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INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF LIMBU ONECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

Submitted to:

Social Inclusion Research Fund Secretariat

Apprenticeship Grant (SIRF/RF/07)

Submitted by:

Dil Kumar Hangsurung Limbu

April, 2008



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge my thanks to Social Inclusion Research Fund Secretariat for providing

the research fund for this project.

My sincere thanks go to Dr. Laya Prasad Upreti, my supervisor, for the continuousguidance and encouragement throughout the project work.

Thanks are also due to Narendra Kerung (Lecturer, Panchathar Multiple Campus),Rabindra Tumbapo (President, Kirant Yakthung Chumlung), Asal Nembang(Headmaster, Ithung High School), and Teaching staffs of Saraswati High School fortheir active support in the field work.

I also extend my thanks to Mr. Basanta Kumar Rai, research assistant of this project,for his untiring help.

Last but not the least; I am thankful to the healer duo Mr. Amritman Tumbapo andMr. Mahasher Nembang, and many other key informants for gladly agreeing tocooperate in this project.



ABSTRACT

An exploratory survey of indigenous Limbu knowledge on ecology, biodiversity and

ethnomedicine was carried out between November 2007 and February 2008 takingChokmagu and Ranitar VDC of Panchthar district (East Nepal) as the representativesites. The study revealed that Limbu people use over 200 plants (apart from commoncereals and garden vegetables) for a multiplicity of purposes. About 110 medicinal

plants are found in various degrees of abundance while some 119 plants (includingunavailable ones) are used against a wide range of illnesses, ranging anything fromcommon cold to fracture. Allowing overlapping of usages, about 59 plants are usedfor food, 107 for fodder, 28 as wild foods, 28 for veterinary purpose, 38 for murchamaking, and 37 for religious purposes. Almost all the plants (96%) studied had Limbunames, which implies that the natives had been in close association with these plantsfrom eons past. The sensory attributes of the botanicals are often related to thetreatment of a specific disease. Contrary to the assumption, the abundance of plantsdid not show association with the frequency of use or knowledge about them. Five

plants (chamlayo, asaare phul, budhi okhana, tinpate, and galgale) could not beidentified scientifically. Limbu people of the study site were found to carry outsubsistence farming (based on integration of livestock and agriculture activities) in avery sustainable manner (conservation tillage, mini dike construction, crop rotation,relay cropping, farmyard- and green manuring, and integrated pest management).Because of the topographical and microclimatic constraints, however, the VDCs stillsuffer from staple grain deficit. They make up for the deficit, among other things, by

barter system, trade of value-added products, and employments (self-, wage-, and

foreign). There is scope for intensive farming to improve food security status. Limbu people of the study sites cope with natural calamities (landslides and flashflood, fire,etc.) by traditional methods; they also use prophylactic measures utilizing localresources and indigenous ideas. They do not know much about the link betweenenvironment and biodiversity but are contributing their bit to it in their own ways(e.g., by establishing ‘devithan’, and ‘raniban’ to protect segments of forests). Basedon interview, to the best of the natives’ knowledge, no significant deterioration ofenvironment and biodiversity has occurred, even after the introduction of monoculture(e.g., tea and cardamom) in parts of the VDCs. Gradual dwindling of murcha plants,however, is of concern. Based on accumulated data, the most common illnesses werecuts/wounds, fracture, diarrhea, worms/helminthes, piles and jaundice. Fortunately,

they have adequate knowledge for carrying out the primary care of these illnesses bytraditional means. In particular, methods used by the local healers to treat fractureappear intriguing enough to warrant further scientific investigations.



CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................................i

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................ii

CONTENTS................................................................................................................ iii

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES...........................................................................v

CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1

1.1 Background ..........................................................................................................11.2 Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................1

1.3 Objectives of the Study........................................................................................31.4 Rationale of the Study..........................................................................................3

CHAPTER - II

LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................................5

2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Its Scope..................................................................52.1.1. Indigenous People of Nepal .........................................................................72.1.2 Indigenous Knowledge of Nepal ..................................................................8

2.2 Biodiversity and Its Scope ...................................................................................92.2.1 Biodiversity in Nepal ....................................................................................9

2.3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge ....................................................................112.3.1 TEK and Scientific Ecological Knowledge ................................................112.3.2 Practical Significance of TEK ....................................................................12

2.4 Traditional Medicines ........................................................................................132.4.1 Status of Medicinal Plants of Nepal............................................................14

CHAPTER - III

MATERIALS AND METHODS ..............................................................................18

3.1 Rationale for Choosing the Research Site .........................................................183.2 Data Sources ......................................................................................................18

3.3 Sampling Frame .................................................................................................183.4 Data Collection Techniques...............................................................................193.5 Focus Group Discussion ....................................................................................193.6 Case Studies .......................................................................................................193.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation .......................................................................203.8 Limitations of the study .....................................................................................21

CHAPTER - IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................22

4.1 Demographic and Related Details of the Study Site..........................................224.1.1 Chokmagu VDC..........................................................................................224.1.2 Ranitar VDC ...............................................................................................22



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4.2 Focus Group Discussion ....................................................................................234.2.1 Medicinal Plants of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC......................................244.2.2 Interpretation...............................................................................................36

4.3 Statistical Analysis.............................................................................................514.4 Knowledgebase on Biodiversity and Ecology ...................................................51

4.5 Use of Botanicals is Traditional Medicine.........................................................554.5 Case Study .........................................................................................................65

4.5.1 Chokmagu VDC..........................................................................................654.5.2 Ranitar VDC ...............................................................................................67

4.6 Interpretation ......................................................................................................69

CHAPTER - V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................71

REFERENCES...........................................................................................................73

APPENDICES............................................................................................................80



v

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Tables

Table 4.1 Summary of response of the Focus Group on traditional uses of plants .....38

Table 4.2 Wild plants used for food purposes .............................................................44

Table 4.3 Plants used for veterinary purposes .............................................................45

Table 4.4 Plants used for religious purposes ...............................................................46

Table 4.5 Plants used for murcha preparation .............................................................48

Table 4.6 Occurrence of illness term in the text. .........................................................65

Table A-I.1 Details of the key informants from Chokmagu VDC ..............................80

Table A-I.2 Details of key informants from Ranitar VDC. .........................................81Table A-II.1 Selected list of diseases taken for the interview .....................................82

Figures

Fig. 3.1 Map of study site (shaded portion) .................................................................20

Fig. 4.1 Availability of medicinal plants in Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC..................50

Fig. 4.2 Intensity of the use of plants for medicinal purpose.......................................50

Fig.A-I.1 Some key informants at Chokmagu VDC....................................................80

Fig.A-I.2 Some key informants at Ranitar VDC .........................................................81

Fig. A-III.1 Budhi okhana (used for fever treatment)..................................................84

Fig. A-III.2 Aule gurans (used for treating bone fracture) ..........................................84

Fig. A-III.3 Chimphing................................................................................................85

Fig. A-III.4 Herbarium of tinpate……. .......................................................................85

Fig. A-IV.1 Sale of murcha cake in a local market .....................................................86

Fig. A-IV.2 Pakhanbhed on sale in a local market ......................................................86

Fig. A-IV.3 Hadchur on sale in a local market ............................................................87

Fig. A-IV.4 Research assistant engrossed in interview at Ranitar VDC .....................87



CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Nepal, a country with disproportionately rich cultural and ethnic diversity, is located between the latitudes 26o 22'-30o 27' N and longitudes 80o 40'-88o 12' E. Its area,147,181 km2, represents just 0.1% of the global land surface. Remarkably, however, itclaims over 2.04% of the world’s flowering plant-, 4.2% of mammal-, and 8.5% of

bird species. Due to altitudinal and climatic variations, there are almost all types ofclimatic zones. There is a striking vertical zonation in natural vegetation and diversityin flora, with 118 ecosystems, comprising 75 vegetation types, and 35 forest types(MFSC, 2006).

The genetic resources of Nepal currently in demand can be classified within threecategories (Chongtenli and Sharma, 2006): (i) Agriculture and horticulture, (ii) Livestockand fisheries, and (iii) Non-timber forest products (NTFPs). They are found in farms,fields and forests. The use, propagation, and conservation of genetic resources are

based upon Nepal’s indigenous knowledge systems. Found in more than eight bio-climatic zones, Nepal’s indigenous knowledge systems stretch across the country,from the sultry tropical habitats of the Terai to the alpine and frigid habitats of thehigh Himalaya.

There are 59 different ethnic groups, accounting for more than 43% of the kingdom’s population (Ukyab and Adhikari, 2001). These people, otherwise identified as

‘janajatis’ or nationalities, make up the lowest socio-economic and political strata.They speak 75 different indigenous languages (Shrestha, 1997) and use over 800 plantspecies for different purposes (Manandhar, 1997). They are known to employ diversetraditional systems in environment management, agriculture, pastoral practices, andhealth delivery. In fact, well above 80% of the population still rely on traditionalhealing system for primary health care. The consultation and treatment providedGovernment health services to the needy are barely about 10% and 3%, respectively(Yakthung Chumlung, 2004).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Today, indigenous knowledge (IK) is recognized as a critical factor for sustainable

development (Gorjestani, 2004) because local knowledge is not only the beliefstransmitted from generation to generation, obtained as a result of experience but also adynamic resource modified by contemporary experience and experimentation.

Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity (which includes species-, genetic-, andecological diversity) are considered to be complementary phenomena essential tohuman development (Warren, 1992). Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) hasalready been successfully applied to management questions in different parts of theworld, such as Alaska, Australia, South America, etc. Ignoring indigenous knowledgehas had several disastrous consequences in the past (Hagen, 2000). This is why thereis a growing interest in TEK among the resource managers: they want to employ this

knowledge in creative management and restoration strategies. Therefore, it is notsurprising that a growing cadre of researchers is pursuing creative approaches to



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recovering various aspects of TEK and vetting this knowledge scientifically (Striplenand DeWeerdt , 2002).

Biodiversity is increasingly becoming recognized as important beyond its purelyscientific interest. Social and economic values of biodiversity are assuming greatersignificance as a range of different groups, including indigenous peoples, assert theirclaims and interests. Biodiversity provides diverse environment, which in turn

provides an important storehouse for the raw materials used in a range of products and processes, such as in agriculture, medicine, and cosmetic. The pharmaceuticalindustry is arguably the largest commercial user of plant genetic species, and thedevelopment of these products can create significant opportunities for economicgrowth for this industry sector (Davis, 1998). It is worthwhile noting that 25% of

prescription drugs are derived from plants, and that of these some 75% have beendeveloped with some input from traditional knowledge (Young, 2001).

The contribution of indigenous and local communities to the conservation andsustainable use of biological diversity goes far beyond their role as natural resource

guardians. However, due to rapid modernization, many of the indigenous practices areon the verge of extinction. The condition is going worse from bad in many countries

because IK has not been accorded the share of attention it so well deserves.

Today, interest in indigenous peoples’ knowledge and cultures is stronger than everand the exploitation of those cultures continues. Indigenous medicinal knowledge andexpertise in agricultural biodiversity and environmental management are used, but the

profits are rarely shared with indigenous peoples themselves. For indigenous peoplesall over the world the protection of their cultural and intellectual property has taken ongrowing importance and urgency. They cannot exercise their fundamental humanrights as distinct nations, societies and peoples without the ability to control the

knowledge they have inherited from their ancestors.The ethnic groups of Nepal have overwhelming representation in relation to

population (43% of kingdom’s population), ethnic diversity (59 ethnic groups), andindigenous knowledge systems. However, despite worldwide appreciation ofindigenous knowledge systems, there is paucity of researches on the same in Nepal.

A preliminary study on the knowledge of Limbus in Taplejung, Terhathum, Ilam,Dhankuta, Sankhuwasabha and Panchthar (Yakthung Chumlung, 2004) districtsreveals that they use around 280 plants for medicinal purpose. Their healing practiceand folklore have been described to some extent but a holistic research on theirknowledge base as regards ecology, biodiversity conservation and ethnomedicine is

still scanty.Limbus have been using hundreds of plants for the treatment of diseases (Siwakoti,1998; Subba, 2006), ranging anything from diarrhea, constipation, to fracture.Conservation and revival of this knowledge base is very crucial because traditionalmedicines are still the most important primary healthcare sources for the vast majorityof the rural mass.

Most Limbus lead a rural life, normally adjacent to forests. Forest continues to play animportant part in their life. But these resources, and the complex system that ensuretheir survival, are under threat. The greatest current threats are social, ecological,economical, and political. Undervaluation of native crops and animals, lack of secure

land tenure, erosion and marginalization of traditional knowledge, inappropriateagricultural policies, commercial extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFP),



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etc., are some of the known threats facing these people. Despite the wealth oftraditional practices available in Nepal, unfortunately, no comprehensive data existvis-à-vis their inventory, contribution towards sustainable development, and themagnitude of impact they have on our lives. At this point, since indigenousknowledge is intimately associated with our identity (and even survival), any effort

expended on any of its aspects should be more than justified (Rai, et al., 2006).

As newer trends set in, Limbus fear that the body of knowledge they have might oneday be lost for ever. Earlier studies also show similar indications. It is therefore veryessential that a thorough documentation of their indigenous practices and theimplication(s) of these practices on sustainable development, their very own survival,

biodiversity and resource management, and enrichment of the culture be carried out before it is too late

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study was to carry out an exhaustive documentation of the

knowledge base of Limbus and explore its relationship with biodiversity,ethnomedicine and ecology.

This study concentrated on the following specific objectives:

a. to document and analyze indigenous knowledge system of eco-friendlyagricultural practice, and forest and landslide management;

b.

to document and analyze indigenous knowledge of plants used for food (andrelated use), pest management, and medicine;

c. to ascertain and explicate the effects of traditional practices on ecology,environment and livelihood.

The study was based on following simple but fundamental questions:

1. What indigenous knowledge systems are being used by the inhabitant foragricultural practice, natural resource management, and overcoming naturalcalamities? And are they sustainable?

2.

What is the knowledge base of plants used for food, fodder and medicine?How is it being transmitted to the new generation? What is its contribution torural socio-economy?

3. What is the diversity of medicinal plants? Why are some plants more likely to be medicinal than others? Do organoleptic and symptomatic properties of

plants relate to treatment of specific illness?

1.4 Rationale of the Study

Nepal is endowed with a bountiful of floral diversity. High altitude regions in particular are rich in medicinal plants. It is conceivable that the sustainable use of thiscommon heritage has far-reaching practical implications. And because it isincreasingly becoming clear that indigenous knowledge base offers the mostsustainable way of managing these natural resources, many rightly believe thatindigenous knowledge may hold the key to future.

A greater awareness on the importance of IK is likely to help preserve the knowledge

base for the use and benefit of the local community. Governments and internationaldevelopment agencies are now recognizing that local-level knowledge and



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organizations provide the foundation for participatory approaches to development thatare both cost-effective and sustainable (Warren, 1992). Little wonder, then, a host ofinternational NGOs and funding agencies have focused on and supported thedevelopment of databases. The World Bank itself maintains an online database thatcan be searched using regional and thematic keywords. Other databases can be

accessed from websites maintained by the International Development and ResearchCenter (IDRC), Conservation International, and Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research (CGIAR) among others (Agrawal, 2002).

