indicates the effect of the human interference and

natural disasters in the forest ecodsystem.

The tree density was low in the disturbed forest sites compared

to the undisturbed forest sites due to interference of human disturbance

and grazing, this kind of impacts affects the species survival rate in the

seedling stage to reproductive stage, resulting a poor stand density

(Rasingam, 2008).

Result of this study indicated that aspect had marked effect on

structure, composition and diversity of disturbed forest of Kappath

hills. The average basal area in the disturbed forest was lower as

compared to the undisturbed forest. This was due to poor density of

trees and also maximum number of trees was distributed in lower

108

diameter classes. The poor stocking density in disturbed forest was

also ascribed due to increased removal of tree cover in this type as

most of these forests are easily accessible, which are distributed within

5-6 km radius around habitation. In the present study, the number of

tree species, density and basal area values are lower when compared

with the dry deciduous forests (Pitchairamu et al, 2008. Joseph et al,

2008).

5.3.3.2 Species Density, Abundance and Frequency

Density: The trees in disturbed forest, Acacia chundra (4.78),

Eucalyptus globulus (3.81) and Dolichandrone atrovirens (2.71) are

having the highest density. Thevetia nerifoliai, Terminalia arjuna,

Santalum album and other species having the least density in the

disturbed forest (0.01), but in the undisturbed forest Terminalia alata

(9.01), Grewia orbiculata (6.68) and Anogeissus latifolia (4.74) are

having the highest density, while Syzygium cumini, Salvadora persica,

Naringi crenulata and other species having the least density 0.01

(Table 15).

In disturbed forest, shrubs of Dodonaea viscosa (8.9), Lantana

camara (3.13) and Cassia auriculata (1.1) are having the highest

density. Solanum incanum, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Capparis

sepiaria (0.02) and other species are having the least density. In

undisturbed forest, Dodonaea viscosa (2.5), Lantana camara (2.02)

and Cassia auriculata (0.75) are having the highest density and

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Symphorema polyandrum, Mimosa hamata, Catunaregam spinosa

(0.01) and other species are having the least density (Table 16).

In the disturbed forest, herbs of Vernonia cinerea (4.8),

Lavandula bipinata (4.8) and Pulicaria wightiana (3.3) are having the

highest density and Solanum nigrum, Indigofera linnaei and Sida

spinosa (0.26) are having the least density. In undisturbed forest,

Vernonia cinerea (4.3), Pulicaria wightiana (2.9) and Lavandula

bipinata (2.7) are having the highest density and Withania somnifera,

Sida spinosa and Tricholepis radicans (0.01) and other species having

the least density (Table 17).

In disturbed forest, climbers of Atylosia scarabacoides (0.8),

Asparagus laevissimus (0.68) and Rhynchosia minima (0.63) are

having the most density species. Abrus precatorius, Pergularia pallid

and Cissampelos Pareira (0.0l5) are the least density. In undisturbed

forest, Atylosia scarabacoides (1.5), Asparagus laevissimus (0.45) and

Rhynchosia minima (0.45) are the most density species. Ampelocissus

tomentosa, Sarcostemma intermedium and Rhynchosia viscosa (0.01)

and other species are showing least density (Table 18).

Abundance: In the disturbed forest Eucalyptus globulus (25.4),

Acacia chundra (22.7) and Dolichandrone atrovirens (15.05) are

having the highest abundance. Thevetia nerifoliai, Terminalia arjuna,

Santalum album and others species having the least abundance. But in

the undisturbed forest, Terminalia alata (31.06), Anogeissus latifolia

(19.75) and Eucalyptus globulus (18.8) are having the most abundance

110

species. Syzygium cumini, Salvadora persica, Naringi crenulata and

others species are having the least abundance of the species (Table 15).

In disturbed forest, shrubs of Dodonaea viscosa (13.5), Acacia

lotronum (7.5) and Solanum anguivi (5.5) are the most abundance

species. Clerodendrum phlomidis, Capparis sepiaria, Adhatoda

zelanica (1) and other species are the least abundance. In the

undisturbed forest Eupatorium capillifolium (9), Dodonaea viscosa

(8.7) and Lantana camara (8.6) are the most abundance species.

Symphorema polyandrum, Mimosa hamata, Helicteres isora (1) and

other species are having the least abundance species (Table 16).

In disturbed forest, herbs of Spermacoco hispida (16.6),

Parthenium hysterophorus (14) and Justicia procumbens (9.5) are the

most abundance species. Solanum nigrum, Indigofera linnaei,

Blepharis maderaspatensis (1) and other species are having the least

abundance. In undisturbed forest Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (10.1),

Acalypha indica (10) and Parthenium hysterophorus (9.7) are the most

abundance species. Withania somnifera, Tricholepis radicans, Sida

spinosa (1) and other species were having the least abundance (Table

17).

In disturbed forest, climbers of Rhynchosia minima (3.4),

Asparagus laevissimus (2.88) and Atylosia scarabacoides (2.81) are

the most abundance species. Gymnema sylvestre (1), Abrus precatorius

(1), Rivea hypocreteriformis (1.5) and other species are having the

least abundance. In the undisturbed forest, Alysicarpus tetragonolobus

111

(6.5), Pycnospora lutescens (6) and Meyenia hawtayneana (5.6) are

most abundance species and Ampelocissus tomentosa, Rhynchosia

viscosa, Rivea hypocreteriformis (1) and other species are the least

abundance (Table 18).

Frequency: In disturbed forest, Acacia chundra (21), Cassia

fistula (18) and Dolichandrone atrovirens (18) are having the high

frequency. Thevetia nerifolia, Terminalia arjuna, Santalum album and

other species having the least frequency (1). In the undisturbed forest

Grewia orbiculata (51), Grewia tiliifolia (47) and Dolichandrone

atrovirens (37) are having the highest frequency. Schrebera

swietenioides, Stychnous potatorum, Stereospermum chelonoides (1)

and other species having the least frequency (Table 15).

In disturbed forests, shrubs of Dodonaea viscosa (65.7),

Lantana camara (57.8) and Cassia auriculata (42.1) are having the

high frequency. Vitex negundo Securinga virosa and Clerodendrum

phlomidis (2.63) are having the least frequency. In undisturbed forest,

Dodonaea viscosa (32.2), Cassia auriculata (25.8) and Lantana

camara (25.8) are having the highest frequency. Ximenia americana,

Solanum erianthum, Holarrhena pubescens (1.61) and other species

having the least frequency (Table 16).

In disturbed forest, herbs of Vernonia cinerea (86.8),

Lavandula bipinnata (65.7) and Pulicaria wightiana (57.8) are having

the high frequency. Zornia gibbosa, Typha angustata, Sida cordata

(2.6) and other species having the least frequency. In undisturbed

112

forest, Vernonia cinerea (72.5), Pulicaria wightiana (51.6) and

Pentanema indicum (43.5) are the most frequency species. Withania

somnifera, Vernonia indica, Sophora glauca (1.61) and other species

having the least frequency (Table 17).

In disturbed forest, the climbers of Atylosia scarabacoides

(28.9), Tylophora indica (26.3) and Asparagus laevissimus (23.6)

species are having the most frequency. Desmodium laxiflorum,

Cissampelos Pareira, Ampelocissus tomentosa (2.6) and other species

are having the least frequency. In undisturbed forest, Atylosia

scarabacoides (40.3), Asparagus laevissimus (19.3) and Rhynchosia

minima (17.7) are having the highest frequency species. Tylophora

dalzelli, Pycnospora lutescens, Naravelia zeylanica (1.6) and other

species are having the least frequency (Table 18). High intensity of

human disturbance adversely affected tree species abundance, diversity

and regeneration (Eilu and Obua, 2005.)

113

Table 15. Trees species composition of Kappath hills with their density, abundance and frequency in disturbed and undisturbed forest.