As such, the objective of databases on indigenous knowledge is typically twofold.First, they are intended to protect indigenous knowledge in the face of myriad

pressures that are undermining the conditions under which indigenous peoples andknowledge thrive. Second, they aim to collect and analyze the available information,and identify specific features that can be generalized and applied more widely in theservice of more effective development and environmental conservation (Agrawal,2002).

The present study can be of immense academic and practical value in the sense thatresearchers working on similar themes may use it as a reference. The field visits andthe concomitant interaction with the inhabitants will be helpful in bringing awarenessamong them on the importance of indigenous knowledge they possess. The findingwill be helpful in reducing the social divide between the haves and have-nots bydocumenting, promoting, encouraging, and disseminating the indigenousinnovativeness for the benefit of the community themselves. The data generated in thestudy will also be useful in relevant policy making (e.g., policy on extraction of non-timber forests, conservation of biodiversity, etc.) by concerned bodies and thegovernment at the local, regional and national level. In the long run the finding can beuseful in the protection of cultural and intellectual property.



CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Its Scope

The term ‘indigenous’ is a generalized reference to the thousands of small scalesocieties who have distinct languages, kinship systems, mythologies, ancestralmemories, and homelands (Grim, 2001). These different societies comprise more than300 million people throughout the planet today (Kihwelo, 2005).

Indigenous knowledge (IK) has been defined in different ways by different expertsand organizations (Johnson, 1992; Warren, 1992; Lugeye, 1994; Brush and Stabinsky,1996; Grenier, 1998; Mugabe, 1999; WIPO, 1999). According to Johnson (1992),indigenous knowledge is a body of knowledge built by a group of people throughgenerations living in close contact with nature. It includes a system of classification, aset of empirical observations about the local environment, and a system of self-management that governs resource use. This definition associates indigenousknowledge with environment rather than knowledge related to artworks, handicraftsand other cultural works and expressions (which are considered as elements offolklore).

IK permeates every aspect of rural life, be that agriculture, natural resourcemanagement, biodiversity, environment, food security, disaster control, health

practices, or pest control, in a sustainable way (Oniang’o, et al., 2003). This is whyConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed by more than 150 states, has madea very authoritative provision for dealing with indigenous knowledge in its Article

8(j) (UNEP, 1997).

Today, indigenous knowledge has come to occupy a privileged position in discussionsabout how development can best be brought about so that finally, it really is in theinterests of the poor and the marginalized (Agrawal, 2002). A central argument is thatsustainable development must be embedded in indigenous knowledge systems, andignorance of the systems will certainly lead to failure in development (Lin, 2007).Weatherford (1994) argued that indigenous people may be the only people capable ofsalvaging the modern civilization. As indigenous people have gradually lost theircultural identities, we are actually losing indigenous knowledge, our connections tothe past, and jeopardizing our future. According to Semali and Kincheloe (1999),

indigenous knowledge ‘reflects the dynamic way in which the residents of an areahave come to understand themselves in relation to their natural environment and howthey organize that folk knowledge of flora and fauna, cultural beliefs, and history toenhance their lives’.

The work of protecting and promoting indigenous knowledge, however, ischallenging. The following urgent issues need to be examined and evaluated. First, itis important to conduct research on how people can preserve the natural environmentof the indigenous people, since indigenous knowledge and their natural habitats gohand in hand. Second, whether the existing Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) systemcan be applied or extended to indigenous knowledge remains highly controversial(Marinova and Raven, 2006). In this regard, emphasis must be placed on thedevelopment of Traditional Resource Rights (TRRs) which can protect the interests ofindigenous peoples and strengthen the practice of their self-determination



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(Plenderleith, 2004). Third, a unique institutional system for the advancement ofindigenous knowledge needs to be developed (Lin, 2007).

International and national development agencies have recognized the value of participatory approaches to decision-making for sustainable approaches todevelopment. During the past decade a rapidly growing set of evidences indicates astrong relationship between indigenous knowledge and sustainable development.Development agencies are beginning to review the role of indigenous knowledge inthe development process at the policy level (Warren, 1992). According to U.S.

National Research Council (1992), ‘compilation and documentation of indigenousknowledge should be a research priority of the highest order: and because indigenousknowledge is being lost at an unprecedented rate, its preservation, preferably indatabase form, must take place as quickly as possible’.

Development activities that work with and through indigenous knowledge andorganizational structures have several important advantages over projects that operateoutside them. Indigenous knowledge provides the basis for grassroots decision-

making, much of which takes place at the community level through indigenousorganizations and associations where problems are identified and solutions to themare determined. Solution-seeking behavior is based on indigenous creativity leading toexperimentation and innovations as well as the appraisal of knowledge andtechnologies introduced from other societies (Warren, 1992).

In the recent years, a number of organizations, including the United Nations system,have been active in promoting the rights of indigenous people. To date, there are some37 indigenous knowledge resource centers worldwide established for preparing thedatabase on indigenous knowledge (Anon, 2001). This growing global network ofregional and national indigenous knowledge resource centers is involved in

documenting the historical and contemporary indigenous knowledge of numerousethnic groups around the world. Much of this knowledge is at as much risk of beinglost as is the case with biodiversity (Linden 1991). These centers reflect new valuesthat recognize indigenous knowledge as an important national resource. The centersare establishing national indigenous knowledge databases, giving recognition to theircitizens for the knowledge they have created, providing a protective barrier for theintellectual property rights of knowledge that could be exploited economically by thecountry of discovery, and laying the foundation for development activities that buildon and strengthen the existing knowledge and organizational base produced throughmany generations of creative effort by local communities (Warren, 1992).

Innovative technologies discovered and used in one part of the world can often workequally well in similar ecozones in other parts of the world. National centers are in a

position to facilitate and control the sharing of indigenous knowledge. This type ofinformation exchange has already begun through multilateral and bilateral donorefforts. Two examples are based on indigenous knowledge from South Asia. TheWorld Bank has disseminated information at the global level on the traditional use ofvetiver grass in India for soil and moisture conservation (Greenfield, 1989). The useof neem ( Azadirachta indica) tree seeds to produce non-toxic biopesticides has alsospread from India to other parts of the world through development agencies such asU.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and German Agency forTechnical Cooperation (GTZ) (Radcliffe et al., 1992).

National indigenous knowledge resource centers are organizational structures throughwhich indigenous knowledge is recorded, stored, screened for potential economic uses



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at the national level, and distributed to other centers in appropriate ways. Thesecenters can serve as vehicles to introduce indigenous knowledge components into theformal curricula from primary school through the university as well as in extensiontraining institutes. This can help augment the declining capacity of the traditionalmeans of transmission of this knowledge due to universal primary education now

operating in most newly-independent nations (Ruddle, 1991; Ruddle and Chesterfield,1977).

National indigenous knowledge resource centers are beginning to conduct inventoriesof knowledge that can be of primary utility in development programs. Examplesinclude indigenous crop pest management systems, farmer’s perceptions of positiveand negative characteristics of crop varieties, and indigenous approaches to themanagement of soil, water, and biodiversity resources. National centers can alsoidentify and delineate the structure and functions of indigenous organizations thatexist in every rural community. Virtually every grassroots organization plays adevelopmental function within the community. Strengthening the capacity of these

existing organizations can greatly facilitate sustainable approaches to development(Warren, 1992b; Atte, 1992).

2.1.1. Indigenous People of Nepal

With distinct language, religion, customs, folklore, culture, knowledge and ancientterritory, 59 ethnic groups of Nepal have now received the legal recognition as‘indigenous people’ (otherwise identified as ‘janajatis’ or nationalities). These groupshave been consolidated through Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities(NEFIN), a national level organization constituted by the government, as the umbrellaorganization (Sherpa, 2005). NEFIN has defined 10 of the 59 janajati groups as‘endangered’, 12 as ‘highly marginalized’, 20 as ‘marginalized’, 15 as

‘disadvantaged’, and two as ‘advantaged’ or better off.

Janajatis account for more than 43% of the kingdom’s population (Ukyab andAdhikari, 2001; NEFIN). These people make up the lowest socio-economic and

political strata. They speak 75 different indigenous languages (Shrestha, 1997).Although janajatis are largely excluded from main streams of national policies theyare contributing own cultural wisdom on restoration, conservation, and wise use of

biodiversity, natural resources, and traditional knowledge associated with their lifefrom millennia (Sherpa, 2005).

Limbus are one of the major ethnic groups of Nepal (Siwakoti and Siwakoti, 1998).According to census 2001, they represent 1.58% of the kingdom’s population and are

concentrated mainly in Terhathum (40,041), Panchthar (81,408) and Taplejung(56,324) districts, totaling 359,379 in population (CBS, 2003). The literacy rate of thisnationality is 58.12% (CBS, 2001). They have a very rich cultural, ethnobotanical,and food heritage (Bista, 1967; Bairagi Kainla, 1996; Subba1, 1999; Subba2, 1999;Sherma, 1999). Their scripture is called Mundhum. Phedangba, Shamba and Yeba-

Yema are their sacred specialists. These shamans are not only performers but alsohealers. Limbus celebrate the dance festivals of Kelang popularly known Chyabrung (two-sided drum) and Yarak (paddy dance) as major events. Limbus have their ownscript called Sirijunga. There are many books written in the Limbu language. Apartfrom their culture and folklore, their traditional knowledge on medicinal plants andfood has been described in general (Yakthung Chumlung, 2004; Rai et al ., 2005).



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Limbus have excellent traditional knowledge base (Rai et al ., 2005) and extraordinaryinnovativeness. They are worshippers of nature or animists (Subba1, 1999). Unlike inmost nationalities, problem of gender parity has never been observed in the Limbucommunity. Their relationship with ecology, biodiversity and ethnomedicine meritsspecial mention because this is what has enabled them to survive the odds of the

hostile environment and sustain the fragile ecosystem. Unfortunately, work on thisspecific area is still scanty.

2.1.2 Indigenous Knowledge of Nepal

Nepalese indigenous peoples residing in diverse physiographic zones with traditionallife styles are closely attached with ecosystem, biodiversity, natural resources, andenvironment from millennia. Biodiversity and natural resources are valuable sourcesfor food/fodder, medicine, fiber, building materials, etc., for these people. The richcultural heritage of Nepal has evolved over the centuries. This multidimensionalcultural heritage encompasses within itself cultural diversities of various ethnic, tribal,and social groups, located at different altitudes, and is also manifested in various otherforms, including music and dance; art and craft; folklores and folktales; languages andliterature; philosophy and religion; festivals and celebrations; and foods and drinks.

Sporadic attempts have been made by different organizations and individuals (bothwithin the country and abroad) at different times to document the traditionalknowledge base. The works range from customs, folklore, language, rituals,technology, food/fodder, medicine, to management of natural resources. Given thediversity of community and the ecology they survive in, it is conceivable that therecould well be many more traditional knowledge systems yet to be unearthed.

Nepal has been recently placing much emphasis on traditional knowledge and its

research, with its becoming party to CBD, in particular. Nepal signed the CBDin1992. With ratification of articles from the Parliament in 1993, Nepal became the party in 1994 in accordance with the provision of the Convention. The Ministry ofForests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) serves as the national focal point to thisConvention. Nepal submitted the Third National Report to CBD in 2006. The reportreveals that Article 8(j) and related provisions has yet to be addressed at thegovernment level. The report further mentions that the country is facing difficulty inregistering biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge, skill, techniques,innovations and practices due to limited financial and technical assistance.

Nevertheless, preparation of national registers on traditional knowledge is in the priority list. An updated national register of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs)

has already been prepared in 2004 (MFSC, 2006).In Nepal, IUCN has remained a major player in the promotion and research onindigenous knowledge. However, as Dangol (2004) puts it, in working with the spiritof CBD, “we need assurance that our traditional knowledge will remain secured frommisappropriation by national and international authorities/ individuals/ agencies

before we decide to document it for the benefit of our present and future generations”.Without a doubt, traditional knowledge plays an important role in health, foodsecurity and agriculture. It is often a catalytic force in the protection, conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems. It can also provide a benchmark forcontrolling biopiracy and future commercial use of plant and animal geneticresources, an issue that is becoming critical as Nepal negotiates to enter the WorldTrade Organization (WTO) (Banskota, 2004).



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It is relieving to find that indigenous technologies are slowly finding their ways intoacademic curricula. For instance, M. Tech. (Food) Degree of Tribhuvan Universityhas included ‘Indigenous Foods of Nepal’ in its curriculum (CCT, 2002). Departmentof Environmental Science of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS)has designed two courses: (i) ‘Fundamentals of Ethnobiology’ offered to B.Sc.

Agriculture students majoring in Conservation Ecology, and (ii) ‘AppliedEthnobotany’ for M.Sc. Agriculture students majoring in Conservation Ecology(Dangol, 2007).

2.2 Biodiversity and Its Scope

Biodiversity refers to the ‘variety of all life forms - the different plants, animals andmicroorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems of which they form a

part’ (Davis, 1998).

Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity are complementary phenomena essential tohuman development. Today, the relationship of biodiversity with indigenous people is

gaining more importance than ever. Indigenous people are custodians and stewards oftheir lands and environments. The traditional methods they use to manage the naturalresources have been considered very sustainable. It is conceivable, therefore,traditional system of resource management holds key to the future.

Global awareness of the crisis concerning the conservation of biodiversity is assuredfollowing the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held inJune 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. Of equal concern to many world citizens is the uncertainstatus of the indigenous knowledge that reflects many generations of experience and

problem-solving by thousands of ethnic groups across the globe. Very little of thisknowledge has been recorded, yet it represents an immensely valuable database that

provides humankind with insights on how numerous communities have interactedwith their changing environment including its floral and faunal resources (Warren,1992).

The importance of and global commitment towards the conservation of biodiversity isno longer questioned. The accelerating rates of loss of floral and faunal species andthe projected negative impacts of this loss of germplasm on humankind have beeneloquently described by a growing number of prominent biological scientists.

Numerous international foundations, development agencies, and internationalagricultural research centers are also adding the power of their collective concern andresolve to deal with the circumstances leading to the loss of species. Their focus has

been on the immediate and long-term negative biological and economic consequences

of the loss of biodiversity. Some have introduced the complementary importance ofcultural diversity that is often reflected in the indigenous knowledge of naturalresource management including that of plants and animals (Warren, 1992).

2.2.1 Biodiversity in Nepal

Nepal is a sovereign country with just 0.1% of global land surface. Remarkably,however, it claims over 2.04% of the world’s flowering plant-, 4.2% of mammal-, and8.5% of bird species. It occupies 25th and 11th position on biodiversity in the Worldand Asia respectively (Sherpa, 2005; MFSC, 2006).

Nepal is rich in cultural, biological and ecological diversities due to its diverse

physiographic zones, climatic contrasts and altitudinal variations, which in turn provide habitats for biological species of both Indo-Malayan and Palaeoarctic realms,



10

including endemic Himalayan flora and fauna. It is reported that 118 types ofecosystems comprising 75 vegetation types and 35 forest types have been identifiedwithin the area. Nepal has over 167 species of mammals, 860 species of birds, 50species of amphibians, 130 species of reptiles, and 7000 species of higher plants(Barchacharya et al ., 1988; Joshi and Joshi, 1991; Wikipedia, 2007; Shrestha, 1998).

Some of these appear in the list of critically endangered-, endangered-, nearthreatened-, threatened-, and extinct species.