Sl.No. Disturbed forest Undisturbed forest Species Name Density Abundance Frequency Density Abundance Frequency 1 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottler) Willd. 4.78 21.00 22.76 4.27 13.77 31.00 2 Acacia latronum (L.f) Willd. 0.15 1.00 15.00 - - - 3 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 0.11 6.00 1.83 0.25 3.13 8.00 4 Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. 0.04 2.00 2.00 0.01 1.00 1.00 5 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 0.01 1.00 1.00 - - - 6 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp.

salvifolium 0.02 1.00 2.00 - - -

7 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 1.06 15.00 7.07 0.16 3.20 5.00 8 Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall.ex

Guill. & Perr. 1.46 10.00 14.60 4.74 19.75 24.00

9 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 0.20 7.00 2.86 0.11 1.83 6.00 10 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 11 Boswellia serrata Roxb.ex Colebr. - - - 0.08 1.60 5.00 12 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. 0.12 1.00 12.00 0.11 2.20 5.00 13 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Almeida - - - 0.26 5.20 5.00 14 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 0.03 2.00 1.50 - - - 15 Capparis divaricata Lam. 0.02 2.00 1.00 0.12 1.50 8.00 16 Capparis grandis L.f. - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 17 Cassia fistula L. 0.63 18.00 3.50 0.65 2.50 26.00 18 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze 0.03 1.00 3.00 - - - 19 Casuarina equisitifolia L. 0.03 1.00 3.00 0.15 15.00 1.00 20 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 0.13 4.00 3.25 0.53 3.12 17.00 21 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 22 Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. - - - 0.02 2.00 1.00

114

23 Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 24 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. 0.04 3.00 1.33 1.17 6.50 18.00 25 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 0.38 8.00 4.75 0.45 5.63 8.00 26 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. - - - 0.02 2.00 1.00 27 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth)

Sprague 2.71 18.00 15.06 4.49 12.14 37.00

28 Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wight & Arn.) Cleghorn

- - - 0.11 11.00 1.00

29 Erythrina variegate L. - - - 0.17 5.67 3.00 30 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 3.81 15.00 25.40 1.88 18.80 10.00 31 Ficus religiosa L. - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 32 Ficus sp. - - - 0.02 2.00 1.00 33 Gardenia gummifera L. 0.95 16.00 5.94 1.63 5.43 30.00 34 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. - - - 0.02 2.00 1.00 35 Grewia orbiculata Rottler 1.45 16.00 9.06 6.68 13.10 51.00 36 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. 0.32 9.00 3.56 2.31 4.91 47.00 37 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 0.88 11.00 8.00 1.59 12.23 13.00 38 Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 0.02 1.00 2.00 0.05 5.00 1.00 39 Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 0.02 1.00 2.00 0.02 2.00 1.00 40 Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn) Merr. - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 41 Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Macbr. 0.02 1.00 2.00 0.01 1.00 1.00 42 Mallotus philippensis (Lanm.) Muell-Arg. - - - 0.02 2.00 1.00 43 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou 0.69 13.00 5.31 1.12 5.60 20.00 44 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair - - - 0.02 2.00 1.00 45 Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth var.

parviflora - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00

46 Morinda pubescens Smith 0.70 18.00 3.89 1.06 3.66 29.00 47 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolsion - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 48 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 0.01 1.00 1.00 - - -

115

49 Phyllanthus emblica L. - - - 0.13 1.30 10.00 50 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 0.03 2.00 1.50 0.03 1.00 3.00 51 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 0.06 2.00 3.00 0.20 2.86 7.00 52 Salvadora persica L. - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 53 Santalum album L. 0.01 1.00 1.00 - - - 54 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. - - - 0.03 1.50 2.00 55 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. - - - 0.03 3.00 1.00 56 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Juss. 0.78 12.00 6.50 3.56 10.17 35.00 57 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. - - - 0.02 2.00 1.00 58 Stychnous potatorum L.f. - - - 0.13 13.00 1.00 59 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels - - - 0.01 1.00 1.00 60 Tamarindus indica L. 0.07 1.00 7.00 0.09 4.50 2.00 61 Tectona grandis L. - - - 0.13 2.60 5.00 62 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 0.25 5.00 5.00 9.01 31.07 29.00 63 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Arn. 0.01 1.00 1.00 - - - 64 Terminalia chebula Retz. - - - 0.26 3.25 8.00 65 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. 0.01 1.00 1.00 - - - 66 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 0.11 2.00 5.50 0.29 5.80 5.00 67 Ziziphus horrida Roxb. 0.02 1.00 2.00 - - - 68 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. - - - 0.03 1.50 2.00 69 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. 0.08 4.00 2.00 0.15 5.00 3.00

116

Table 16. Shrubs species composition of Kappath hills with their density, abundance and frequency in disturbed and undisturbed forest.

Sl.No. Disturbed forest Undisturbed forest

Species Name(Dist) Density Abundan

ce Frequency Density Abundance Frequency 1 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61 2 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. - - - 0.06 4.0 1.61 3 Acacia lotronum (L.f.) Willd. 0.39 8 5.3 - - - 4 Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. 0.03 1 2.6 - - - 5 Azima tetracantha Lam. 0.16 3 5.3 - - - 6 Barleria cristata L. - - - 0.09 6.0 1.61 7 Barleria gibsoni Dalz. - - - 0.07 2.5 3.23 8 Barleria prionitis L. 0.21 3 7.9 0.04 3.0 1.61 9 Barleria tomentosa Roth. 0.08 3 2.6 0.03 2.0 1.61

10 Bauhinia racemosa Lam. - - - 0.03 2.0 1.61 11 Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce 0.03 1 2.6 - - - 12 Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Swartz. 0.03 1 2.6 0.07 5.0 1.61 13 Calotropis gigantea, R.Br. ex Ait. - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61 14 Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61 15 Canthium coromandelicum (N. Burm.) Alst. 0.45 2 21.1 0.03 1.0 3.23 16 Capparis decidua (Forsk) Edgew. 0.08 3 2.6 - - - 17 Capparis sepiaria L. 0.03 1 2.6 - - - 18 Carrissa spinarum L. Mantiss. 0.39 3 13.2 0.09 1.5 6.45 19 Cassia auriculata L. 1.16 3 42.1 0.75 3.2 25.81 20 Cissus pallida (Wight & Arn.) Steudel 0.08 2 5.3 0.32 2.8 12.90 21 Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f. 0.03 1 2.6 0.13 4.5 3.23 22 Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. - - - 0.03 2.0 1.61

117

23 Dodonaea viscosa L. 8.92 14 65.8 2.56 8.7 32.26 24 Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small - - - 0.13 9.0 1.61 25 Grewia flavescens Juss. - - - 0.18 4.0 4.84 26 Grewia tenax (Forsk) Fiori. - - - 0.13 4.5 3.23 27 Grewia villosa Willd. 0.29 4 7.9 0.13 3.0 4.84 28 Helicteres isora L. - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61 29 Holarrhena pubescens (Buch-Ham) Wall. - - - 0.03 2.0 1.61 30 Indigofera tinctoria L. - - - 0.03 2.0 1.61 31 Kirganelia reticulata (Poiret) Baillon - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61 32 Lantana camara L. 3.13 5 57.9 2.03 8.6 25.81 33 Mimosa hamata Willd. - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61 34 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. 0.03 1 2.6 - - - 35 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 0.05 2 2.6 - - - 36 Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce 0.21 2 10.5 0.01 1.0 1.61 37 Rhus sinuata Thunb. - - - 0.06 2.0 3.23 38 Securinga leucopyrus (Willd) Muell-Arg. 0.05 2 2.6 0.01 1.0 1.61 39 Securinga virosa (Willd.) Baillon 0.05 2 2.6 0.04 1.5 3.23 40 Solanum anguivi Lam. 0.29 6 5.3 - - - 41 Solanum erianthum D. Don - - - 0.03 2.0 1.61 42 Solanum incanum L. 0.03 1 2.6 0.04 1.5 3.23 43 Sophora glauca DC. - - - 0.03 2.0 1.61 44 Symphorema polyandrum Wight - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61 45 Vitex negundo L. 0.05 2 2.6 - - - 46 Ximenia americana L. - - - 0.03 2.0 1.61 47 Ziziphus horrida Roth 0.05 2 2.6 - - - 48 Zizyphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. - - - 0.01 1.0 1.61

118

Table 17. Herbs species composition of Kappath hills with their density, abundance and frequency in disturbed and undisturbed forest.