The flora of Nepal contains about 1000 economic plants (440 spp. wild foods, 71 spp.fiber yielding, 50 spp. fish poison, 30 spp. wild spices, and over 100 spp. fodder-yielding trees) (Bhattarai, 2003). About 100 species of medicinal and aromatic plants(MAPs) are exploited for commercial purposes (Mall, et al ., 1993).

Biodiversity possesses ecological, economic and societal values. Biodiversity and its products are used in different occasions from the birth to the death in Nepal.Biological resources and associated traditional knowledge play a vital role in thelivelihood of Nepalese society. It is linked with food security, human health, and

environment. Conceivably, Nepal’s biodiversity is the mainstay of the country’seconomy and the well-being of its people. Its protection and sustainable use thereforeremains a top priority. To this end, Nepal has given utmost importance for theconservation of biodiversity with people’s willing participation within and outside

protected areas. Nepal has also promoted sustainable use of biodiversity and benefitsharing through policy and legal instruments (MFSC, 2006).

Despite this fact, however, growing population, poverty, deforestation and habitatloss, erosion of crop genetic diversity, etc., have always remained a challenge. Inorder to best conserve and sustainably use Nepalese biodiversity for meeting thenational goal of poverty reduction, additional financial support is required for raising

awareness among stakeholders, institutional strengthening, capacity building,technology transfer, and bioprospecting. Nepal has already initiated biodiversitydocumentation program in collaboration with national non-governmentalorganizations (MFSC, 2006).

The most objectively verifiable indicators to efforts expended towards biodiversityconservation are the establishment of Protected Areas (19% of the total land mass),and National Forests being handed over to communities in the form of CommunityForests (CF). During the fiscal years 2002/03 and 2003/04, the Ministry of Forestsand Soil Conservation (MFSC) through its institutional network formed over 1400Community Forestry User Groups (CFUGs). These activities respect traditional useand rights of local people relating to forest resources for their basic needs.Participatory conservation programs have been expanded for better forestmanagement, social mobilization, income generation and institution building at thegrassroots level. In the recent years, Nepal has approached to use forest products asone of the major resources for poverty reduction as well. Conservation of wild floraand fauna has been taken care by shifting the species protection to sustainableutilization and benefit-sharing regime (MFSC, 2006).

People’s participation and empowerment is the key for natural resource management.Biodiversity documentation has been started. Contribution of medicinal herbs andnon-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been greatly realized for poverty reduction(MFSC, 2006).



11

2.3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) represents experience acquired overthousands of years of direct human contact with the environment. Although the termTEK came into widespread use in the 1980s, the practice of TEK is as old as ancienthunter-gatherer cultures. In addition to ecology, the study of traditional knowledge isvalued in a number of fields. For example, in agriculture, pharmacology and botany(ethnobotany), research into traditional knowledge has a rich history. In fact, incomparison to these fields, the study of indigenous knowledge in ecology is relativelyrecent (Freeman, 1989).

The earliest systematic studies of TEK were done by anthropologists. Today, therehas been growing recognition of the capabilities of ancient agriculturalists, waterengineers and architects. Increased appreciation of ethnoscience, ancient andcontemporary, paved the way for the acceptability of the validity of traditionalknowledge in a variety of fields. Ancient ways of knowing started to receive currencyin several disciplines, including ecology. Various works showed that many indigenous

groups in diverse geographical areas from the Arctic to the Amazon had their ownsystems of managing resources. Thus, the feasibility of applying TEK tocontemporary resource management problems in various parts of the world wasgradually recognized.

Professionals in applied ecology and resource management fields such as fisheries,wildlife and forestry have been slow to take up the challenge of TEK. The reasons forthis are as complex as they are perplexing (Freeman, 1989). With the recognition ofthe value of TEK, the growth of the field has been rapid, however. It should be notedthough that most of these contributions have come from interdisciplinary scholarsrather than from ecology and resource management professionals.

There is no universally accepted definition of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)in the literature. The term is, by necessity, ambiguous since the words ‘traditional’and ‘ecological knowledge’ are themselves ambiguous (Lasserre and Ruddle, 1982;Ruddle and Johannes, 1989; Freeman and Carbyn, 1988). A working definition is asfollows (Inglis, 1993): TEK is a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, handeddown through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living

beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment. Further, TEKis an attribute of societies with historical continuity in resource use practices; by andlarge, these are non-industrial or less technologically advanced societies, many ofthem indigenous or tribal (Berkes, 1993).

2.3.1 TEK and Scientific Ecological Knowledge

There are both similarities and differences between traditional science and westernscience because they both are the result of the same general intellectual process ofcreating order out of disorder (Berkes, 1993). There are also major differences,however, between the two kinds of science, some of them substantive and some

perceptual. Opinions differ, but there is a great deal of evidence that traditional peopledo possess scientific curiosity, and that traditional knowledge does not merelyencompass matters of immediate practical interest. According to Berkes (1993), TEKin general differs from scientific ecological knowledge in a number of substantiveways: (i) TEK is mainly qualitative (as opposed to quantitative); (ii) TEK has an

intuitive component (as opposed to being purely rational); (iii) TEK is holistic (asopposed to reductionist); (iv) In TEK, mind and matter are considered together (as



12

opposed to a separation of mind and matter); (v) TEK is moral (as opposed tosupposedly value-free); (vi) TEK is spiritual (as opposed to mechanistic); (vii) TEK is

based on empirical observations and accumulation of facts by trial-and-error (asopposed to experimentation and systematic, deliberate accumulation of fact); (viii) TEKis based on data generated by resource users themselves (as opposed to that by a

specialized cadre of researchers); (ix) TEK is based on diachronic data, i.e., long time-series on information on one locality (as opposed to synchronic data, i.e., short time-series over a large area).

In contrast to scientific ecology, TEK does not aim to control nature, and is not primarily concerned with principles of general interest and applicability (i.e., theory).TEK is limited in its capacity to verify predictions, and it is markedly slower thanscientific ecology in terms of the speed at which knowledge is accumulated. A majorway in which TEK may be further distinguished from scientific ecology concerns thelarge social context of TEK. TEK is not merely a system of knowledge and practice; itis an integrated system of knowledge, practice and beliefs (Berkes, 1993).

2.3.2 Practical Significance of TEK

It follows from these considerations that the preservation of TEK is important forsocial and cultural reasons. For the group in question, TEK is a tangible aspect of away of life that may be considered valuable. For the rest of the world, there are alsotangible and practical reasons why TEK is so important, quite apart from the ethicalimperative of preserving cultural diversity. The following paragraphs are adaptedfrom the IUCN Program on Traditional Knowledge for Conservation (IUCN, 1986):

1.

Traditional knowledge can be used for new biological and ecological insights. New scientific knowledge can be derived from perceptive investigations of

traditional environmental knowledge systems.2. Traditional knowledge can be used for resource management because much

traditional knowledge has proved to be relevant for contemporary naturalresource management.

3.

Traditional knowledge can be used for protected areas and for conservationeducation. Especially where the local community jointly manages such a

protected area, the use of traditional knowledge for conservation education islikely to be very effective.

4. Traditional knowledge can be used in development planning by involvinglocal people. The use of traditional knowledge may benefit developmentagencies in providing more realistic evaluations of environment, naturalresources and production systems.

5.

Traditional knowledge can be used for environmental assessment. People whoare dependent on local resources for their livelihood are often able to assessthe true costs and benefits of development better than any evaluator comingfrom the outside. Their time-tested, in-depth knowledge of the local area is, inany case, an essential part of any impact assessment.

In addition to these practical uses for TEK, it is also significant, that a newfoundawareness of TEK in mainstream western society can enhance our appreciation of thecultures that hold this knowledge.

In the past, western science alone provided biological and ecological insights, theknowledge base for resource management, conservation, development planning, and



14

there are published and unpublished data on research in traditional medicine invarious countries, but further research in safety and efficacy should be promoted, andthe quality of the research should be improved (WHO, 2000).

The methodologies for research and evaluation of traditional medicine should be based on the following basic principles: On the one hand, the methodologies shouldguarantee the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines and traditional procedure-basedtherapies. On the other hand, however, they should not become obstacles to theapplication and development of traditional medicine. This complex issue has been aconcern for national health authorities and scientists in recent years (WHO, 2000).

The discussion of methodologies for research and evaluation of traditional medicine isdivided into two parts: (i) herbal medicines, and (ii) traditional procedure-basedtherapies. However, successful treatment is often the consequence of both types oftreatments acting synergistically. Thus, the efficacy of traditional medicine has to beevaluated in an integrated manner, taking into account both treatment types.Consequently, efficacy assessment of traditional medicine may be quite different to

that of conventional medicine. As traditional medicine relies on a holistic approach,conventional efficacy assessment measures may not be adequate (WHO, 2000).

National policies are the basis for defining the role of traditional and complementary/alternative medicine in national health care programs, ensuring that the necessaryregulatory and legal mechanisms are created for promoting and maintaining good

practice; assuring authenticity, safety and efficacy of traditional and complementary/alternative therapies; and providing equitable access to health care resources andinformation about those resources (WHO, 2001).

Recently, traditional medicine has become more mainstream even in the industrializedworld. To this end, WHO has recommended integration of traditional healing into

primary health care, and throughout the world governments have begun to considerwhether and how these alternative medicines should be regulated by the state (Young,2001). It has been estimated that some 80% of the world’s population rely ontraditional medicine for primary health care, either because it is cheaper and/or moreeasily accessible, or because it is more culturally appropriate.

Because of the increasing importance of traditional medicine in primary health care,nations all over the world are carrying out vigorous researches on medicinal plantsand animal parts. The basis of research is of course the traditional knowledge held bythe natives. The examination of folk knowledge and health practices allows a betterunderstanding of human interactions with their local environment, and aids in the

formulation of appropriate strategies for natural resource conservation. It is wellknown that the ethnopharmacological information reported forms a basis for furtherresearch to identify and isolate bioactive constituents that can be developed into drugsfor the management of a large number of diseases.

2.4.1 Status of Medicinal Plants of Nepal

The diversity of species in Nepalese flora offers great opportunities for the search ofmedicinal substances, not yet described or discovered. Medicinal herbs could beviewed as a significant source of income for rural communities. Increasing worldwidedemand for medicinal plants also invites the danger of over exploitation andextinction of species. Therefore, the world community as the consumer and thenatural resource rich countries as the exploiter would both need information as theirmanagement tools (MFSC, 2006).



15

Medicinal and aromatic plants occur in all the bioclimatic zones of Nepal. Some ofthe reputed medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina and Terminalia chebula occurin the tropical zone (1000 m asl); Dioscorea deltoidea, Adhatoda vasica, and Swertia

chirayita in the sub-tropical zone (between 1000 and 2000 m asl); Aconitum ferox,

Cactyorhiza hatagirea, and Lycopodium clavatum in the temperate zone (2000-3000 m

asl); and Nardosctachys grandiflora, and Rhododendrom anthopogon in the sub-alpinezone (3000-4000 m asl). The steppic dry desert biome in the trans-Himalaya is rich in

Ephedra gerardiana, Hippophae tibetica, Artemisia sp., and Allium sp.

Nepal has a record of over 700 species of medicinal plants. There is a store of stillunwritten and undocumented traditional knowledge on the use of plants for healing

purposes. Shakya and Malla (1985) have confirmed 510 species of medicinal plants,the distribution in the tropical, subtropical, and sub-alpine zone being 340 spp, 225spp., and 140 spp., respectively. Nepal has a recently prepared a registry of MAPs(MFSC, 2006).

The MAPs (also called ‘jadibuti’) database of Nepal covers 1624 species of plants

found in wild state or cultivated or naturalized or imported belonging to 938 generaand 218 families. These are known to be used as medicine in Nepal (Koirala, 2005).Manandhar (2002) has given an excellent account of more than 1,500 plants of Nepal,most of which have great importance in traditional medicine.

The use of medicinal herbs in Nepal’s traditional medical system dates back to at least500 AD. In Nepal, traditional medicine, although low profile, has been an integral partof the national health system. Parallel to the allopathic system, traditional medicine isencouraged in all spheres because of its efficacy, availability, safety, and affordabilitywhen compared to allopathic drugs (Khakurel, 1996).

As of now, about 80% of the populations of Nepal have to depend on the traditional

medicinal care system (HMG-N, 1998). The consultation and treatment providedGovernment health services to the needy are barely about 10% and 3%, respectivelyYakthung Chumlung, 2004).

The important traditional health delivery systems of Nepal include ayurvedic,homeopathic, ethnobotanical, amchi (Tibetan medicine or healing practice), andspiritual approach. Belief on witchdoctors is also rife. Countrywide, there are around400,000 traditional healers/practitioners (Koirala, 2005). Ayurvedic system is anofficial system of medicine and has now been integrated with allopathic medicine.Formal education in ayurveda started in 1928 and as of now, there are 9 educationalinstitutions and 33 ayurveda pharmaceuticals.

The export of MAPs and NTFPs has had significant contribution to the nationaleconomy from very early times. Thus, use of NTFPs and trade are traditional

phenomena in Nepal and the rural poor in the hills since time immemorial have beeninvolved in collection of NTFPs for sale and household use.

Nepal Government made efforts to improve export of crude herbs as early as 1937.However, an organized department was not visualized until 1960. The Department ofMedicinal Plants currently renamed as the Department of Plant Resources orienteditself towards scientific validation and research of Nepalese medicinal plants.

The export of medicinal herbs from Nepal was limited to India and China until 1960. Nepal’s trade diversification has promoted herbal trade to oversea countries. Datafrom the Trade Promotion Center show that export quantities amounted to over 4000MT during mid 70s but the trend declined sharply during the 80s (Malla, 1994).



17

(2004), Pant and Panta (2004), Rokaya and Ghimire (2004), Rai et al . (2004),Shrestha and Ghimire (2004), Shrestha et al . (2004), Yakthung Chumlung (2004),Ghimire et al . (2005a), Ghimire et al . (2005b), Koirala (2005), Kunwar et al (2006),Acharya and Pokhrel, (2006), Bhattarai et al . (2006), Pandey (2006), Rajbhandari et

al . (2007).

From the foregoing review, it is clear that indigenous knowledge and biodiversity areintertwined and often strengthen each other. However, with the introduction ofmodern/commercial systems, the local communities are on the brink of being caught

between the dynamics of exclusion and process of acculturation. The remoteness ofthe rural areas has deprived the Limbu inhabitants of the modern amenities like accessto education, health facilities, communication and transport. This in turn has been adeterminant factor in their being excluded from the privileged section of the

population. Development has no doubt taken place in some areas but not without cost,viz., erosion of traditional knowledge, propensity towards inappropriate acculturation,and transition to unsustainable practices such as overharvesting of non-timber forests

(mainly ‘murcha’ plants and medicinal herbs).



CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Rationale for Choosing the Research Site

Panchthar has the densest population of Limbus. There are 41 VDCs situated atdifferent elevations. The selection of two VDCs, namely Chokmagu and Ranitar, forthe present study as the representative sites stems from following facts andassumptions:

1. these VDCs are relatively easy to access (for the study);2.

the elevation of these VDCs ranges from about 700 m to 3000 m, therebymaking them excellent for the study of biodiversity;

3.

these VDCs have very rich distribution of Limbu nationality (and therefore

their indigenous knowledge);4. because of the recent introduction of cardamom and tea cultivation, it is

necessary to assess whether plant and animal diversity are at stake;5. because these areas have easy access to roadhead, overharvesting of NTFPs

might be taking place; and6. people of Panchthar say that these VDCs have some of finest traditional

healers.

3.2 Data Sources

The primary data were obtained on site through participant observation, semi-

structured interviews (Key Informant and Focus Group), and questionnaires.The data included details of the interviewees and questionnaire-respondents;

physiographic details of the study site; floral species (photographs), their occurrenceand abundance; video clips; discursive data (from interview); and questionnaireresponses. The general topics of interviews and questionnaires pertained to

biodiversity, ethnomedicine, traditional knowledge, natural resources and theirmanagement, management of natural calamities, perception of environmentalchanges, and the like.

The secondary data were obtained from District Development Committee, differentliteratures such as those from Central Bureau of Statistics, WHO, National Reports on

CBD, ANSAB, IUCN, and various national and international journals dealing withethnomedicine, biodiversity, traditional knowledge, and sustainable utilization ofnatural resources.

Documents from District Development Committee were used for abstracting data on population distribution, ethnoprofile, area of VDCs, and basic amenities likecommunication, education, transportation, and health services.

3.3 Sampling Frame

Because Panchthar district contains 41 VDCs, a significant number of them notreadily accessible within the given time frame for a census survey, a sample survey

was worked out by taking only two VDCs, viz., Chokmagu and Ranitar. Also, because of the time constraint as well as scope of our study, a purposive sampling of



19

wards was carried out by selecting at least 4-5 wards or amalgamation (Ward No. 2, 3,4, 6/7, and 8 of Chokmagu VDC and 2, 4, 6, and 8 of Ranitar VDC) as the sub-sample. The purposive sample was thought to be very pertinent in relation to the casestudy on ethnomedicine, which entailed interviewing of most well-known traditionalhealer. This decision for the selection of wards was taken after consultation with

knowledgeable persons such as VDC secretaries, school teachers, and local membersof Yakthung-Chumlung (an organization of Limbu nationality) of the VDC inquestion and a baseline survey. The consultation was made more effective byexplaining to them the purpose and implications of our visit. Nevertheless, attemptwas made to include all the elevational extremes within the VDC to facilitatecollection of as much of detail on biodiversity, ecology, ethnomedicine and traditionalknowledge as possible. A redrawn (to scale) map of the study site is given in Fig. 3.1(wards not shown).

3.4 Data Collection Techniques

From each VDC, 9-10 key informants were selected by consultation withknowledgeable persons of the VDC and interviewed in issues related toethnomedicine (using a combination of semi-structured questionnaires and free-listingtechnique). A checklist of pertinent questions asked in the interview and details of thekey informants are given in Appendix-I and II.

3.5 Focus Group Discussion

Focus group discussion was carried out on ecology and biodiversity, for which 25knowledgeable participants (selected by consultation with senior citizens, localauthorities) were invited. The incidental joining by other persons to share theinformation was not considered objectionable. A checklist of pertinent questions used

in the interviews is given in Appendix-II. Use of discursive method was thoughtimportant in contextualizing the quantitative data. Utilizing this approach, questionswere asked to stimulate conversation. Our participation was limited to occasionalasking for clarification. Only when discussions ended or strayed to a topic clearlyunrelated to illness did we ask another of the topical questions. A palm-top PCcontaining database of some 300 medicinal plants from earlier study was used duringthe interview for quick referencing and cross-checking the vernacular names of the

plants the participants mentioned.

3.6 Case Studies

Two case studies on traditional healing were planned for both the VDCs (one casestudy each), the topical questions for which are given in the Appendix-II.

The interviewees for the case study were chosen by free-listing technique. Five to sixlocal respondents were asked to name a few well-known traditional healers in theVDC. The response data on the domain were ranked. A new respondent was takenand the response data reranked. Addition of new respondent and calculation of thenew rank went on until the ranks remained relatively stable. This was taken to beadequate agreement about the domain. The healer with the highest rank was thereafterselected for the interview. Having completed the selection process, the intervieweewas personally approached (a day earlier to the interview date) with request forcooperation.



20

Taplejung

Amarpur

NagiTharpu

Oyam

Falaicha

Panchami

Suvang Ekteen

Memeng

Chyangthapu

Yanganam

Sidin

Prangbung

Lungrupa

Phidim

Ranigaun

Chilingdin

Yasok

Mangjabung

Sarangdanda

Aangna

Mauwa

Hangum

Aarubote Rabi

KurumbaLimba

Olane

Ranitar

India

Ilam

Terhathum

Morang Ilam

Dhankuta

N

LEGEND

Boundaries

Study site

International

District

VDC

NEPAL

10 0 20 kilometers10

Fig. 3.1 Map of study site (shaded portion)

For archiving discursive data (interview), a movie camera was used during theinterviews. The information was also noted in the field notebook simultaneously as a

precautionary measure, should the electronic device fail (Fig. A-IV.3). A digital

camera with a resolution of 6 Megapixel was used for taking photographs of the studysites (aerial view), plant specimens, and key informants. Plants that could not bereadily identified (scientifically) were collected for herbaria preparation (foridentifying them later on). For plants that were not available during that season,another round of field trip (at an appropriate time) was planned. During the field tripacross the VDC, altitude was recorded with a barometer at regular intervals (everytwo hours or so of trekking) so that the altitude could be correlated with theoccurrence of floral diversity.

3.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation

The study entailed collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. The discursive

data were interpreted with emic perspective as described by Casagrande, (2002). The possibility of integration of discursive and quantitative data for statistical treatment



21

has been described by Coxon (2005). However, this requires especially writtencomputer programs, and was therefore not attempted in this study. The demographicand other similar quantitative data were tabulated and/or given graphicalrepresentation for meaningful comparison.

A correlation (association) was worked out between abundance of medicinal plants inthe vicinity and knowledge about their use. For this, Spearman-ranked correlation wasused (Casagrande, 2002) utilizing GENSTAT software (Payne et al ., 1996). The

perception of medicinal properties in relation organoleptic quality of the plant wasalso described. The prevalence of illnesses was ranked by word count of the illness-related term in the text.

3.8 Limitations of the study

The main limitation of the present study was in its not being a census survey. Whilesome generalizations can be made out of the finding, they will not adequatelyrepresent the practices of all Limbus (of Terhathum and Taplejung, for example). To

this end, the generalizations will not even be representative of the Panchthar district(because only two of the 41 VDCs have been studied). Since most of the data were

based on interviews, the possibility of incidental omission of some pieces ofinformation is expected. Besides, some healers tend to keep their art a closely guardedsecret, which must be respected as per the general norms of research. Also, due totime and budget constraints, the efficacy of the medicinal plants could not besubjected to scientific assessment.



CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Demographic and Related Details of the Study Site

The study site is given in Fig. 3.1. The demographic and other details abstracted from personal communication and District Development Plan document are given in thefollowing paragraphs.

4.1.1 Chokmagu VDC

According to District Development Survey (2001) Chokmagu VDC has a populationof 3624 (1856 male and 1768 female), population density of 191/km2, and 603households. Limbu nationality of this VDC represents 62% of households. There areabout 11 settlement areas (Bhadaure, Chokmagu, Maidane, Kerabari, Kolbote,

Mahadevpokhari, Mathillo Sirsaule, Sindupauwa, Tallo Sirsaule, Tineghare,Tinmaule) in which Tumbapo (a sub-caste of Limbu) is the dominant group.According to census 2001 (CBS, 2003) the literacy rate is 85%, with a slightly higherliteracy in female (44%).

Along with staple items, Chokmagu also produces ginger, vegetables, and citrusfruits. However, 79% of households suffer from staple-grain deficit. They make upthe food deficit by barter, trading NTFPs and cash crops. Earning from foreignemployment also has a significant contribution. The Maoist insurgence has beenimplicated for worsening the problem.

There is a single kaccha road (motorable during the winter) that joins theadministrative head quarter (Phidim) and three other VDCs. The VDC has noelectricity supply from the national grid. A few households used solar system forlighting. Almost all the households (98.5%) depend on firewood for cooking food.Although telephone booths (conventional) are non-existent, a number of personalmobiles (CDMA) are available. There is one public high school (Saraswati Ma Vi),and 4 primary schools (public). The total enrollment in schools is 1885 but only 59%of the children are attending school.

Mention of Chokmagu water supply project 1994, undertaken by District WaterSupply Office, has been mentioned in the District Development Committeedocuments. Around 460 households have piped water supply. The rest of the

households use shallow wells, springs, stone taps and water falls. Chokmaguirrigation project irrigates about 70 ha of land in Chokmagu VDC. There is one health

post for the VDC.

4.1.2 Ranitar VDC

According to District Development Survey (2001), Ranitar VDC has a population of7484 (3914 male and 3570 female), population density of about 225/km2, and 1200households. Limbu nationality of this VDC represents 33% of households. However,

personal communication revealed that Limbu population in Ranitar assumes the third position. This VDC has a very rich ethnic diversity (Limbu, Sherpa, Rai, Gurung,

Sunuwar, Magar, and Tamang). There are about 34 settlement sites (Aagrigaun,Asine, Barbote, Barkhedanda, Baskote, Bhainsekharka, Bhaalukhop, Bhirgaun,



23

Chaamathung, Chhaiyagaun, Chiuribote, Daandagaun, Devithaan, Ghalegaun,Ghumaunetar, Hamphabung, Ithung, Jhaklekhop, Kaaligaun, Khandung,Laamichhane gaun, Mahabir, Maklabung, Maanedaanda, Mangsire, Muldaanda,

Nanglapa, Nunthala, Raigaun, Ranitar, Sukhepokhari, Syaudaanda, Tamakhe,Thangregaun, Yangsuwa). According to census 2001 (CBS, 2003) the literacy rate is

84%, with an equal literacy rate in female.

Along with staple items, Chokmagu also produces cardamom and tea. A tea processing plant (Kanchanjungha Tea Estate, launched in 1984) has made asignificant contribution to the livelihood of the local people. More than 100 farmershave pooled their land to form a cooperative with 94 ha land. The estate employsmore than 200 people. Personal communication revealed that Ranitar VDC was thefirst to produce tea on a commercial scale in Panchthar district. However, 90% of thehouseholds still suffer from staple grain deficit. This is of course made up by cashcrops, NTFPs, etc. Foreign-, self-, and wage employment are also important means ofcovering the deficit.

There is a single kaccha road (motorable during the winter) that joins the three otherVDCs (Lungrupa, Naagin, and Pauwasartap) but some parts of the VDC (ward no. 6)has access to highway. Some parts of the VDC have electricity supply from thenational grid. There is widespread use of solar energy for lighting. Almost all thehouseholds (99%) depend on firewood for cooking food. There are a few telephone

booths (conventional) but a number VHF and CDMA-based telephones and mobilesare available. This VDC also has post offices. There are 3 public high schools (IthungMa Vi as the resource center) and 1 private high school, and 12 primary schools(public). During the visit, however, a number of English medium schools (private,

primary and lower secondary) were also seen. According to census 2001, theenrollment in the schools is 3340 but only the attendance is mere 65%.

Around 836 households have piped water supply. The rest of the households useshallow wells, springs, stone taps and water falls. Chamthum irrigation projectirrigates about 14 ha of land in Ranitar. There is one health post for the VDC.

Topographically, Ranitar has fewer ridges and folds compared to Chokmagu. TheVDC also has some plain settlement areas (called ‘tar’), e.g., Ranitar, Ghumaunetar 1,and Ghumaunetar 2. Tiktung River is the main source of water.

4.2 Focus Group Discussion

Focus group discussion on ethnomedicine and biodiversity revealed that the

participants possessed a wealth information on the traditional healing methods,knowledge about the plants and their use, as well as their importance. As expected,the survey also showed the trend of erosion in the knowledge. This was inferred fromthe inability of some of the younger participants to elicit as much information as thesenior citizens and traditional healers participating in the discussion. A pooled dataabout the knowledge on different plants and their uses obtained by interviewing 25

participants each of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC is given in Table 4.1. The table also provides insight into the diversity of medicinal plants.

Additional details on the multiplicity of uses for uses other than medicine are given inTable 4.2 (wild foods), Table 4.3 (veterinary use), Table 4.4 (religious use), and Table4.5 (‘murcha’ preparation). Murcha is an amylolytic starter cake used for the

preparation of traditional, cereal-based alcoholic beverages such as ‘jand’ (undistilled)and ‘raksi’ (distilled, congeneric).



24

4.2.1 Medicinal Plants of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC

Both Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC had similar trends in the use and diversity ofmedicinal plants. Data regarding the traditional concept and use of these plants arediscussed in the following paragraphs. The food, fodder and other uses are presentedseparately in Tables 4.2- 4.5.

1. Aaru

Scientific name: Prunus persica Limbu name: KhamrekMedicinal use: Tender bud paste is applied on wound. The extract is alsoconsidered antiemetic (against vomiting).

2. Abijalo / Abhijaalo

Scientific name: Drymaria cordata Limbu name: WanaMedicinal use: Whole plant paste is used as antidote, anthelmintic. This plant isalso used for treating stuffy nose. Essentially, the plant is wrapped in leaves and

baked under hot cinders. The astringent smell is inhaled until no longer bearable.

3. Adhuwa / Aduwa

Scientific name: Zingiber officinale Limbu name: HaabekMedicinal use: Roasted rhizome is chewed for flu, cough and cold.

4. Aiselu / Ainselu

Scientific name: Rubus ellipticus

Limbu name: TingrekMedicinal use: Root and tender bud extracts are useful in diarrhea and

dysentery. The bud paste is applied on skinburn and also as an antidote.5. Alainchi

Scientific name: Amomum subulatum Limbu name: ArengiMedicinal use: Seed and root rhizome paste are effective against skinburn. Seedis taken as diuretic.

6. Amala

Scientific name: Phyllanthus emblica Limbu name: AngwaraMedicinal use: Fruit is masticated as cathartic and appetizer. The fruit is a good

source of Vitamin C. The bark extract has antidiarrheal and antidandruff properties.

7. Amarlata / Sunlahara

Scientific name: Cuscuta reflexa

Limbu name: ChimchimponaMedicinal use: Plant extract is taken for jaundice and piles. Its paste is used forthe treatment of wounds. Additional details on this plant are given in Section4.5.

8. Ambak

Scientific name: Psidium guajava

Limbu name: Lupse



25

Medicinal use: Bark extract is taken as antidiarrheal. It is also taken as astringentand for toothache. Additional details on ambak are given in Section 4.5.

9. Amliso

Scientific name: Thysanolina maxima Limbu name: SealoMedicinal use: Root extract has as anthelmintic, antipneumonia, abortifacient,and antiseptic properties. Additional details on amliso are given in Section 4.5.

10. Angeri

Scientific name: Lyonia ovalifolia

Limbu name: TabeaMedicinal use: Its paste is used to treat scabies. It has an antiseptic property.Additional details on angeri are given in Section 4.5.

11. Angeri (khane)

Scientific name: Osbeskia nepalensis

Limbu name: MendamaklaMedicinal use: Root extract is taken for tonsillitis.

12. Aankh

Scientific name: Calotropis gigantea Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Bark and leaf paste is applied on dislocated joint. Because of itsanti-inflammatory property, the leaves are heated and pressed against musclesprains. Additional details on aankh are given in Section 4.5.

13. Arari kaanda

Scientific name: Mimosa rubicaulis

Limbu name: SidingbaMedicinal use: Root bark paste is applied on skinburn and is also effective in thetreatment of dislocated joints.