Sl.No. Disturbed forest Undisturbed forest 1 Species Name Density Abundance Frequency Density Abundance Frequency 2 Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet. 0.24 3.00 7.89 - - - 3 Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet. 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 4 Acalypha ciliata Forsskal - - - 0.11 3.50 3.23 5 Acalypha indica L. 0.11 2.00 5.26 0.16 10.00 1.61 6 Acanthospermum hispidum DC. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 7 Achyranthes aspera L. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 8 Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume. - - - 0.08 2.50 3.23 9 Ageratum conyzoides L. - - - 0.27 8.50 3.23

10 Aloe vera (L.) N. Burman - - - 0.06 4.00 1.61 11 Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hill. - - - 0.08 5.00 1.61 12 Alternanthera pungens Humboldt. 0.08 3.00 2.63 - - - 13 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 14 Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edgew. 0.29 2.75 10.53 0.42 6.50 6.45 15 Amaranthus spinosus L. 0.16 2.00 7.89 - - - 16 Amaranthus viridis L. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 17 Andrographis echioides Nees 0.26 3.33 7.89 0.24 1.88 12.90 18 Andrographis paniculata Nees 0.26 2.50 10.53 0.02 1.00 1.61 19 Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. - - - 0.08 5.00 1.61 20 Anisomeles indica (L.) O.Kuntze 0.08 3.00 2.63 0.06 4.00 1.61 21 Anisomeles malabarica R.Br. - - - 0.06 4.00 1.61 22 Argemone mexicana L. 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 23 Asparagus laevissimus Steud in Hohen 0.68 2.89 23.68 0.45 2.33 19.35 24 Aspidopterys cordata (Heyne. ex Wall.) ex

Wall. - - - 0.15 3.00 4.84

25 Barleria cristata L.(H) 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.16 5.00 3.23

119

26 Bergia ammannioides Roxb. - - - 0.06 4.00 1.61 27 Bidens biternata (Lour) Merr. 0.11 2.00 5.26 0.03 2.00 1.61 28 Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson 0.47 4.50 10.53 - - - 29 Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Heyne ex

Roth 0.03 1.00 2.63 0.06 2.00 3.23

30 Blepharis repens (Vahl) Roth. 0.61 4.60 13.16 0.08 2.50 3.23 31 Boerhaavia diffusa L. - - - 0.26 3.20 8.06 32 Boerhavia chinensis (L.) Aschers 0.61 3.83 15.79 - - - 33 Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss. 0.08 3.00 2.63 0.10 3.00 3.23 34 Kalanchoe olivacea Dalz. & Gibs. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 35 Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. 0.08 3.00 2.63 0.03 2.00 1.61 36 Cassia absus L. 0.08 3.00 2.63 0.05 1.50 3.23 37 Cassia italica (Miller) Lam. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 38 Cassia mimosoides L. 0.13 1.25 10.53 0.15 3.00 4.84 39 Cassia occidentalis L 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 40 Cassia sericea Sw. 0.11 2.00 5.26 0.26 5.33 4.84 41 Cassia tora L. 0.53 5.00 10.53 0.24 5.00 4.84 42 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 43 Celosia argentea L. 0.13 2.50 5.26 - - - 44 Chlorophytum laxum R.Br. - - - 0.06 2.00 3.23 45 Cleome chelidonii (L.f.) Suppl. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 46 Cleome felina L.f. 0.16 2.00 7.89 - - - 47 Cleome gynandra L. 0.03 2.00 1.61 48 Cleome viscosa L. 0.13 5.00 2.63 0.18 3.67 4.84 49 Coldenia procumbens L. - - - 0.13 4.00 3.23 50 Coleus barbatus Benth. - - - 0.16 5.00 3.23 51 Commelina spp. - - - 0.06 2.00 3.23 52 Corbinchonia decumbens (Forsk.) Exell. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 53 Corchorus trilocularis L. 0.08 3.00 2.63 - - -

120

54 Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth. 0.34 2.17 15.79 0.37 4.60 8.06 55 Crotalaria chinensis L. - - - 0.23 2.80 8.06 56 Crotalaria hirta Willd. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 57 Crotalaria linifolia L.f. - - - 0.19 3.00 6.45 58 Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. var. neglecta

(Wight & Arn.) Baker, - - - 0.15 4.50 3.23

59 Crotalaria orixensis Willd. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 60 Crotalaria pallida Aiton. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.03 2.00 1.61 61 Crotalaria pusilla Heyne ex Roth. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.03 2.00 1.61 62 Crotalaria retusa L. 0.45 4.25 10.53 63 Croton bonplandianus Baillon 0.02 1.00 1.61 64 Crozophora rottleri (Geiseler) A. Juss. 0.08 3.00 2.63 65 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. 0.13 2.50 5.26 0.53 4.13 12.90 66 Cyanotis fasciculata Schult. - - - 0.19 4.00 4.84 67 Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schultes &

Schultes.f. 0.08 1.50 5.26 0.55 3.78 14.52

68 Dicliptera foetida Forssk. 0.21 2.67 7.89 - - - 69 Dicoma tomentosa Cass. 0.13 2.50 5.26 0.13 8.00 1.61 70 Digera muricata L. - - - 0.19 3.00 6.45 71 Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop 0.45 2.43 18.42 0.35 3.14 11.29 72 Echinops echinatus Roxb. 0.13 1.67 7.89 0.18 2.20 8.06 73 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.03 2.00 1.61 74 Ehretia pubescens Benth. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 75 Elytraria aculis (L.f.) Lindau 0.11 4.00 2.63 - - - 76 Emilia sonchifolia DC. - - - 0.23 3.50 6.45 77 Enicostemma axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal 0.55 7.00 7.89 0.47 4.14 11.29 78 Eranthemum malabarica C. B. Clarke 0.18 3.67 4.84 79 Euphorbia cristata Roth. 0.13 2.50 5.26 0.26 3.20 8.06 80 Euphorbia elegans Sprengel - - - 0.26 8.00 3.23

121

81 Euphorbia hirta L. 0.61 3.29 18.42 0.45 4.67 9.68 82 Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. 1.13 2.87 39.47 0.85 4.08 20.97 83 Fagonia indica N. Burman 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 84 Flacourtia indica (N.Burman) Merrill - - - 0.21 4.33 4.84 85 Glinus lotoides L. - - - 0.11 3.50 3.23 86 Grangea madraspatana Poir. - - - 0.10 3.00 3.23 87 Hedyotis herbacea L. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 88 Hedyotis puberula (G.Don) Arn. 1.21 5.75 21.05 0.87 4.91 17.74 89 Heliotropium indicum L. - - - 0.10 6.00 1.61 90 Heliotropium subulatum (Hochst. ex DC.)

Vatke 0.24 4.50 5.26 - - -

91 Heliotropium zeylanicum N. Burman 0.24 4.50 5.26 - - - 92 Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 93 Hibiscus lobatus (J. A. Murry) O. Kuntz. - - - 0.18 3.67 4.84 94 Homanoia retusa Muell. 0.18 7.00 2.63 0.08 5.00 1.61 95 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.V. Muell 0.08 3.00 2.63 0.10 3.00 3.23 96 Hygrophila salicifiolia (Vahl) Nees - - - 0.10 6.00 1.61 97 Hyptis suaveolens Poit. - - - 0.02 1.00 1.61 98 Ichnocarpus frutescens Ait. - - - 0.18 5.50 3.23 99 Impatiens balsamina L. - - - 0.10 2.00 4.84

100 Indigofera caerulea Roxb. - - - 0.08 2.50 3.23 101 Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth. 1.03 4.33 23.68 0.23 3.50 6.45 102 Indigofera glandulosa Roxb.ex Roth. 0.13 2.50 5.26 - - - 103 Indigofera hochstetteri Baker - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 104 Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retwius 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.03 2.00 1.61 105 Indigofera linnaei Ali. 0.03 1.00 2.63 - - - 106 Indigofera oblongifolia Forskal - - - 0.11 3.50 3.23 107 Indigofera tinctoria L. - - - 0.13 4.00 3.23 108 Jatropha gossypifolia L. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61