14. Asuro Scientific name: Adhatoda vasica

Limbu name: SikchakwaMedicinal use: Root extract is taken for epilepsy and food poisoning. Leafinfusion is useful against malaria. Stem extract works as an antacid.

15. Babari

Scientific name: Ocimum basilicum

Limbu name: AndangphungMedicinal use: Leaf paste is applied on skinburn. Additional details on this plantare given in Section 4.5.

16. Bakaina

Scientific name: Melia azederach

Limbu name: ThumrangseMedicinal use: Fruit paste is smelled and put on head for headache relief. Leafand bark paste is used to treat scabies.

17. Ban ghiraula

Scientific name: Trichosanthes cucumerina (cucurbita sp.)

Limbu name: Tambhung toryan



26

Medicinal use: Fruit extract is taken as purgative. Fruit net (dry) extract isconsidered to be very effective in jaundice and sinusitis treatment. In practice, asmall piece of the net is soaked overnight is a glass of water and the extractdrunk in the morning. The extract is very bitter. Additional details on this plantare given in Section 4.5.

18. Ban lasun

Scientific name: Allium wallichii

Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Bulb paste is applied on cut and wound. It is also thought to beuseful in snake bites. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5

19. Ban tarul Scientific name: Dioscorea bulbifera Limbu name: Tamphung kheMedicinal use: Stem paste is applied on piles.

20. Baans Scientific name: Bambusa arundinaceae

Limbu name: PhaMedicinal use: Root decoction is taken for jaundice. Extracts from young budsare applied on insect bite.

21. Bel

Scientific name: Aegel marmelos Limbu name: AnjamseMedicinal use: Slurry of seed dust is taken for ulcer.

22. Bethu

Scientific name: Chenopodium album Limbu name: SinangMedicinal use: Its seed is cooked with milk and taken as antacid.

23. Bhairungpati

Scientific name: Juniperus recurva Limbu name: SangeMedicinal use: Leaf and stem are burned and the smoke is smelled for headacheand stomachache.

24. Bhirgaule

Scientific name: Coix lachrymajobi

Limbu name: PhinjariMedicinal use: Root extract is taken as anthelmintic. It helps discharge placentain child delivery. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5

25. Bhuin aiselu

Scientific name: Rubus nepalensis Limbu name: Kakwa tingrekMedicinal use: Leaf extract is applied on wound. Root extract has stomachic

property.

26. Bhuichampa

Scientific name: Kaempferia rotunda

Limbu name: Khamchakphung



27

Medicinal use: Rhizome paste is applied on bone fracture and dislocated joint.Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

27. Bhyagur Scientific name: Dioscorea deltoidea Limbu name: SukheMedicinal use: Root paste is applied on wound.

28. Bikhma

Scientific name: Aconitum spicatum Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Small piece of rhizome is taken as febrifuge. The rhizome pasteis used to treat rabies, stomach disorders and as antidote and appetizer.Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

29. Bojho Scientific name: Acorus calamus

Limbu name: SedakpaMedicinal use: Its paste and extract are used to treat scabies. Root paste issmelled for sinusitis. Additional details on bojho are given in Section 4.5.

30. Chabo

Scientific name: Piper chaba

Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on wound.

31. Chari amilo Scientific name: Oxalis sp.

Limbu name: Sukroti

Medicinal use: Plant paste is applied on dog bites. Plant extract is applied asrubefacient and the clear filtered extract is used in eye treatment.

32. Chhatiwan

Scientific name: Alstonia scholaris

Limbu name: PhakluppaMedicinal use: Bark extract is taken for piles.

33. Chilaune

Scientific name: Schima wallichii Limbu name: YangsingbaMedicinal use: Fruit extract and bark paste are applied on scorpion sting. Bark

decoction is taken for jaundice.34. Chimphing

Scientific name: Heracleum nepalense Limbu name: ChimphingMedicinal use: Fruit extract is taken for stomachache or similar gastrointestinaldisorders. Elsewhere, it is also used as febrifuge. Additional details on this plantare given in Section 4.5.

35. Chiraito

Scientific name: Swertia chirayita

Limbu name: Sunghingba

Medicinal use: Decoction/infusion from whole plant is taken as febrifuge. It isalso effective against headache. More detail on chiraito is given in Section 4.5.



28

36. Chitu

Scientific name: Plumbago zeylanica Limbu name: ChituMedicinal use: Root paste is applied on dislocated joint. Root extract is taken asabortifacient and appetizer. It is taken for jaundice. Additional details on this

plant are given in Section 4.5.

37. Chiuri

Scientific name: Madhuca butyrica

Limbu name: ImsewaMedicinal use: Seed oil is applied on fungus infection in feet. Bark and seed

paste is applied on fracture and also in piles.

38. Chutro

Scientific name: Berberis aristata Limbu name: LakpucheMedicinal use: Root extract is taken for menstrual disorders, jaundice and piles.

39. Daarim

Scientific name: Punica granatum

Limbu name: LalimseMedicinal use: Root extract is applied as antirabies and as an astringent.

40. Dhaenro

Scientific name: Woodfordia fructicosa Limbu name: PangwariMedicinal use: Flower extract is taken for dysentery. Bark paste is applied onskinburn.

41. DhusureScientific name: Colebrookea oppositifolia

Limbu name: LajesingMedicinal use: Clear extract of tender bud is used in eye and ear problem.

42. Dubo

Scientific name: C ynodon dactylon

Limbu name: SambokMedicinal use: Its paste is applied as antidote. The plant juice is useful incontrolling diabetes. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

43. Gahat

Scientific name: Dolichos biflorus Limbu name: PhekluseMedicinal use: Cooked seeds and its soup have lithotriptic property (dissolvekidney stone). The soup is also beneficial in measles.

44. Gahate jhaar

Scientific name: Polygala abyssinica

Limbu name: Pheksukse yanMedicinal use: Plant extract is taken for dysentery.

45. Gaitihare (Bakhra kane)

Scientific name: Oxyspora paniculata

Limbu name: LambetangmaMedicinal use: Root extract is taken for stomachache.



29

46. Gayo

Scientific name: Bridelia retusa

Limbu name: YangkhekMedicinal use: Bark extract is taken as antidiarrheal and appetizer. Tender bud

paste is applied for the treatment of scabies.

47. Ghangharu

Scientific name: Pyracantha crenulata Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on skinburn.

48. Ghanti phul (Krisnakali)

Scientific name: Fuchsia hybrida

Limbu name: Kingna phungMedicinal use: Leaf / flower extract is taken for diabetes. It is also used in ear

pain.

49. Ghiukumari Scientific name: Aloe vera

Limbu name: LupseMedicinal use: Leaf juice is applied on skinburn. Succulent leaf is chewed asdiuretic. Additional details are given in Section 4.5.

50. Ghoda khori

Scientific name: Viburnum cylindricum

Limbu name: HangangseMedicinal use: The oil from its seed is used for rubbing on muscle sprains andswellings. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

51. Ghodpuchre (Sallibisalli)Scientific name: Equisetum sp.

Limbu name: HondokMedicinal use: Root extract is taken as anthelmintic and diuretic. The plant isused in the treatment of bone fracture. Additional details on this plant are givenin Section 4.5.

52. Ghodtapre

Scientific name: Centella asiatica

Limbu name: SidasakchiMedicinal use: Plant extract is taken for pneumonia, stomachache, ulcer, and asdiuretic.

53. Gujargano

Scientific name: Tinospora cordifolia

Limbu name: KengbanMedicinal use: Rhizome piece is chewed for menstruation problem. Rhizome

paste is applied as plaster in fracture. The rhizome is also used for piles andstomachache.

54. Gurans (Lali gurans)

Scientific name: Rhododendron arboreum Limbu name: ThokpetMedicinal use: Dry flower is taken for dissolving fish bone stuck in the throat. Itis taken to combat swelling of spleen and liver. Flower extract is applied on eyeto relieve eye strain. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.



30

55. Hadchur (Hadchoor, Harchur) Scientific name: Viscum album

Limbu name: KhewalangbaMedicinal use: Whole plant paste is applied on bone fracture. More detail on this

plant is given in Section 4.5.

56. Harro

Scientific name: Terminalia chebula Limbu name: HangamMedicinal use: Ripe fruit is chewed for flu and as an appetizer and for cough,

piles. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

57. Indreni (Saya)

Scientific name: Trichosanthes tricuspidata

Limbu name: SayaMedicinal use: Root extract is taken as diuretic. It is used for discharging

placenta in child delivery.

58. Jamuna

Scientific name: Syzygium cumini

Limbu name: ChambhoMedicinal use: Root paste is applied on fracture. Bark extract is taken asantidiarrheal. Fruit is taken as antidiabetic.

59. Jatamansi

Scientific name: Nardostachys jatamansi Limbu name: PangwanphungMedicinal use: Root extract is taken for epilepsy and menstruation problem. It isalso considered cathartic.

60. JhyauScientific name: Graphis sp.Limbu name: LungasekraMedicinal use: Plant body dust is applied on fresh cut.

61. Kaali jhaar

Scientific name: Eupatorium odoratum Limbu name: MakyammaMedicinal use: Tuber paste is applied on wound. Root extract is used in thetreatment of rabies and sinusitis.

62. KaabhraaScientific name: Ficus lacor Limbu name: KhaitrangMedicinal use: Stem latex is applied on wound.

63. Kadam (Saruwa)

Scientific name: Jatropha curcas

Limbu name: RanikhelMedicinal use: Latex is applied on toothache. Additional details on this plant aregiven in Section 4.5.

64. Kainjal

Scientific name: Bischofia javanica Limbu name: Mukumba



31

Medicinal use: Bark extract is taken with milk as astringent. Additional detailson this plant are given in Section 4.5.

65. Kalo Unyu Scientific name: Tectaria macrodonta

Limbu name: Kumakla katekwaMedicinal use: Pieces of rhizome are chewed /masticated to relieve toothache.

66. Kaalobesar

Scientific name: Curcuma longa

Limbu name: Kumakla harandiMedicinal use: Rhizome extract is taken for piles.

67. Kandesiundi

Scientific name: Euphorbia royleana

Limbu name: LungdinwaMedicinal use: Stem latex is taken as an appetizer.

68. KaphalScientific name: Myrica esculenta

Limbu name: ChilingseMedicinal use: Bark dust is taken with water as antacid and for sinusitis. It isalso used in the treatment of jaundice and fracture. Fruit is taken as antidiabetic,antirheumatic and decongestant while its paste is useful in wounds and piles.

69. Khirlo (Aule)

Scientific name: Holarrhena pubescens

Limbu name: YengobaMedicinal use: Bark dust is taken with water for gastric and for piles. Bark

decoction is used to treat menstrual irregularity.70. Kirne kanda

Scientific name: Lantana camara

Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Seed paste is applied on piles.

71. Khanakpa

Scientific name: Evodea fraxinifolia

Limbu name: KhanakpaMedicinal use: Fruit extract is taken for food poisoning and similargastrointestinal disorders.

72. KoiraloScientific name: Bauhinia purpurea Limbu name: AjibaMedicinal use: Bark extract is taken to dissolve stones in the kidney.

73. Kudki

Scientific name: Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Root extract is taken as febrifuge as well as appetizer.

74. Kurilo

Scientific name: Asparagus racemosus

Limbu name: NakkhammaMedicinal use: Root extract is used as antacid.



32

75. Lahare siundi

Scientific name: Ipomoea hederaceae Limbu name: Iwa lungdinnbaMedicinal use: Fruit paste is used as antidandruff.

76. Lalchan (Belchanda)

Scientific name: Hibiscus sabdariffa

Limbu name: SutsutteMedicinal use: Calyx decoction is taken as astringent. Additional details on this

plant are given in Section 4.5.

77. Lankasani (Red)

Scientific name: Mirabilis jalapa

Limbu name: PipipaMedicinal use: Root extract is taken for dysentery. Seed extract is taken asdiuretic.

78. Lapsi

Scientific name: Choerospondias axillaris

Limbu name: ImbuwaMedicinal use: Fruit decoction is taken as anthelmintic.

79. Lunde

Scientific name: Amaranthus spinosus

Limbu name: China MangraMedicinal use: Slurry of root dust is taken as diuretic.

80. Maidal kanda

Scientific name: Xeromphis spinosa

Limbu name: LungdingbaMedicinal use: Its latex is applied on wound.

81. Mahuwa

Scientific name: Engelhardia spicata Limbu name: Yakpapma (Yakopma)Medicinal use: Bark paste is applied on fracture and also on fresh cuts/wounds.Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

82. Mehel

Scientific name: Pyrus pashia

Limbu name: Thambenchhe

Medicinal use: Fruit decoction is used for dysentery. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

83. Naageswori

Scientific : Mesua ferrea

Limbu name: AnjamseMedicinal use: Stem paste is applied on wound. Bark paste is applied topicallyto treat hydrocele (scrotal swelling).

84. Neem

Scientific name: Azadirachta indica

Limbu name: Khajase



33

Medicinal use: Leaf decoction is taken as febrifuge and in toothache. It is alsoused to treat menstrual irregularity. Bark extract is taken as diuretic. Additionaldetails on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

85. Okhar

Scientific name: Juglans regia

Limbu name: Khesik (Khause)Medicinal use: The fruit portion is taken as purgative.

86. Pakhanbhed

Scientific name: Bergenia ciliata Limbu name: YakpegmaMedicinal use: Root paste is applied on fracture and extract is taken for throatsore and toothache. Root extract is taken for uterus problem and by lactatingmother. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

87. Padamchal

Scientific name: Rheum emodi

Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on fresh cut and extract is taken asabortifacient

88. Padina/Pudina

Scientific name: Mentha arvensis

Limbu name: PadenaMedicinal use: Plant extract is taken for flu and paste is applied on cut. It is alsotaken as appetizer and diuretic.

89. Paiyun

Scientific name: Prunus cerasoides Limbu name: UmphungMedicinal use: Bark paste is applied on bone fracture. Elsewhere, it is appliedon skinburn.

90. Paanch aunle

Scientific name: Dactylorhiza hatagirea

Limbu name: TigemMedicinal use: Paste of rhizome is applied on fresh cut wound. Rhizome extractis taken for epilepsy and as aphrodisiac. Rhizome is chewed as appetizer and asantiulcer agent.

91. PaangraaScientific name: Entada phaseoloides Limbu name: NeghekMedicinal use: Fruit paste is applied on bone fracture. Fruit dust is used asantidandruff agent.

92. Pani amala

Scientific name: Neprolepis cordifolia

Limbu name: ThambalMedicinal use: Tuber extract is drunk as diuretic.

93. Phachyang

Scientific name: Zingibar cassumunar Limbu name: Kherabe



34

Medicinal use: It is eaten for stomachache. Additional details on this plant aregiven in Section 4.5.

94. Pire jhaar Scientific name: Spilanthes acmella

Limbu name: ChasukMedicinal use: Stem and leaf is chewed for toothache.

95. Rajbriksha

Scientific name: Cassia fistula

Limbu name: SamrisingFamily: LeguminosaeMedicinal use: Fruit pulp is taken as purgative. Seed is eaten as diuretic.Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

96. Rato Gujurgano

Scientific name: Tinospora sp.

Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Rhizome paste is applied as plaster in fracture.

97. Ritthaa

Scientific name: Sapindus mukorossi

Limbu name: PhimbrikwaMedicinal use: Fruit leather paste is used to wash hair for removing dandruff.Seed extract is taken as purgative.