122

109 Justicia betonica L. 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 110 Justicia heterocrpa Anders. - - - 0.11 3.50 3.23 111 Justicia procumbens L. 0.50 9.50 5.26 0.08 5.00 1.61 112 Justicia simplex G. Don, 1.92 7.30 26.32 0.50 5.17 9.68 113 Justicia trinervia Vahl, - - - 0.11 2.33 4.84 114 Kalanchoe glandulosa Hochst. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 115 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen - - - 0.23 7.00 3.23 116 Lagascea mollis Cav 0.11 4.00 2.63 0.13 4.00 3.23 117 Lavandula bipinnata (Roth) O. Ktze. 4.87 7.40 65.79 2.74 7.08 38.71 118 Lenotis nepetifolia R.Br. 0.08 1.50 5.26 - - - 119 Lepidagathis cristata Willd. 1.11 3.82 28.95 0.79 3.50 22.58 120 Leucas aspera Spreng. 0.95 4.00 23.68 0.55 4.86 11.29 121 Leucas ciliata Benth. - - - 0.18 5.50 3.23 122 Leucas lanata Benth. - - - 0.19 6.00 3.23 123 Leucas stricta Benth. - - - 0.10 3.00 3.23 124 Linaria ramosissima Wall. 0.13 5.00 2.63 0.13 4.00 3.23 125 Linum mysorense Benth. - - - 0.19 6.00 3.23 126 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke 0.24 4.50 5.26 - - - 127 Melhania incana Heyne ex Wight & Arn. 0.39 3.00 13.16 0.10 2.00 4.84 128 Mimosa pudica L. 0.08 1.67 4.84 129 Mollugo cerviana (L.) Seringe 0.11 4.00 2.63 0.13 4.00 3.23 130 Mollugo pentaphylla L. 0.21 4.00 5.26 0.15 3.00 4.84 131 Ocimum basilicum L. 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 132 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 133 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. 0.16 6.00 2.63 - - - 134 Oxalis corniculata L. 0.21 4.00 5.26 0.05 1.50 3.23 135 Parthenium hysterophorus L. 0.74 14.00 5.26 0.63 9.75 6.45 136 Pavetta indicaL. - - - 0.02 1.00 1.61 137 Pavetta siphonantha Dalz. - - - 0.11 3.50 3.23

123

138 Pavonia odorata Willd. 0.21 2.67 7.89 0.21 4.33 4.84 139 Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav. 0.42 2.67 15.79 0.34 4.20 8.06 140 Pentanema indicum (L.) Ling 1.68 5.33 31.58 2.73 6.26 43.55 141 Peristrophae paniculata (Forsk) Burmmit. 0.13 5.00 2.63 0.13 4.00 3.23 142 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Grene - - - 0.19 6.00 3.23 143 Phyllanthus fraternus Webster. 0.21 2.67 7.89 0.16 3.33 4.84 144 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. 0.79 3.75 21.05 0.39 2.67 14.52 145 Phyllanthus virgatus Forster f. 0.26 3.33 7.89 0.06 4.00 1.61 146 Pimpinella heyneana (DC.) Kurz. 0.05 3.00 1.61 147 Plectranthus mollis (Ait.) Spreng. 0.16 3.00 5.26 0.03 2.00 1.61 148 Plectrnnthus barbatus Andr. - - - 0.21 6.50 3.23 149 Pogostemon paniculatus Benth. - - - 0.08 5.00 1.61 150 Polycarpaea aurea Wight & Arn. - - - 0.15 4.50 3.23 151 Polygala arvensis Willd. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.31 3.80 8.06 152 Polygala chinensis L. 0.53 3.33 15.79 0.45 5.60 8.06 153 Polygala erioptera DC. 0.08 3.00 2.63 0.03 2.00 1.61 154 Polygonum plebeium R.Br. - - - 0.08 2.50 3.23 155 Portuloca oleracea L. - - - 0.06 4.00 1.61 156 Premna integrifolia L. 0.03 1.00 2.63 0.02 1.00 1.61 157 Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce 0.08 3.00 2.63 - - - 158 Pulicaria wightiana C. B. Clrke, 3.32 5.73 57.89 2.95 5.72 51.61 159 Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. 0.08 3.00 2.63 0.02 1.00 1.61 160 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurtz - - - 0.45 4.67 9.68 161 Ruellia prostrata Poir 0.32 12.00 2.63 - - - 162 Rungia elegans Dalz. & Gibs. 1.42 6.00 23.68 0.52 3.20 16.13 163 Rungia repens (L.) Nees 0.21 2.67 7.89 0.08 5.00 1.61 164 Scilla hyacianthina (Roxb.) McBride 0.53 6.67 7.89 0.77 3.69 20.97 165 Senecio tenuifolius Burm. - - - 0.13 8.00 1.61 166 Sida acuta N. Burm.f. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61

124

167 Sida cordata (N.Burman) Borssum 0.13 5.00 2.63 0.05 1.50 3.23 168 Sida mysorensis Wight & Arn. 0.13 2.50 5.26 0.03 2.00 1.61 169 Sida spinosa L. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.02 1.00 1.61 170 Solanum nigrum L. 0.03 1.00 2.63 - - - 171 Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. 0.26 3.33 7.89 0.15 4.50 3.23 172 Sophora glauca DC. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 173 Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don. 0.79 4.29 18.42 0.73 5.00 14.52 174 Spermacoco hispida L. 0.68 4.33 15.79 0.90 5.09 17.74 175 Spermacoco pusilla Wall. 1.32 16.67 7.89 0.26 5.33 4.84 176 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl 0.39 7.50 5.26 0.98 10.17 9.68 177 Stemodia viscosa Roxb. - - - 0.15 4.50 3.23 178 Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze 0.95 5.14 18.42 0.73 5.00 14.52 179 Striga densiflora Benth. 1.05 5.00 21.05 0.32 3.33 9.68 180 Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retzius) Alston. 1.45 4.58 31.58 1.29 5.33 24.19 181 Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Pers. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.13 8.00 1.61 182 Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 0.21 8.00 2.63 0.16 5.00 3.23 183 Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pres. 0.42 4.00 10.53 0.24 7.50 3.23 184 Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng 0.21 8.00 2.63 0.13 4.00 3.23 185 Tragia hildenbrandtii Muell-Arg. 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 186 Tribulus terrestris L. 0.42 3.20 13.16 - - - 187 Trichodesma africanum R.Br. 0.11 2.00 5.26 0.05 3.00 1.61 188 Trichodesma indicum R.Br. 0.29 2.20 13.16 0.24 5.00 4.84 189 Tricholepis radicans DC. 0.13 2.50 5.26 0.02 1.00 1.61 190 Tridax procumbens L. 1.21 4.18 28.95 0.61 3.80 16.13 191 Typha angustate Bory & Chaub. 0.21 8.00 2.63 - - - 192 Urena lobata L. 0.55 5.25 10.53 - - - 193 Verbascum chinense (L.) Sant. - - - 0.06 4.00 1.61 194 Vernonia cinerea Less. 4.89 5.64 86.84 4.35 6.00 72.58 195 Vernonia indica C. B. Clarke - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61

125

196 Viscum arbiculatum Burm. - - - 0.02 1.00 1.61 197 Waltheria indica L. 0.39 5.00 7.89 0.37 5.75 6.45 198 Withania somnifera Dunal - - - 0.02 1.00 1.61 199 Zornia gibbosa Spanoghe 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.13 4.00 3.23

126

Table 18. Climbers species composition of Kappath hills with their density, abundance and frequency in disturbed and undisturbed forest.

Sl.No. Disturbed forest Undisturbed forest Species Name Density Abundance Frequency Density Abundance Frequency

1 Abrus precatorius L. 0.05 1.00 5.26 - - - 2 Alysicarpus tetragonolobus Edg. 0.29 2.75 10.53 0.42 6.50 6.45 3 Ampelocissus tomentosa (Heyne ex Roth.) Planchon 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.02 1.00 1.61 4 Aristolochia indica L. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.10 1.50 6.45 5 Asparagus laevissimus Steud. 0.68 2.89 23.68 0.45 2.33 19.35 6 Atylosia scarabacoides (L.) Benth. 0.82 2.82 28.95 1.60 3.96 40.32 7 Ceropegia hirsuta Wight & Arn. - - - 0.08 2.50 3.23 8 Cissampelos Pareira L. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.05 1.50 3.23 9 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. - - - 0.03 1.00 3.23 10 Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels 0.29 1.83 15.79 0.24 1.88 12.90 11 Convolvus arvensis L 0.13 1.67 7.89 0.06 2.00 3.23 12 Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br. - - - 0.02 1.00 1.61 13 Cryptolepis buchananii R.Br. & Roem. & Schult. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 14 Desmodium laxiflorum DC. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.05 3.00 1.61 15 Dioscorea oppositifolia L. - - - 0.06 1.33 4.84 16 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey - - - 0.06 2.00 3.23 17 Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. 0.05 1.00 5.26 0.08 1.67 4.84 18 Hemidesmus indicus R.Br. 0.16 2.00 7.89 0.08 1.67 4.84 19 Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. 0.21 2.00 10.53 0.27 2.13 12.90 20 Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. 0.10 3.00 3.23 21 Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth. 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 22 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. - - - 0.05 1.50 3.23 23 Jasminum roxburghianum Wall. - - - 0.02 1.00 1.61 24 Meyenia hawtayneana Nees - - - 0.27 5.67 4.84

127

25 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roemer - - - 0.08 2.50 3.23 26 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 27 Passiflora foetida L. 0.34 1.86 18.42 0.16 1.43 11.29 28 Pentatropis capensis (L.f.) Bullock - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 29 Pergularia pallida Wight & Arn. 0.05 2.00 2.63 - - - 30 Pycnospora lutescens (Poir.) Sxhindl. - - - 0.10 6.00 1.61 31 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. 0.63 3.43 18.42 0.45 2.55 17.74 32 Rhynchosia viscosa DC. - - - 0.03 1.00 3.23 33 Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr.) Choisy 0.08 1.50 5.26 0.02 1.00 1.61 34 Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voight 0.16 2.00 7.89 - - - 35 Sarcostemma intermedium Decne. - - - 0.03 2.00 1.61 36 Tylophora dalzellii Hook.f. - - - 0.05 3.00 1.61 37 Tylophora fasiculata Buch. 0.24 2.25 10.53 0.37 2.30 16.13 38 Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. 0.45 1.70 26.32 0.19 2.00 9.68 39 Ventilago madraspatana Gaertner. 0.05 2.00 2.63 0.08 5.00 1.61

128

5.3.3.3 Importance Value Index

Importance value index (IVI) combines relative density;

relative frequency and relative dominance are to a measure ecological

influence of each species in the forest. The Kappath forest with top 5

tree species in disturbed and undisturbed study sites are shown in Fig.

12a & b. The IVI of the species was decreased gradually in the

undisturbed forest, where as in case of disturbed forest IVI of the

species was rapidly decreased.

Grewia orbiculata scored greater IVI in the undisturbed site

(41.58) and Acacia chundra scored greater IVI (43.29) in the disturbed

site. Terminalia arjuna, Santalum album and Parkinsonia aculeate

scored least IVI (0.46) value in the disturbed forest. Similarly in

undisturbed forest Salvadora persica, Naringi crenulata and

Cochlospermum religiosum scored least IVI (0.21) values (Table 19).

129

Figure 12 a. Importance value indices of top five tree species in disturbed forest

Figure 12 b. importance value indices of top five tree species in undisturbed forest

05

1015202530354045

IVI v

alue

b. Disturbed forest

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Grewia orbiculata

Terminalia alata

Grewia tilifolia

Dolichondron atrovirens

Soymida febrifuga

IVI v

alue

a. Undisturbed forest

130

Table 19. Importance value indices of the undisturbed and disturbed forest.

Sl. No.

Name of the Plant

Disturbed Undisturbed IVI IVI

1 Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottler) Willd. 43.29 21.32 2 Acacia latronum (L.f) Willd. 1.09 - 3 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 3.94 2.44 4 Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn 1.08 0.21 5 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 0.46 - 6 Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. salvifolium 0.51 - 7 Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 17.56 1.42 8 Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall.ex Guill. & Perr. 13.55 18.27 9 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 5.14 1.58

10 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. - 0.21 11 Boswellia serrata Roxb.ex Colebr. - 1.26 12 Bridelia crenulata Roxb. 0.96 1.32 13 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Almeida - 1.63 14 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 1.03 - 15 Capparis divaricata Lam. 0.99 2.17 16 Capparis grandis L.f. - 0.21 17 Cassia fistula L. 19.85 10.91 18 Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze 0.55 - 19 Casuarina equisitifolia L. 0.51 0.5 20 Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 2.64 6.27 21 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston - 0.21 22 Cordia dichotoma Forst.f. - 0.23 23 Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. - 0.21 24 Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. 1.62 8.02 25 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 6.8 2.85 26 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. 0.23 27 Dolichandrone atrovirens (Heyne ex Roth)

Sprague 22.06 25.77

28 Eriolaena quinquelocularis (Wight & Arn.) Cleghorn

- 0.41

29 Erythrina variegata L. 0.96 30 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 29.92 6.42 31 Ficus religiosa L. - 0.21 32 Ficus sp. - 0.23 33 Gardenia gummifera L. 18.41 15.26 34 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. - 0.23 35 Grewia orbiculata Rottler 20.66 41.58 36 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl. 7.45 29.06 37 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 11.98 6.87 38 Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 0.51 0.29 39 Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 0.51 0.23 40 Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn) Merr. - 0.21 41 Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Macbr. 0.51 0.21 42 Mallotus philippensis (Lanm.) Muell-Arg. - 0.23

131

43 Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou 13.39 8.82 44 Miliusa tomemtosa (Roxb.) Sinclair - 0.23 45 Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kunth var. parviflora - 0.21 46 Morinda pubescens Smith 20.16 13.48 47 Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolsion 0.21 48 Parkinsonia aculeata L. 0.46 - 49 Phyllanthus emblica L. - 2.82 50 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 1.03 0.67 51 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 1.17 2.05 52 Salvadora persica L. 0.1 53 Santalum album L. 0.46 - 54 Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. - 0.21 55 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. - 0.39 56 Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) Juss. 12.63 22.46 57 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. - 0.23 58 Stychnous potatorum L.f. - 0.45 59 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels - 0.21 60 Tamarindus indica L. 0.73 0.58 61 Tectona grandis L. - 1.36 62 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 3.84 29.88 63 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. 0.46 - 64 Terminalia chebula Retz. - 2.46 65 Thevetia nerifoliai Juss. 0.46 - 66 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 1.39 1.69 67 Ziziphus horrida Roxb. 0.51 - 68 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. - 0.45 69 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. 2.41 0.92

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5.3.3.4 Family Importance Value (FIV)

The highest total abundance of Acacia chundra (478 stems) in

the disturbed forest placed the family Mimosaceae in first position of

FIV (22.33). The families Rubiaceae (39.09), Caesalpinaceae (33.89).

Myrtaceae (29.9), Bignoniaceae (29.2), Tiliaceae (28.1), Combretaceae

(18.6), Meliaceae (17.7), Celastraceae (13.3), Ebenaceae (6.8),

Fabaceae (3.84), Rhamnaceae (2.9), Flindernaceae (2.64) and

Apocynaceae (1.3) ranked next with high FIV. It was less than one FIV

for eight plant families. In the undisturbed forest the high total

abundance of Terminalia alata (901 stems) is placed the family

Tiliaceae in the first position of FIV (71.06). The families

Combretaceae (51.9), Rubiaceae (29.25), Bignoniaceae (26),

Mimosaceae (25.4), Meliaceae (24.05), Caesalpinaceae (18.58) and

Fabaceae (11.93) are ranked next with high FIV and less than 10 FIV

in 22 remaining families.

5.4 Distribution of species according to Raunkiaer's frequency classes

The distribution of 688 tree species in Raunkiaer's frequency classes (Table.

20) showed that almost all the species (79.41%) encountered in the forest were rare. It

was also observed that 10.29% of the species were of low frequency. 8.82% were of

intermediate frequency and 1.47% was moderately high frequency, none of the plant

species are ordered as high frequency (Fig. 13) which indicates the forest is not a

primary forest or original forest.

133

Table 20: Distribution of species according to Raunkiaer's frequency classes.

Class code

Percentage Frequency

Number of species

% of number of species

Remarks

A 0-20 54 79.41 Rare B 20-40 7 10.29 Low C 40-60 6 8.82 Intermediate frequency D 60-80 1 1.47 Moderately high frequency E 80-100 0 0 Highly frequency

Figure 13. Raunkiaer’s frequency classes 5.5 Altitudinal Variation

Floristic composition and the abundance of some of the species vary with the

altitude. Acacia chundra distributed from lower altitude of 500 m and to extended

upto higher altitude of 960 m. It is more abundant at 500-700 m. With the increase in

altitude there is decrease in number of individuals. Anogeissus latifolia, Cassia fistula,

Grewia orbiculata, Grewia tiliifolia and Morinda pubescens is distributed form 500 to

1000 m elevation, in higher elevation individuals are less.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

A B C D E

% of

num

ber

of sp

ecie

s

Class code

134

Whereas Mallotus philippensis and Cochlospermum religiosum were seen at

an altitude ranging between 700 and 800 m, and 800 to 900m respectively. Erythrina

variegata, Eriolaena quinquelocularis and Bridelia crenulata are found in 900 to

1000 m, and Tectona grandis are occurred from 700 to 1000 m. Herbs representation

is good at lower elevations from 500 to 700 m. Whereas few herbs such as,

Ampelocissus tomentosa, Barleria stocksi, Barleris gibsoni, Vernonia indica,

Pycnospora lutescens, are found only in 800-1000 m elevation. Meyenia hawtayneana

and Naravelia zeylanica are seen in the middle of the hill (800-900m).