98. Sano chiple Scientific name: Pouzolzia hirta Limbu name: Saghangtuna (Tuiremba)

Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on bone fracture. It is also applied onwound.

99. Sal

Scientific name: Shorea robusta

Limbu name: SasingMedicinal use: Plant bark paste is applied on wound. It is also applied as plasterin fracture.

100. Sarpa jibre

Scientific name: Arisaema flavum

Limbu name: Osek maki

Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken for epilepsy.101. Sarpagandha Scientific name: Rauvolfia serpentina Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Root piece is chewed for diabetes and root extract is applied asan antidote.

102. Siltimur

Scientific name: Lindera neesiana Limbu name: WarekpaMedicinal use: Fruit decoction is applied as a treatment for scabies. Elsewhere,

it is used as antirheumatic and antacid.



35

103. Simal

Scientific name: Bombax ceiba

Limbu name: Tengo singMedicinal use: Bark paste is applied on effected area of measles. Bark extract istaken as diuretic. Latex is taken for dysentery. Root extract is taken as laxative.

104. Siru

Scientific name: Imperata cylindrica

Limbu name: NingMedicinal use: Root extract is drunk as anthelmintic. Its paste is applied asantidote. Additional details on siru are given in Section 4.5.

105. Sisnu

Scientific name: Urtica dioica Limbu name: SikwaMedicinal use: Its paste is applied on wound of dog bite. Young bud and leaf arecooked and eaten to control high blood pressure. Additional details on sisnu are

given in Section 4.5.

106. Sugandhawal

Scientific name: Valeriana jatamansi Limbu name: PanwakphungMedicinal use: Root extract is taken for epilepsy. Leaf extract is taken asantidiarrheal. It is also used as cathartic and perfume.

107. Sungur kande Scientific name: Cirsium verutum Limbu name: ChingyakmaMedicinal use: Paste of tender bud is applied as antidote. Root extract is taken as

diuretic.

108. Taate simi Scientific name: Dolichos lablab Limbu name: KhesepaMedicinal use: Root extract is taken as abortifacient. It is also taken for epilepsy.

109. Thade unyu Scientific name: Thelypteris appendiculoides Limbu name: KatekwaMedicinal use: Bud extract is applied on cut. Elsewhere, it is used to treatscabies.

110. Til

Scientific name: Sesamum orientale Limbu name: ThangMedicinal use: Seed paste is applied on measles.

111. Timur Scientific name: Zanthoxylum armatum

Limbu name: MeadhingMedicinal use: Decoction of fruit is taken as antacid and febrifuge. Additionaldetails on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

112. Tite karelaScientific name: Mormodica charantia



36

Limbu name: TukrumseMedicinal use: Young bud extract is taken for stomachache. Root extract isapplied on wound.

113. Tite phapar

Scientific name: Fagopyrum tartaricum

Limbu name: KyaboMedicinal use: Young plant is cooked and taken for heart diseases.

114. Titepati

Scientific name: Artemisia indica Limbu name: NamyobaMedicinal use: Tender bud and leaf is made warm and is put on dislocated

joints. It is also useful in treating scabies and epistaxis. Leaf extract is taken asantirheumatic. Root extract is taken as antacid. Additional details on this plantare given in Section 4.5.

115. Totala

Scientific name: Oroxylum indicum

Limbu name: NeppheMedicinal use: Mixture extract of fruit flower and bark is taken for jaundice anddiarrhea. Bark extract is used to treat jaundice, acidity and stone. The paste is

beneficial in swellings. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.

116. Tulasi

Scientific name: Osimum sanctum

Limbu name: MuchoklungMedicinal use: Plant leaf is chewed in toothache and measles.

117. Ulte kuroScientific name: Achyranthes aspera Limbu name: ApliMedicinal use: Root extract is taken as anthelmintic. It is also taken for

pneumonia.

118. Yarsagumba

Scientific name: Cordycep sinensis Limbu name: ?Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken as aphrodisiac

4.2.2 Interpretation

Table 4.1 shows multiplicity of uses (as food, medicine, fodder, and others) of many plant types. The data reveals some interesting facts about the plants. The notation ‘?’given in the table (Table 4.1) and elsewhere indicates missing knowledge orinformation about the plant. The missing information with respect to Limbu names of

plants (there are 8 such plants in the list) indicates, inter alia, following possibilities:

1.

These plants are not ‘indigenously’ used by the Limbus, which may mean thatthe plants were not native to the region in question.

2. The occurrence and/or use of the plants became so common/prevalent in othercommunities that their vernacular names slowly replaced the Limbu names

(erosion of knowledge).



37

In the present study, 5 plants (asaare phul, tinpate, chamlayo, galgale, and budhiokhana) could not be scientifically identified. This could be an indication that these

plants are endemic to this study area and therefore warrant further study.

As is evident from Table 4.1, some plants were not found in the study sites (9 plantsare in the list, denoted by ‘0’, Table 4.1) but Limbus possess a good knowledge aboutthem. This gives rise to (but not limited to) following possibilities:

1. They acquired knowledge about these plants from other people2.

The plants have (or reportedly have) noted or exceptional medicinal or other properties

3.

Limbus brought along with them knowledge about these plants duringmigration

4. Because of patrilocal residence system, women who get married from distant places might have been instrumental in the transmission of the knowledge.

As can be seen from Tables 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5, many botanicals have no vernacularnames. Where vernacular names are available, Limbu names are not available. Thedata also show considerable overlapping of uses. It is obvious that symbiotic plantslike yarsagumba (Cordycep sinensis) are not available in these regions. Familiarity ofthe natives with such plants despite unavailability quite simply indicates that theknowledge about their use might have been transmitted through some mechanisms.

The existence of a Limbu name (sometimes more than one name) for almost all the plants studied herein shows the richness of ethnobotanical knowledge among Limbus.As will be evident in the latter sections, the medicinal importance of these plants inmost cases has been verified.

Table 4.1 shows that 66 (55%) plants are profusely abundant, 37 (31%) moderatelyabundant, 7 (6%) scarce, and 9 (8%) unavailable (Fig. 4.1). This is of course not anexhaustive list of the plants available in the region. Cereals and many very commongarden plants and flowers, as well as trees have been omitted for obvious reasons. Ofthe medicinal plants listed, 107 (90%) have fodder value, 59 (50%) have food value,and 31 (26%) have other uses as well. It may be noted that there is considerableoverlapping in the use. Consequently, about 50% of the plants listed in Table 4.1 have

both food and fodder use. The knowledge in food, fodder, and medicinal use isvariable. About 50% of the plants given in Table 4.1 have no known food use. Of themedicinal plants in the ‘food use’ category, the proportion of plants that more than50% of the respondents agreed to have food use was 76%. ‘Other uses’ referred to in

the text implies use in starter preparation, religious purpose, animal bedding,composting, thatching ‘ghoom’ (a covering used to protect oneself from rain), etc.

There are some variations in the response under ‘fodder use’ category also. This isnatural because what is perfectly palatable to goat may not be so for cow. Besides,many people may not know that certain plants can also be used as fodder. Thisindicates knowledge gap between the people. Furthermore, ruminants are ratherselective in the glut season.



3 8

T a b l e 4 . 1 S u m m a r y o f r e s p o n s e o f t h e F o c u s G r o u p i n t e r v i e w e e o n t r a d i t i o n a l u s e s o f p l a n t s

% o f ' y e s ' r e s p o n s e b y

2 5 r e s p o n d e n t s

S . N . V e r n a c u l a r n a m e

S c i e n t i f i c n a m e

L i m b u n a m e

A b u n d a n c e E l e v a t i o n m a s l ) F o o d

F o d d e r M e d i c i n e O t h e r u s e s

1

A a r u

P r u n u s p e r s i c a

K h a m r e k

+ + +

1 4 0

0

1 0 0

1 0 0

4 0

Y

2

A b h i j a a l o

D r y m a r i a

c o r d a t a

W a n a

+ + +

1 4 0

0

8

1 0 0

9 2

3

A d u w a a

Z i n g i b e r o f f i c i n a l e

H a a b e k

+ + +

1 1 0

0

1 0 0

1 0 0

8 0

Y

4

A i n s e l u

R u b u s e l l i p t i c u s

T i n g r e k

+ + +

1 9 0

0

1 0 0

6 0

3 6

5

A l a i n c h i

A m o m u m

s u b u l a t u m

A r e n g i

+ + +

2 1 0

0

1 0 0

8 0

3 2

6

A m a l a a

P h y l l a n t h

u s e m b l i c a

A n g w a r a

+ + +

1 1 5

0

1 0 0

6 0

9 2

Y

7

A m a r l a t a a

C u s c u t a r e f l e x a

C h i m c h i m p o n a

+ +

1 0 0

0

0

8

1 0 0

8

A m b a k

P s i d i u m g u a j a v a

L u p s e

+ +

1 0 0

0

1 0 0

6 0

7 2

9

A m l i s o

T h y s a n o l i n a m a x i m a

S e a l o

+ + +

1 5 0

0

0

1 0 0

6 0

Y

1 0

A n g e r i

L y o n i a o v a l i f o l i a

T a b e a

+ + +

2 1 0

0

0

8

6 4

1 1

A n g e r i ( k h a n e )

O b e s k i a n e p a l e n s i s

M e n d a m a k l a

+ +

1 6 0

0

1 6

8

4 0

1 2

A a n k h

C a l o t r o p i s g i g a n t e a

?

+ +

8 0 0

0

4

9 6

1 3

A r a r i k a a n d a a

M i m o s a r u b i c a u l i s

S i d i n g b a

+ +

1 0 0

0

0

6 0

3 2

Y

1 4

A s u r o

A d h a t o d a

v a s i c a

S i k c h a k w a

+ +

8 0 0

0

4

9 2

1 5

B a a b a r i

O c i m u m b a s i l i c u m

A n d a n g p h u n g

+ + +

1 4 0

0

0

4

3 2

Y

1 6

B a k a i n a a

M e l i a a z e d e r a c h

T h u m r a n g s e

+ +

1 2 0

0

0

3 6

2 8

1 7

B a n g h i r a u l a

T r i c h o s a n t h e s c u c u m e r i n a T a m b h u n g T o r y a n

+ +

2 0 0

0

0

4 0

1 0 0

1 8

B a n l a s u n

A l l i u m w a l l i c h i i

?

+

2 1 0

0

0

0

8 8

( c o n t i n u e d … . . )

? = n o t a v a i l a b l e ( f r o m t h e i n t e r v i e w e

e s o n l y ) , + + + = p r o f u s e a b u n d a n c e ; + + = m o d e r a t e l y a b u n d a n

t ; + = s c a r c e ; 0 = n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e n o t a t i o n s

h a v e b

e e n m o d i f i e d f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e t r e a t m e n t , Y = y e s ( t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n t e r v i e w e e g i v i n g ‘ y e s ’ r e s p o n s e h a s n o t b e e n c a l c u l a t e

d ) .



3 9

T a b l e 4 . 1 S u m m a r y o f r e s p o n s e o f t h e F o c u s G r o u p i n t e r v i e w e e o n t r a d i t i o n a l u s e s o f p l a n t s ( . . … . c o n t i n u e d )

% o f ' y e s ' r e s p o n s e b y

2 5 r e s p o n d e n t s

S . N . V

e r n a c u l a r n a m e

S c i e n t i f i c n

a m e

L i m b u n a m e

A b u n d a n c e

E l e v a t i o n

( m a s l ) F o o d


1 9 B

a n t a r u l

D i o s c o r e a b u l b i f e r a

T a m p h u n g k h e

+ +

1 3 0 0

1 0 0

4

7 2

2 0 B

a a n s

B a m b u s a a r u n d i n a c e a e

P h a

+ + +

1 4 0 0

9 6

1 0 0

2 8

Y

2 1 B

e l

A e g e l m a r m

e l o s

A n j a m s e

+ +

8 0 0

1 0 0

4 4

4 4

Y

2 2 B

e t h u

C h e n o p o d i u m a l b u m

S i n a n g

+

1 1 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

3 6

2 3 B

h a i r u n g p a a t i

J u n i p e r u s r

e c u r v a

S a n g e

0

3 1 0 0

0

0

4 0

Y

2 4 B

h i r g a u l e

C o i x l a c h r y m a j o b i

P h i n j i r i

+ +

1 8 0 0

0

8

8 8

2 5 B

h u i n a i n s e l u

R u b u s n e p a

l e n s i s

K a k w a t i n g r e k

+ + +

1 2 0 0

8 0

5 6

3 6

2 6 B

h u i n c h a m p a a

K a e m p f e r i a r o t u n d a

K h a m c h a k p

h u n g

+ +

1 2 0 0

0

1 6

8 4

2 7 B

h y a a k u r / G i t t h a

D i o s c o r e a d e l t o i d e a

S u k h e

+

1 6 0 0

1 0 0

6 8

3 2

2 8 B

i k h m a a

A c o n i t u m s p i c a t u m

?

0

3 2 0 0

0

0

1 0 0

2 9 B

o j h o

A c o r u s c a l a m u s

S e d a k p a

+ +

1 9 0 0

8

2 8

1 0 0

3 0 C

h a a b o

P i p e r c h a b a

?

+ +

9 0 0

8

3 6

7 6

Y

3 1 C

h a m l a y o

?

C h a m l a y o

+ +

1 5 0 0

1 0 0

0

2 5

3 2 C

h a r i a m i l o

O x a l i s s p .

S u k r o t i

+ + +

1 1 0 0

6 0

8 0

7 2

3 3 C

h h a t i w a n

A l s t o n i a s c h o l a r i s

P h a k l u p p a

+ +

1 2 0 0

0

8

7 2

3 4 C

h i l a a u n e

S c h i m a w a l l i c h i i

Y a n g s i n g b a

+ + +

1 0 5 0

0

8 0

4 0

Y

3 5 C

h i m p h i n g

H e r a c l e u m

n e p a l e n s e

C h i m p h i n g

+ + +

1 5 0 0

1 0 0

0

1 0 0

3 6 C

h i r a i t o

S w e r t i a c h i r a y i t a

S u n g h i n b a

+ +

2 5 0 0

0

4 0

1 0 0

3 7 C

h i t u

P l u m b a g o z e y l a n i c a

C h i t u

+ +

1 1 0 0

0

4 4

8 4

Y

3 8 C

h i u r i

M a d h u c a b

u t y r i c a

I m s e w a

+ +

1 2 0 0

1 0 0

9 6

5 6

Y

3 9 C

h u t r o

B e r b e r i s a r

i s t a t a

L a k p u c h e

+ + +

2 4 0 0

8 0

6 4

4 8

( c o n t i n u e d … . . )



4 1

T a b l e 4 . 1 S u m m a r y o f r e s p o n s e o f t h e F o c u s G r o u p i n t e r v i e w e e o n t r a d i t i o n a l u s e s o f p l a n t s ( … … … c o n t i n u e d )

% o f ' y e s ' r e s p o n s e b

y 2 5 r e s p o n d e n t s

S . N . V



L i m b u n a m e

A b u n d a n c e

E l e v a t i o n

( m a s l )

F o o d


6 0 J

a m u n a

S y z y g i u m

c u m i n i

C h a m

b h o

+ + +

1 4 0 0

1 0 0

9 6

2 4

Y

6 1 J

a t a m a n s i

N a r d o s t a c h y s j a t a m a n s i

P a n g w

a n p h u n g

0

3 2 0 0

0

0

1

0 0

6 2 K

a a l i j h a a r

E u p a t o r i u m o d o r a t u m

M a k y a m m a

+ + +

1 6 0 0

0

8 4

7 6

6 3 K

a a b h r a a

F i c u s l a c o r

K h a i t r a n g

+ + +

1 4 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

3 2

6 4 K

a d a m ( S a r u w a )

J a t r o p h a

c u r c a s

R a n i k

h e l

+ + +

1 4 0 0

0

8

9 2

Y

6 5 K

a i j a l

B i s c h o f i a j a v a n i c a

M u k u

m b a

+ + +

1 2 0 0

0

9 2

8

6 6 K

a a l o u n y u

T e c t a r i a

m a c r o d o n t a

K u m a

k l a k a t e k w a

+ + +

1 6 0 0

1 0 0

6 0

8 8

6 7 K

a a l o b e s a a r

C u r c u m a l o n g a

K u m a

k l a h a r a n d i

+

1 2 0 0

0

1 2

9 2

6 8 K

a n d e s i u d i

E u p h o r b

i a r o y l e a n a

L u n g d i n w a

+ +

1 3 0 0

0

4

6 4

6 9 K

a a p h a a l

M y r i c a e

s c u l e n t a

C h i l i n

g s e

+ + +

1 3 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

3 6

7 0 K

h i r l o ( A u l e )

H o l a r r h e n a p u b e s c e n s

Y e n g o b a

+ + +

1 1 0 0

0

4

3 2

7 1 K

i r n e k a a n d a a

L a n t a n a

c a m a r a

?