5.6 Soil Anaysis

5.6.1 Soil nutrients (micro and macro) variations at different altitudes.

The pH was slightly vary in the different altitude, highest in an altitude

of 500-600 meter range i.e. pH 6.74 and lowest was recorded in the 700-800

meter altitude i.e. pH 6.34. The percentage of Nitrogen (N) concentration was

highest in an altitude of 500-600 meter i.e. 0.19%, the lowest percentage of

Nitrogen was recorded in the 600-700 meter i.e. 0.02%. The phosphate (P)

was highest in the altitude of 700-800 meter i.e. 8.72%. The lowest

concentration was recorded in the 600-700 meter i.e. 1.81%. The Potash (K)

concentration was recorded in the 900-1000 meter i.e. 126%, and the lowest

concentration was found in the 600-700 meter i.e. 48.46%. The organic carbon

was highest in the 500-600 meter i.e. 16.4% and lowest in the 600-700 meter

i.e. 0.56%.

The soil micronutrients analyses were conducted on Zinc, Cobalt,

Manganese and Iron covering different locations at different altitudes of

Kappath forest. Zinc (Zn) was highest in the 600-700 meter altitude i.e. 0.88

135

ppm, and lowest was found in 700-800 meter i.e. 0.58ppm, in remaining

altitude, 500-600 meter altitude i.e. 0.54 ppm, 800-900 meter altitude i.e.

0.57ppm, 900-1000 meter altitude i.e. 0.55ppm. The Cobalt (Co)

concentration is highest in the 500-600 meter altitude i.e. 1.92 ppm, and

lowest was in 900-1000 meter altitude i.e. 0.2 ppm, in remaining altitude, 600-

700 meter altitude i.e. 0.85 ppm, 800-900 meter altitude i.e. 0.0.39 ppm. The

Manganese (Mn) was highest in the 900-1000 meter altitude i.e. 50.9 ppm,

and lowest in the 500-600 meter altitude i.e. 9.2 ppm and in remaining

altitude, 600-700 meter altitude i.e. 16 ppm, 700-800 meter altitude i.e. 22.9

ppm, 800-900 meter altitude i.e. 20.4 ppm. The Iron (Fe) concentration was

highest in the 500-600 meter altitude i.e. 15.43 ppm and lowest in the 800-900

meter altitude i.e. 5.6 ppm. in remaining altitude, 600-700 meter altitude i.e.

8.8 ppm, 700-800 meter altitude i.e. 10.47 ppm, 900-1000 meter altitude i.e.

12.06 ppm (Table 21).

136

Table 21. Soil analysis of micro and macro nutrients in Kappath forest.

Quadrat Number

pH N%

P% K% OC%

Zn ppm

Co ppm

Mn ppm

Fe ppm

% of moisture

2 6.4 0.1 4.0 70 1.1 0.7 1.0 27.7 13.0 1.1

3 6.3 0.1 4.0 180 1.2 1.7 0.7 41.7 8.3 1.5

4 6.3 0.1 6.0 190 1.2 1.4 1.0 60.7 18.0 -

5 6.4 0.0 4.0 120 1.4 1.2 1.6 54.4 13.0 2.2

6 6.5 0.1 4.0 200 1.3 1.1 0.7 57.7 15.0 -

7 5.9 0.0 6.0 150 1.2 1.6 0.7 51.7 14.0 -

8 6.2 0.0 4.0 140 0.9 0.7 0.3 35.0 6.3 0.6

9 6.0 0.1 4.0 110 1.0 0.7 0.7 23.0 2.1 1.6

10 7.6 0.1 6.0 160 1.1 0.6 0.4 5.9 1.3 1.4

11 7.4 0.1 8.0 130 1.3 0.6 0.4 10.8 7.9 2.4

12 7.1 0.1 4.0 170 1.4 0.4 0.4 30.1 8.1 2.5

13 6.9 0.1 4.0 200 1.2 0.4 0.3 49.7 10.0 -

14 6.6 0.1 4.0 180 1.2 1.8 0.3 40.8 8.5 -

15 6.7 0.1 6.0 90 1.1 1.3 0.3 48.7 9.4 -

16 6.9 0.1 8.0 80 1.0 1.0 0.3 25.6 3.3 -

17 6.4 0.1 4.0 50 1.3 0.9 0.3 48.7 16.0 2.3

18 5.7 0.1 4.0 160 1.3 0.6 0.3 10.1 2.0 -

19 6.6 0.1 6.0 30 1.0 1.0 0.2 47.5 13.0 -

20 6.3 0.0 4.0 110 1.4 0.7 0.3 52.7 9.2 1.4

21 6.1 0.0 6.0 120 1.4 0.5 0.3 55.6 19.0 3.1

22 6.1 0.0 4.0 130 1.4 0.7 0.2 36.6 13.0 3.1

23 6.4 0.1 6.0 80 1.6 0.6 0.1 52.8 8.3 2.8

24 6.6 0.1 6.0 130 1.4 0.6 0.2 61.3 8.8 3.8

25 6.7 0.1 4.0 190 1.5 0.7 0.2 46.6 15.0 2.8

26 6.8 0.1 4.0 150 1.4 0.7 0.2 38.2 11.0 2.0

27 6.7 0.1 6.0 140 1.4 0.4 0.1 55.7 14.0 2.4

28 6.6 0.0 4.0 90 1.3 0.9 0.2 30.6 3.8 3.2

29 6.5 0.0 4.0 60 1.0 3.0 0.1 38.4 12.0 3.2

30 6.1 0.1 8.0 110 0.1 2.5 0.1 27.3 11.0 1.8

31 6.6 0.1 6.0 50 1.5 2.3 0.1 18.0 13.0 2.3

32 6.2 0.1 4.0 70 1.4 2.3 0.1 18.0 13.0 3.3

137

33 5.7 0.0 1.8 88 1.4 0.3 1.4 5.9 8.1 2.2

34 5.8 0.1 3.0 160 1.2 0.2 1.4 13.9 12.0 1.9

35 6.1 0.0 0.8 48 1.0 0.1 0.7 7.6 7.3 2.7

36 6.6 0.0 0.8 56 1.1 0.2 0.9 0.8 7.1 2.4

37 6.7 0.1 2.3 54 1.4 0.2 0.8 6.6 5.3 3.1

38 6.7 0.1 2.8 52.8 1.0 0.2 0.2 30.6 6.9 2.1

39 6.1 0.0 2.8 160 1.2 0.2 0.2 4.7 17.0 1.8

40 6.8 0.0 1.3 104 1.1 0.2 0.4 9.9 6.9 1.2

41 6.4 0.1 2.0 112 0.9 0.2 0.4 3.1 2.7 2.1

42 6.6 0.0 2.3 64 1.0 0.4 1.1 8.9 7.4 2.6

43 6.4 0.0 2.8 40 0.5 0.3 0.1 11.5 3.0 1.8

44 6.5 0.1 2.5 35.2 0.5 0.3 1.8 5.3 3.9 6.1

45 6.8 0.1 2.0 56 0.9 0.4 1.9 13.1 6.9 5.7

46 6.9 0.0 1.3 86.4 0.9 0.4 1.5 17.2 7.9 4.5

47 7.9 0.1 2.8 56 0.8 0.4 1.5 14.6 4.9 3.8

48 7.5 0.0 3.3 160 0.8 0.8 1.5 8.4 20.0 4.5

49 7.2 0.0 3.5 67.2 0.9 0.7 1.2 10.8 8.0 4.6

50 6.8 0.1 2.5 40 0.7 0.5 1.1 12.1 8.6 3.8

51 6.1 0.0 2.0 60.8 1.5 1.1 0.8 8.3 12.0 5.0

52 6.0 0.3 2.3 36 0.7 0.4 1.5 8.5 18.0 3.9

53 6.2 0.1 2.0 48 0.7 0.7 1.5 7.9 15.0 4.9

54 6.4 0.0 2.3 104 0.9 0.7 3.4 10.3 19.0 5.3

55 6.2 0.1 1.5 40 1.0 0.9 1.8 16.3 20.0 5.4

56 6.3 0.1 52.5 36.8 0.7 0.4 0.9 9.3 6.5 5.5

57 6.7 0.0 2.5 54.4 1.3 0.5 2.0 7.3 5.4 3.0

58 6.5 0.1 2.0 72 1.1 0.6 1.3 16.5 10.0 4.6

59 6.4 0.1 2.8 72 1.2 0.5 2.1 7.2 17.0 3.9

60 6.2 0.0 2.3 80 1.1 0.2 0.9 11.5 4.6 4.7

61 7.4 1.1 43.2 53.8 0.1 - - - - 5.9

62 7.5 0.8 47.7 51.8 0.2 - - - - 5.0

63 7.8 0.6 37.8 59.2 0.2 - - - - 2.0

64 7.9 0.6 46.8 61.5 0.4 - - - - 1.6

65 7.6 0.6 55.8 60.2 0.9 - - - - 5.3

66 7.6 0.6 57.6 54.1 0.8 - - - - 2.3

138

67 7.9 0.7 50.4 56.2 0.4 - - - - 3.2

68 7.8 0.6 57.6 57.1 0.1 - - - - 1.5

69 7.7 0.3 27.9 61.5 0.1 - - - - 1.2

71 8.1 0.6 62.1 58.2 0.3 - - - - 7.8

72 8.1 0.4 35.1 65.2 0.3 - - - - 2.6

73 8.0 0.6 34.2 65.2 0.2 - - - - 3.5

74 8.1 0.4 18.0 68.1 0.2 - - - - 3.3

75 6.2 0.7 54.9 65.1 0.1 - - - - 2.1

76 5.9 0.6 63.9 64.2 0.1 - - - - 3.9

77 7.6 0.8 50.4 55.2 0.2 - - - - 4.9

78 7.7 0.8 101 78.4 0.6 - - - - 1.7

79 6.7 0.8 33.3 58.1 0.2 - - - - 1.4

80 8.0 0.4 65.7 79.1 0.1 - - - - 2.8

81 8.0 0.5 50.4 70.2 0.1 - - - - 2.6

82 6.4 0.8 19.8 50.2 0.2 - - - - 4.6

83 7.6 0.5 68.4 81.2 0.4 - - - - 6.6

84 8.2 0.5 49.5 61.1 0.2 - - - - 3.5

85 8.3 0.5 70.2 81.2 0.3 - - - - 5.1

86 8.2 0.4 37.8 61.2 0.3 - - - - 5.3

87 8.2 0.5 43.2 79.2 0.3 - - - - 2.5

88 6.9 0.6 46.8 79.2 0.1 - - - - 4.0

89 7.9 0.6 77.4 101 0.3 - - - - 3.2

90 8.0 0.5 39.6 58.2 0.1 - - - - 4.7

91 6.9 0.4 72.9 106 0.4 - - - - 3.8

92 6.8 0.4 66.6 98.1 0.4 - - - - 3.6

93 7.6 0.5 57.6 81.2 0.2 - - - - 4.8

94 7.6 0.8 63.0 85.1 0.1 - - - - 2.0

95 8.1 0.5 47.7 94.1 0.3 - - - - 2.4

96 8.0 0.6 57.6 81.1 0.1 - - - - 3.7

97 8.1 0.4 47.7 78.2 0.3 - - - - 3.8

98 8.2 0.4 33.3 94.1 0.2 - - - - 2.9

99 8.1 0.4 52.2 110 0.1 - - - - 4.4

100 8.1 0.3 65.7 112 0.8 - - - - 4.4 - Data deficit

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5.7 Traditional Medicinal Plants of Kappath forest

A Kappath hill is blessed with rich diversity of medicinal plants, which were

used by medicine men to treat local population for effective control of many ailments.

Traditional medicine based on herbal remedies has always played a key role in

maintaining the health of the village population in India.

The ethno-botanical exploration of the study area was conducted nearby

villages. The method of herbal preparation prescribed by the local herbal healers from

65 species belonging to 59 genera and 36 families were documented. In most of the

cases, single plant was useful in curing two to three diseases such as leucorrhea, fever,

rheumatic pains, menstrual disorders, cuts and wounds. A good number of claims

have also been recorded. The parts used and the method of preparation was discussed

along with the local names.

Anemia

Aegle marmelos Corr. (Bilva Pathrimara): Leaf paste (50-60 g) and bulbs of Alium

sativum (4-5 bulbs) are mixed with one liter goat milk and then filter it. The filtrate is

orally taken for a day. The day of treatment avoid use of water in any form and also

spicy items.

Anorexia

Cassia italica (Miller) Lam. (Nelavari): The whole plant powder (3-5 g) with a cup of

milk (50-60 ml) given once in a day for about 5-6 days.

Antidote

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv. (Tuggli): Leaf paste is applied externally and exposed to

the flame.

140

Aristolochia indica L. (Ishwariballi or Isriballi): Root paste given with a cup of water

(50-600 ml) twice in a day for about 2-3 days.

Calotropis procera (Aiton) R.Br. (Yakkigida): The milky latex is applied externally

on a place of Scorpion sting.

Canthium parviflorum Lam. (Kaare): The leaf juice (15-20 ml) given orally once in a

day about 3 days.

Commicarpus chinensis (L.) Heimerl (Suvarnagedde): Root paste externally applied.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Karikehullu): Rhizome (runners) is orally given for the

centipede bite.

Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntze (Jaaligida): The leaf paste (15-20g) is given with

water (50-60 ml) twice in a day for about a week.

Strychnos potatorum L.f. (Chillmara): For scorpion sting, seed paste applied

externally on the place of sting.

Aphrodisiac

Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntze (Jaaligida): The fruit powder (5-6g) is orally

given with honey (10-15ml) twice in a day for about a week.

Securinega virosa (Willd.) Baillon (Ganduli): For aphrodisiac the young shoots are

given for eating (10-15 g).

Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. (Halaglatti): Leaf powder (3-5g) is given once in a day for

about a week.

Asthma

Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Excell. (Thondarsi): Flower powder is given with

honey once in a day for about 41 days.

Solanum trilobatum L. (Mullusondi): The powder of Cassia italica, Ocimum

tenuiflorum and is mixed with fruit powder of Piper nigrum and Syzygium

141

aromaticum is given orally with cup of milk (50-60 ml), twice in a day for about 41

days.

Tridax procumbens L. (Tikikasa): Leaf juice (20-25 ml) given twice a day about a

week.

Body Heat

Aloe vera (L.) N. Burman (Lolesara): For treating body heat and retard the seminal

discharge, pulp of the stem (50 g) with sugar powder (10-15 g) given orally, twice in a

day for a week.

Bone Fever

Peristrophe paniculata (Forsk) Burmmit. (Eluvusandaka): Leaf powder (3-5 g) with

seed powder (3-4 g) of Cuminum cyminum and Trachyspermum ammi with a cup of

water (50-60 ml) twice in a day for about 3-4 days.

Bone Setting

Cadaba fruticosa (L) Druce. (Sihiguduchi): The plant powder (5-6 g) with leaf

powder of Blepharis repens (3-4 g) is given twice in a day about a week.

Bronchitis

Vallaris solanacea Kuntze (Vishamallige): Root paste (5-6 g) with water (50-60 ml)

is orally given to cure Bronchitis.

Burning Sensation in Stomach

Securinega virosa (Willd.) Baillon. (Gandhulli): Leaf powder (3-5 g) with seed

powder of Cuminum cyminum (1-2 g) and sugar (1-2 g) along with cup of milk (50-60

ml) given once in a day for about a week.

142

Cold and Cough

Acacia latronum Willd. (Hodijaali): The fruit powder (4-5g) is given with cup of

water (50-60ml) orally, twice in a day for about 4-5 days.

Phyllanthus amarus Sch. & Thon. (Nelanelli): The plant powder (3-5 g) is given with

a cup of water (50-60 ml) and sugar (5-10 g).

Salvadora persica L. (Gongida): The leaves are warmed and externally applied to the

head. For the rheumatic pain and fever leaf juice (15-20 ml) orally taken twice in a

day for about 2-3 days.