+ + +

1 0 0 0

4

8

1 2

7 2 K

h a n a k p a

E v o d e a f r a x i n i f o l i a

K h a n a k p a

+ +

1 6 0 0

1 0 0

6 0

1

0 0

7 3 K

o i r a a l o

B a u h i n i a p u r p u r e a

A j i b a

+ + +

1 0 0 0

9 6

1 0 0

4 4

7 4 K

u d k i

N e o p i c r o r h i z a s c r o p h u l a r i f o l i a K u d k i

0

3 4 0 0

0

0

1

0 0

7 5 K

u r i l o

A s p a r a g u s r a c e m o s u s

N a k k h a m m a

+ +

1 2 0 0

6 0

9 2

7 6

Y

7 6 L

a h a r e s i u d i

I p o m o e a

h e d e r a c e a e

I w a l u n g d i n b a

+ +

1 2 0 0

0

6 0

8 0

7 7 L

a a l c h a n ( B e l c h a n d a ) H i b i s c u s

s a b d a r i f f a

S u t s u t t e

+ + +

1 0 0 0

1 0 0

9 2

8 4

( c o n t i n u e d … . . )



4 2

T a b l e 4 . 1 S u m m a r y o f r e s p o n s e o f t h e F o c u s G r o u p i n t e r v i e w e e o n t r a d i t i o n a l u s e s o f p l a n t s ( … … . . c o n t i n u e d )

% o f ' y e s ' r e s p o n s e b y 2 5

r e s p o n d e n t s

S . N .

V e r n a c u l a r n a m e S c i e n t i f i c n

a m e

L i m b u n a m e

A b u n d a n c e

E l e v a t i o n ( m

a s l )

F o o d


7 8

L a n k a s a n i ( r e d )

M i r a b i l i s j a

l a p a

P i p i p a

+ + +

1 4 0 0

0

5 2

5 6

7 9

L a p s i

C h o e r o s p o n d i a s a x i l l a r i s

I m b u w a

+ +

9 0 0

1 0 0

5 6

5 2

8 0

L u n d e

A m a r a n t h u s s p i n o s u s

C h i n a m a n g r a

+ + +

1 0 0 0

8 0

1 0 0

3 2

8 1

M a i d a l k a a n d a

X e r o m p h i s s p i n o s a

L u n g d i n g b a

+ + +

1 0 0 0

0

1 6

1 6

8 2

M a h u w a

E n g e l h a r d i a s p i c a t a

Y a k p a p m a

+ + +

1 2 0 0

0

6 8

2 4

8 3

M e h e l

P y r u s p a s h i a

T h a m b e n c h h

e

+ + +

1 8 0 0

1 0 0

9 2

9 2

Y

8 4

N a a g e s w a r i

M e s u a f e r r e a

A n j a m s e

+ +

1 5 0 0

0

1 6

9 2

8 5

N e e m

A z a d i r a c h t a i n d i c a

K h a j a s e

+ +

8 0 0

0

6 4

1 0 0

8 6

O k h a r

J u g l a n s r e g

i a

K h e s i k ( K h a u s e )

+ + +

1 7 0 0

1 0 0

6 4

7 6

8 7

P a k h a n b h e d

B e r g e n i a c i l i a t a

Y a k p e g m a

+ +

1 7 0 0

0

8

1 0 0

8 8

P a d a m c h a l

R h e u m e m o

d i

P a d a m c h a l

0

3 2 0 0

0

4

1 0 0

8 9

P a d i n a / P u d i n a

M e n t h a a r v e n s i s

P a d e n a

+ + +

1 0 0 0

1 0 0

8 8

9 2

9 0

P a i y u n

P r u n u s c e r a s o i d e s

U m p h u n g

+ + +

2 0 0 0

7 6

8 4

3 6

Y

9 1

P a a n c h a u n l e

D a c t y l o r h i z

a h a t a g i r e a

T i g e m

0

3 0 0 0

0

7 6

1 0 0

9 2

P a a n g r a a

E n t a d a p h a s e o l o i d e s

N e g h e k

+ +

1 0 0 0

0

2 0

5 6

9 3

P a a n i a m a l a a

N e p r o l e p i s c o r d i f o l i a

T h a m b a l

+ + +

1 4 0 0

9 2

1 6

1 2

9 4

P h a c h y a n g

Z i n g i b e r c a s s u m u n a r

K h e r a b e

+ +

1 0 0 0

0

0

1 0 0

Y

9 5

P i r e j h a a r

S p i l a n t h e s a c m e l l a

C h a s u k

+ + +

1 4 0 0

1 2

6 4

2 0

9 6

R a a j b r i k c h h a

C a s s i a f i s t u

l a

S a m s i r i n g

+ + +

1 0 0 0

0

7 2

1 0 0

9 7

R a a t o G u j u r g a a n o T i n o s p o r a s

p .

?

+

1 3 0 0

0

5 6

7 2

( c o n t i n u e d … . . )



4 3

T a b l e 4 . 1 S u m m a r y o f r e s p o n s e o f t h e F o c u s G r o u p i n t e r v i e w e e o n t r a d i t i o n a l u s e s o f p l a n t s ( … … . . c o n t i n u e d )

% o f ' y e s ' r e s p o n s e b y 2 5 r e s p o n d e n t s

S . N . V

e r n a c u l a r

n

a m e


L i m b u n a m e

A b u n d a n c e E l e v a t i o n ( m a s l )

F o o d


9 8 R

i t t h a a

S a p i n d u s m u k o r o s s i

P h i m b r i k w a

+ +

1 1 0 0

0

5 2

7

6

Y

9 9 S

a a n o c h i p l e

P o u z o l z i a h i r t a

T u i r e m b a

+ +

1 0 0 0

0

9 2

1

6

Y

1 0 0 S

a a l

S h o r e a r o b u s t a

S a s i n g

+ + +

8 0 0

0

8 8

8

Y

1 0 1 S

a r p a j i b r e

A r i s a e m a f l a v u m

O s e k m a k i

+ + +

1 4 0 0

0

4

1

6

1 0 2 S

a r p a g a n d h a

R a u v o l f i a s e r p e

n t i n a

?

0

8 0 0

0

0

1 0 0

1 0 3 S

i l t i m u r

L i n d e r a n e e s i a n

a

W a r e k p a

+ +

1 9 0 0

1 0 0

9 2

1 0 0

1 0 4 S

i m a l

B o m b a x c e i b a

T e n g o s i n g

+ + +

1 0 0 0

1 6

6 4

3

2

Y

1 0 5 S

i r u

I m p e r a t a c y l i n d

r i c a

N i n g

+ + +

1 1 0 0

2 0

1 0 0

8

8

Y

1 0 6 S

i s n u

U r t i c a d i o i c a

S i k w a

+ + +

1 8 0 0

1 0 0

5 6

8

8

Y

1 0 7 S

u g a n d h a w a l

V a l e r i a n a j a t a m

a n s i

P a n w a k p h u n g

0

3 5 0 0

0

0

1 0 0

1 0 8 S

u n g u r k a a n d e C i r s i u m v e r u t u m

C h i n g y a k m a

+ + +

2 0 0 0

8

5 2

5

6

1 0 9 T

a a t e s i m i

D o l i c h o s l a b l a b

K h e s e p a

+ + +

1 7 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

3

2

1 1 0 T

h a a d e u n y u

T h e l y p t e r i s a p p e n d i c u l o i d e s K a t e k w a

+ + +

1 2 0 0

0

1 2

7

2

Y

1 1 1 T

i l

S e s a m u m o r i e n t a l e

T h a n g

+ + +

1 1 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

5

6

1 1 2 T

i m u r

Z a n t h o x y l u m a r

m a t u m

M e a d h i n g

+ + +

9 0 0

1 0 0

1 6

1 0 0

1 1 3 T

i t e k a r e l a

M o r m o d i c a c h a

r a n t i a

T u k r u m s e

+ + +

1 0 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

3

2

1 1 4 T

i t e p h a p a r

F a g o p y r u m t a r t a r i c u m

K y a b o

+ + +

1 9 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

2

0

1 1 5 T

i t e p a t i

A r t e m i s i a i n d i c a

N a m y o b a

+ + +

1 2 0 0

0

8 0

1 0 0

1 1 6 T

o t a l a

O r o x y l u m i n d i c u m

N e p p h e

+ + +

1 3 0 0

0

6 0

7

2

1 1 7 T

u l a s i

O s i m u m s a n c t u m

M u c h o k l u n g

+ + +

1 0 0 0

0

9 2

9

2

1 1 8 U

l t e k u r o

A c h y r a n t h e s a s p e r a

A p l e

+ + +

1 2 0 0

0

8 0

2

4

1 1 9 Y

a r s a g u m b a

C o r d y c e p s i n e n s i s

Y a r s a g u m b a

0

4 0 0 0

0

0

1 0 0



4 4

T a b l e 4 . 2 W i l d p l a n t s u s e d f o r f o o d p

u r p o s e s

S . N .

V e r n a c u l a r n a m e


L i m b u n a m e

P l a n t p a r t

T y p e o f f o o d

1

A d e r i

R i c i n u s c o m m u n i s

K h u n g n a m a

F r u i t

O i l

2

A i n s e l u

R u b u s i n d i c a

T i n g s e k

F r u i t

F r u i t

3

B a d a h a r

A r t o c a r p u s l a k o o c h a

M u c h h e

F r u i t

F r u i t

4

B a n t a r u l


T a m p h u n g k h e

R

o o t

F o o d

5

B a a n s

D e n d r o c a l a m u s h a m i l t o n i i

P h a

R

o o t

V e g / P i c k l e

6

B h y a a g u r

D i o s c o r e a d e l t o i d e a

S u k h e

R

o o t

F o o d

7

C h i m p h i n g

H e r a c l e u m n e p a l e n s e

C h i m p h i n g

R

o o t

P i c k l e

8

C h i p l e

B o e h m e r i a s p .

T u r e m b a

B

u d

V e g e t a b l e

9

C h i u r i

M

a d h u c a b u t y r i c a

?

F r u i t

F r u i t

1 0

C h u t r o

B e r b e r i s a r i s t a t a

?

F r u i t

F r u i t

1 1

C h y a u

A g a r i c u s s p .

P a a t

W

h o l e b o d y

V e g e t a b l e

1 2

G a l g a l e

?

W a k d i

B

u d

V e g e t a b l e

1 3

G h o d a k h o r i

V i b u r n u m c y l i n d r i c u m

H a n g a n g s e

f r

u i t

O i l

1 4

J i m b u / d u n g d u n g e

A l l i u m h y p o s i s t u m

D u n g d u n g e

B

u d / l e a v e s

P i c k l e

1 5

G i t h t h a


S u k h e

R

o o t

F o o d

1 6

J h y a a u

P a r m e l i a s p .

Y a n g b e n

W

h o l e b o d y

V e g e t a b l e

1 7

K a a p h a l

M

y r i c a e s c u l e n t a

?

F r u i t

F r u i t

1 8

K a t u s

C a s t r a n o p s i s t r i b u l o i d e s

K h e c h i n g s e

F r u i t

F r u i t

1 9

K h a n a k p a


K h a n a k p a

F r u i t

P i c k l e

2 0

K h a r a a n e

S y m p l o c o s r a m o s i s s i m a

?

F r u i t

O i l

2 1

K h o l m e

S y m p l o c o s p y r i f o l i a

?

F r u i t

O i l

2 2

K i m b u

M

o r u s r u b r a

?

F r u i t

F r u i t

2 3

K o i r a a l o

B a u h i n i a p u r p u r e a

A g i b a

F l o w e r

V e g e t a b l e

2 4

M a l i n g o

T h a m n o c a l a m u s s p a t h i f l o r u s

M i k l a

F l o w e r

V e g e t a b l e

2 5

M a l l i d o

E l a e a g n u s i n f u n d i b u l a r i s

P i r i m a

F r u i t

F r u i t

2 6

S i s n u

U r t i c a d i o i c a

S a g i

l e

a f & b u d

V e g e t a b l e

2 7

T h o t n e

P o l y g o n u m s p .

P a y o

S h o o t s

V e g e t a b l e

2 8

T i m u r

Z a n t h o x y l u m a r m a t u m

M e d i n g

F r u i t

P i c k l e



4 5

T a b l e 4 . 3 P l a n t s u s e d f o r v e t e r i n a r y p

u r p o s e s

S . N . V



L i m b u n a m

e

P l a n t p a r t

D i s e a s e s

1

A

m l i s o

T h y s a n o l i n a m a x i m a

S e a l o

R o o t

W o r m

2

A

a r u

P r u n u s p e r s i c a

K h a m r e k

B u d

I n f e c t i o n

3

A

s a a r e p h u l

?

?

F l o w e r

H e m o r r h a g i c s e p t i c e m i a

4

B

a n j h a

Q u e r c u s l a n a

t a

?

B a r k

I n f e c t i o n

5

B

e s a a r

C u r c u m a a n g u s t i f o l i a

H a r a n d i

R h i z o m e

M a s t i t i s

6

B

h i r g a u l e

C o i x l a c h r y m

a j o b i

P h i n g i r i

R h i z o m e

W o r m

7

B

h u i n c h a m p a

K a e m p f e r i a r o t u n d a

K h a m c h a k

p h u n g

R h i z o m e

W o r m

8

B

h u i n k a t a h a r

A n a n a s c o m o

s u s

?

P a t

L i v e r f l u k e

9

B

o j h o

A c o r u s c a l a m

u s

L u p l a n g

R h i z o m e

T i c k

1 0 C

h a m l a y o

?

?

B a r k

B a b e s i o s i s / F r a c t u r e

1 1 C

h h e p a a r e u n y u

D r y m a r i a p r o p i n q u a

?