Diabetes

Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. (Madhunashini): The whole plant powder (3-5g)

with the powder of Andrographis paniculata and Cassia italica (2-3 g) is given twice

in a day for about six months.

Dysentery

Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce (Bannimara): Leaf paste (5-8 g) of young shoots and

also with the leaf paste (5-8 g) of Cassia auriculata given orally with a cup of curd

(50-60 ml) twice in a day for about 2-3 days.

Dysmenorrhoea

Punica granatum L. (Daalimbe): Fruit juice and leaves of Cassia auriculata grind

with goat milk the filtrate is given daily once in a day for about 3-4 days.

Epilepsy

Cordia dichotoma Forster f. (Kirjaligi): About 100 g of C. dichotoma leaves and L.

aspera (whole plant), 21 bulbs of Allium cepa, 21 flower buds of Syzygium

aromaticum and 21 fruits of Piper nigrum all are mixed together and ground in to fine

143

powder. About 3-5 g of fine powder is mixed with cup of water (50-60 ml), up to 7

days daily twice in morning and night orally given to cure the epilepsy.

Fever

Andrographis paniculata Nees (Nelabevu): Plant powder (3-5 g) is given orally with

a cup of water (50-60 ml) twice in a day, for about a week.

Cassia auriculata L. (Honnambri): Leaf decoction (60-70 ml) taken twice in a day for

about 2-3 days.

Cassia italica (Miller) Lam.( Nelavari) : The decoction of the leaves (30-40 ml) given

twice in a day for about 2-3 days.

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Tulasi): The decoction of the leaves (50-60 ml) is given

orally twice in a day for about 3-4 days.

Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz (Vishamdhari): Plant powder (3-5 g) and

Peristrophe paniculata (3-5 g) with a cup of water (50-60 ml) twice in a day for about

3 days.

Infection after Delivery

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. (Kadigaraga): Paste prepared from leaves, bulbs of Alium

sativum and pulp of the Balanitis roxburghii are made in to paste (divide equally in to

60 pills) and given twice in a day for about 30 days.

Jaundice

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Ingalaradmara): The fruit pulp (3-4 g) is mixed with

one cup of water (50-60 ml) and also mixed with 8-10 drops of leaf juice of Eclipta

alba and is orally given in morning and night up to 7 days to cure any type of

jaundice.

144

Mimosa hamata Willd. (Sagare mullina gida): The roots are tied to the arm and keep

it wet with water.

Plumbago zeylanica L (Bilichitramoola): The roots are twisted and tied to the arm

and keep it wet with water, after some time the burning mark appear on the arm which

indicates the symptoms of the jaundice.

Kidney Stone

Tribulus terrestris L. (Neggilmullu): The decoction of the fruit (15-20 ml) is given

orally once in a day for about one month.

Lactation

Cansjera rheedii J. Gmelin (Haal nakri): Fresh leaves and flowers are orally given

with boiled Bengal gram twice in a day for about 3-4 days.

Leptadenia reticulata Wight & Arn.b (haaliballi): Fresh leaves and flowers are orally

given with boiled Bengal gram twice in a day for about 3-4 days. In case of a cold and

cough latex has been inhaled.

Leucorrhoea

Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. (Teredmara): The leaf powder (5-6g) is given with

milk cream once in a day for about 41 days.

Argemone mexicana L. (Golgolake): Paste of roots with Papaver somniferun seeds

paste mixed with a water (90-100 ml), filter it, and cup of filtrate is given daily once

in a day for about a week.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (Bilidasaval): Flower powder (3-5 g) is given orally with

honey (5-10 ml) twice a day for about 2-3 days.

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Securinega virosa (Willd.) Baillon (Ganduli): Leaf paste, fruit of Piper nigrum and

Elettaria cardamomum given orally with curd (50-60 ml), once in a day for about 3-4

days.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. (Amrutballi): Roots are crushed with goat milk,

filtered and allow to dry under shade, till it dried in to fine powder, which is known as

Amrutabhasma. A spoon of Amrutabhasma (5-10 g) with a cup of fresh milk (50-60

ml) orally given twice in a day for about a week.

Tribulus terrestris L. (Neggilumullu): The plant powder (5-6g) is given with a cup of

milk (50-60ml) twice in a day for about a week.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandhi): The root powder (5-6 g) is given

orally with goat milk (50-60ml) twice in a day for about a week.

Memory Power and Immunity

Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston (Bettatavare): Flower powder (3-5 g) is given

with honey (5-10 ml) once in a day for about three months mainly to the child (below

12 years).

Migraine

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link (Tumbikasa): Leaf juice and single stalk of Allium

sativum bulb juice are mixed and poured 3-4 drops in to each nasal, once during the

night for about 3-4 days.

Nocturnal Emission

Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce (Sihigudachi): Leaf powder (3-5 g) is given with cup of

coconut milk (50-60 ml) once in a day for about 2-3 days.

Enicostemma axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal (Ranjaka): The leaf paste (8-10 g) is mixed

with cup of water (50-60 ml) is orally given in morning and night up to 1 month.

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Paralysis

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Saraswatigida): Dried leaf powder (3-5 g) given is

orally with honey (8-10 ml), early in the morning and night for about 54 days.

Piles

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Tulasi): Leaf powder (5-6 g) is filled within Banana is given

orally once in day about a week.

Rheumatic Pain

Cissus pallida (Wight & Arn.) Steudel (Hondagumbala): The juice of the plant is

applied externally.

Clerodendrum multiflorum (Burm.f.) O. Kutz. (Husalangi): Leaf juice (15-20 ml) is

taken orally once in a day for about 3-4 days.

Eeuphorbia nivulia Buch. Ham. (Gootgalli): The latex is applied externally on body

parts.

Ring Worm

Aristolochia bracteolata Lam (Kattegiruba): Root juice (5-6 ml) with leaf juice (5-6

ml) of Tridax procumbens and Acalypha indica is externally applied twice in day for

about a week.

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl (Kariuttarani): The leaf powder (3-5 g) is

mixed with coconut oil (10 ml) and applied externally on infected parts.

Stomachache

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Gajjuga): The burnt seed powder (3-5 g) is given

with cup of water (50-60 ml) twice a day for about 2-3 days.

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Helicteres isora L. (Edumuri): The follicles are tied to the arm with wet cloth and

keep it wet for two day.

Momordica charantiya L. (Hagalballi): Leaf juice (20-25 ml) is given orally twice in

a day for about 2-3 days.

Stomach Ulcers

Alternanthera pungens Humboldt. (Haadargittimullu): The whole plant powder (4-5

g) with seed powder of Piper nigrum, Syzygium aromaticum and Allium cepa (2-3 g)

is given with a cap of water (50- 60 ml), twice a day for about one week.

Tonsils

Achyranthus aspera L. (Uttarani): The paste of young shoots (10-15 g) with salt is

given, twice in a day for about 2-3 days.

Toothache

Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (Belvantara or Belladagida): Decoction of the

bark gargles once in a day for about a week.

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Bevu): Leaf juice with salt water pours 10-15 drops in to

the right side ear, if the toothache is in left side, vice-versa if it is in right side.

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt (Thonde balli)The leaf juice (5-6 ml) is dropped in to the

both e: ar, twice in a day for about 2-3 days.

Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. (Halaglatti): Chewing of 3-4 young leaves, twice in a day for

about three days.

Tooth Powder

Terminalia chebula Retz. (Alalekai): The fruit powder used as tooth powder.

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Wounds, Burning Wounds and Cuts

Cassia auriculata L. (Honnambri): The dried powder of young shoots and flowers (3-

5 g) is mixed with coconut oil (8-10 ml) and applied externally on burnt part.

Cassia fistula L. (Kakkemara): The burnt fruit powder (3-5 g) is mixed with coconut

oil (8-10 ml) is externally applied until cured.

Lepidagathis cristata Willd. (Maadigaddi): Leaf paste with coconut oil is applied

externally on old wounds.

Morinda pubescens Smith (Malaga): The leaf powder (3-5 g) is mixed with coconut

oil (8-10 ml) to apply externally.

Pentatropis capensis (L.f.) Bullock (Nanjanarayanballi): Leaves are boiled in coconut

oil and are externally applied.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Hullulaga): Seed paste is prepared with coconut oil

and applied externally twice in a day until it cured.

Tridax procumbens L. (Tikikasa): Leaf juice is applied externally.

Vallaris solanacea Kuntze (Vishamallige): The latex is externally used to cure

wounds.