R h i z o m e

H e m o r r h a g i c s e p t i c e m i a / S w i n e

f e v e r

1 2 C

h h y a n g r e j h a a r

E q u i s e t u m s p e c i e s

M i k s u p s u p

P l a n t

B a b e s i o s i s

1 3 C

h i m p h i n g

H e r a c l e u m n e p a l e n s e

C h i m p h i n g

F r u i t

B l a c k Q u a r t e r

1 4 C

h i p l e

B o e h m e r i a s p e c i e s

T u i r e m b a

R o o t


1 5 C

h i u r i

M a d h u c a b u t y r i c a

I m s e w a

B a r k


1 6 G

a n j a

C a n a b i s s a t i v a

P i j y a

L e a f & B u d

D i a r r h e a

1 7 G

h o d t a p r e

C e n t e l l a a s i a

t i c a

S i d a s a k c h i

P l a n t

B a b e s i o s i s

1 8 H

a d a c h u d

V i s c u m a l b u m

K h e w a l a n g b a

P l a n t

F r a c t u r e

1 9 I n d r e n i

T r i c h o s a n t h e

s t r i c u s p i d a t a

S a y a

F r u i t

B a n j h o

2 0 K

a a g a t i

C i t r u s a u r a n t i f o l i a

L a r i m b a

F r u i t j u i c e

B a b e s i o s i s

2 1 K

h a n a k p a


K h a n a k p a

F r u i t

T i c k / D i a r r h e a / B l a c k Q u a r t e r

2 2 K

h a r


L i n g

R o o r

T i c k / D i a r r h e a / B l a c k Q u a r t e r

( c o n t i n u e d … . . )



4 6

T a b l e 4 . 3 P l a n t s u s e d f o r v e t e r i n a r y p

u r p o s e s ( … … . . c o n t i n u e d )

S . N . V e r n a c u l a r n a m e

S c i e n t i f i c n a

m e

L i m b u n a m e

P l a n t p a r t

D i s e a s e s

2 3

K i m b u

M o r u s r u b r a

W a k h y a g m a

R o o t

W o r m

2 4

K u r i l o

A s p a r a g u s r a c e m o s u s

N a k k h a m m a

R o o t

M a s t i t i s

2 5

L a a l c h a n

H i b i s c u s s a b

d a r i f f a

S u t s u t t e

C a l y x

D i a r r h e a

2 6

L a m p a a t e s u r t i

N i c o t i n u m t o

b a c u m

?

L e a f

D i a r r h e a

2 7

L a s u n

A l l i u m c e p a

M a k h k h o

B u l b

H e m o r r h a g i c s e p t i c e m i a

2 8

M a l i n g o

T h a m n o c a l a m u s s p a

M i k l a

?

L i v e r f l u k e

2 9

S u r t i

N i c o t i n a t a b a c u m

?

L e a f

T i c k

3 0

T i m u r

Z a n t h o x y l u m

a r m a t u m

M e k d i n g

F r u i t

T i c k

3 1

T i t i r i

T a m a r i n d u s

i n d i c a

?

F r u i t

L i v e r f l u k e

3 2

U k h u

S a c c h a r u m o

f f i c i n a r u m

S h o t

P l a n t

B a b e s i o s i s

T a b l e 4 . 4 P l a n t s u s e d f o r r e l i g i o u s p u r p o s e s

S . N . V

e r n a c u l a r n a m e S c i e n t i f i c n a m e

L i m b u n a m e

F a m i l y

U s e s

1

A

m l i s o

T h y s a n o l i a m a x i m a

S e a l o k

G r a m i n e a e

R i t u a l c y c l e

2

A

r a r i k a a n d a

M i m o s a r u b i c a l i s

S i d i n g b a

L e g u m i n a c e a e


3

B

a j r a t h

Q u e r c u s l a m e l l o

s a

K h i c h i n g s e

F a g a c e a e


4

B

h a l a a y o

R h u s j a v a n i c a

C h a i r e k

A n a c a r d i a c e a e


5

B

o j h o

A c o r u s c a l a m u s

L u p l a n g

A r a c e a e

I n s e c t i c i d e

6

B

u k i p h u l

A n a p h a l i s t r i p l i n e r v i s

S i r o g a k

C o m p o s i t a e


7

C

h i n d o

L a g e n a r i a c i c e r a r i a

P h u w a n t

C u c u r b i t a c e a e


8

C

h u w a

P l u m e r i a r u b r a

M a r o t i

A p o c y n a c e a e


9

D

h u p i

J u n i p e r u s r e c u r v a

S a n g e

C u p r e s s a c e a e


1 0 D

h y a n g r e s a l l a a

A r a u c a r i a b i d w

i l l i i

S a n g e s i n g

A r a u c a r a c e a e

W i t c h d o c t o r ’ s d r u m

1 1 D

u b o

C y n o d o n d a c t y l o n

S a m b o k

G r a m i n a e


( c o n t i n u e

d … . . )



4 7

T a b l e 4 . 4 P l a n t s u s e d f o r r e l i g i o u s p u r p o s e s ( … … . c o n t i n u e d )

S . N . V



L i m b u

n a m e

F a m i l y

U s e s

1 2 G

h o d a k h o r i

V i b u r n u m c y l i n d r i c u m

H a n g a n s e

S a m b h u c a c e a e


1 3 G

h u n g r i n g

N e y r a r i d i a m a d a g a s c a r i e n s i s

M u k t o

?


1 4 H

a r r o

T e r m i n a l i a c h e b u l a

H a n g a m

C h a m b r e t a c e a e

D y e

1 5 J

a m u n a

S y z y g i u m c u m i n i

C h a m u n

M a r t a c e a e


1 6 K

a i j a l

B i s c h o f i a j a

v a n i c a

M u k u m b a

E u p h o r b i a c e a e

D y e

1 7 K

a a u l o

P e r s e a o d o r a t i s s i m a

C h a m j i n g

L a u r a c e a e


1 8 K

e r a

M u s a p a r a d

i s i c a

T e l a s e

M u s a c e a e


1 9 K

h a m a a r i

G m e l i n a a r b o r e a

H a n g e s i n g

V e r b e n a c e a e

M u s i c a l I n s t r u m e n t

2 0 K

o i r a a l o

B a u h i n i a P u r p u r e a

A j i b a

L e g u m i n o c e a e

D y e

2 1 M

a j i t o

R u b i a m a n j i t h a

P a n d u

R u b i a c e a e

D y e

2 2 M

a l a b a n s

D e n d r o c a l a

m u s s t r i c t u s

L i s i n g

p h a

G r a m i n a e


2 3 M

a l i n g o


S e m i k l a

G r a m i n a e

M u s i c a l I n s t r u m e n t .

2 4 M

a u w a / M a h u a

E n g e l h a r d i a s p i c a t a

Y a k p a p m a

J u g l a n d a c e a e

D y e

2 5 M

u s u r e k a t u s

C a s t a n o p s i s t r i b u l o i d e s

S i g a p

F a g a c e a e


2 6 P

a i y u n

P r u n u s c e r a

s o i d e s

U m b h r u n g

R o s a c e a e


2 7 P

h a l e d o

E r y t h r i n a s t r i c t a

M a n g a

l o k

L e g u m i n o s a e

R i t u a l c y c l e / M u s i c

2 8 S

a k h u w a

S h o r e a r o b u s t a

S a s i n g

D i p t e r o c a r p a c e a

e


2 9 S

i l t i m u r

L i n d e r a n e e

s i a n a

W a r e k

p a

L a u r a c e a e


3 0 S

i m a l

B o m b a x c e i b a

T e n g o s i n g

B o m b a c a c e a e

M u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t

3 1 S

i m a l i

V i t e x n e g u n

d o

S i w a l i

V e r b i n a c e a e


3 2 S

i r u

I m p e r a t a c y

l i n d r i c a

N i n g

G r a m i n a e


3 3 T

i m u r

Z a n t h o x y l u m a r m a t u m

M e a d i n g

R u t a c e a e


3 4 T

i t e p a t i

A r t e m i s i a i n

d i c a

N a m y o b a

C o m p o s i t a e

R i t u a l c y c l e / I n s e c t i c i d e

3 5 T

o t a l a

O r o x y l u m i n d i c u m

N e p p h

e

B i g n o n i a c e a e


3 6 U

t t i s h

A l n u s n e p a l e n s i s

W a s o a

m a

B e t u l a c e a e

M u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t

3 7 ?

G a u l t h e r i a g r i f f i t h i a n a

S i n j a n g o

E r i c a c e a e




4 8

T a b l e 4 . 5 P l a n t s u s e d f o r m u r c h a p r e p a r a t i o n

S . N . V e r n a c u l a r n a m e s

S c i e n

t i f i c n a m e

L i m b u

N a m e

P l a n t p a r t s u s

e d

1

A b h i j a a l o

D r y m a r i a c o r d a t a

W a n a

W h o l e

2

A d u w a

Z i n g i b e r o f f i c i n a l e

H a m b e k

R h i z o m e

3

A n a r a s

A n a n a s c o m o s u s

?

L e a f

4

B h a t u

C l e r o d e n d r o n i n d i c u m

?

T e n d e r s h o o t

5

B h i m s e n p a a t i

B u d d l e j a a s i a t i c a

K h a y a

m m a

L e a f a n d t e n d

e r s h o o t

6

B u k i p h u l

A n a p h a l i s t r i p l i n e v i s

?

W h o l e

7

C h a a b o

P i p e r

c h a b a

C h a b o

W h o l e

8

C h h a t r e

I n u l a

s p e c i e s

?

W h o l e

9

C h i n i j h a a r

S c o p a

r i a d u l c i s

?

W h o l e

1 0

C h i t u

P l u m b a g o z e y l a n i c a

C h i t u

W h o l e

1 1

D h a e n r o

W o o d

f o r d i a f r u c t i c o s a

P a n g w

a r i

F l o w e r

1 2

D u d h e

I c h n o c a r p u s f r u c t e s c e n s

?

W h o l e

1 3

G a h a t e j h a a r

P o l y g

a l a a b y s s y n i c a

N e s s e l e k n a

W h o l e

1 4

G h o d t a a p r e

C e n t e

l l a a s i a t i c a

S i d a s a

k c h i

W h o l e

1 5

H i u n d e s i m i

D o l i c h o s l a b - l a b

P h e s e k

R o o t

1 6

K h a r e t o

S i d a a

c u t a

?

L e a f

1 7

K h u r s a a n i

C a p s i c u m s p e c i e s

M a c h c

h i

F r u i t s t a l k , l e a f a n d b a r k

1 8

K u r i l o

A s p a r

a g u s r a c e m o s u s

N a k k h

a m m a

R o o t

1 9

L a s u n p a a t e

O p h i o

p o g o n p a r v i f l o r u s

?

R o o t - t u b e r

2 0

L u i n c h e p h u l

P o l y g

a l a a r i l l a t a

K h e d e

i

R o o t - b a r k / f l o

w e r

2 1

L w a n g a t a

S p e r g

u l a a r v e n s i s

?

W h o l e

( c

o n t i n u e d … . )



4 9

T a b l e 4 . 5 P l a n t s u s e d f o r m u r c h a p r e p a r a t i o n ( … … … c o n t i n u e d )

S . N . V e r n a c u l a r n a m e s

S c i e n

t i f i c n a m e

L i m b u

N a m e

P l a n t p a r t s u s

e d

2 2

M a h a g a a g r o

C l e m a t i s g r e w i a e f l o r a

P i p i c h a k

W h o l e

2 3

M a r i c h

P i p e r

n i g r u m

?

W h o l e

2 4

M e w a

C a r i c a p a p a y a

N u p s e

R o o t

2 5

M u l a a p a a t e

E l e p h

a n t o p u s s c a b e r

?

R o o t

2 6

N i g h a r e

V e r n o

n i a s p e c i e s

?

W h o l e

2 7

O k h a r

J u g l a n s r e g i a

K h e s i k

B a r k

2 8

P h u l a a n g e

V e r n o

n i a c i n e r i a

?

W h o l e

2 9

P i p l a

P i p e r

l o n g u m

?

W h o l e

3 0

P i r e j h a a r

S p i l a n t h u s a c m e l l a

?

W h o l e

3 1

P i r e u n y u

C h r i s t e l l a a p p e n d i c u l a t a

?

T e n d e r l e a f

3 2

R u k h k a t a h a r

A r t o c a r p u s h e t e r o p h y l u s

P h e n a

F r u i t s t a l k , l e a f a n d b a r k

3 3

T i t e

I c h n o c a r p u s s p e c i e s

?

R o o t b a r k

3 4

U n y u

P t e r i d

i u m r e v o l u t u m

K a a t e k w a

T e n d e r l e a f

3 5

?

E l e p h

a n t o p u s s p e c i e s

A n g l a h l e n a

W h o l e

3 6

?

G e n i o

s p o r u m c o l o r a t u m

S e n g r e n g

T e n d e r s h o o t

a n d f l o w e r

3 7

?

P o l y g

a l a t r i p h y l a

P u l u k n a

W h o l e

3 8

?

P o l y g

a l a s p e c i e s

A n g t e l l e k

W h o l e



50

97

3766

Unavailable

Scarce

Moderate

Profuse

Fig. 4.1 Availability of medicinal plants in Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC (2007)

The bar diagram (Fig. 4.2) gives an overall knowledge status of the interviewees onmedicinal properties of the plants tabulated in Table 4.1. The bar diagram may requirea brief explanation here. The x-axis gives the grouping of interviewees based on the

‘yes’ response in percentage (out of 25 interviewees). The y-axis gives thecorresponding % of medicinal plants from Table 4.1.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1-10 11-20 21-20 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

% Agreement on medicinal use (25 respondents)

% o

f p l a n t s ( o u t o f 1 1 9 )

Fig. 4.2 Intensity of the use of plants for medicinal purpose

Thus, there is 91-100% agreement on the medicinal importance of about 30% of plants in the list. From the same graph, it can be seen that only 1-10% of therespondents agree on the medicinal importance of about 2.5% of plants in the list. Thelower degree of agreement does not necessarily imply that the plants in question havelower efficacy or are of dubious value. It could as well mean that knowledge about themedicinal use of these plants have eroded overtime. In the same light, higher degreeof concordance does not necessarily mean that the plant in question is highlymedicinal. The popularity could merely be due to ready availability, or even rarity.

For instance, everyone knew about yarsagumba (Cordycep sinensis), which is notavailable in region.



51

4.3 Statistical Analysis

It has been found in similar work that abundance (ready availability) of plants in thevicinity is correlated with the frequency of use for medicinal purpose (Casagrande,2003). However, the present study did not show such an association between thevariables in the underlying population (r s = -0.261, df = 117, adjusted for ties = -0.414,P < 0.001, t Approximation = -4.91). Table 4.1 was used for correlation analysisutilizing Spearman’s ranked correlation (Payne et al ., 2006). The table shows that

people have significant information on unavailable plants also. This indicates to the possibility that rarity of the plant is associated with medicinal value.

The same analysis for knowledge on food use showed some degree of association(r s = 0.206, df = 57, adjusted for ties -0.06, P = 0.615, t Approximation = -0.51).Medicinal plants with no known food use were omitted in the test, thereby giving only61 pairs of samples.

As will be discussed in the subsequent section, people often tend to associate particular appearance and other sensory attributes of plants to medicinal properties.For instance, bitterness is associated with febrifuge property (e.g., chiraito and

bikhma). Alkaline and sour tastes are associated with stomachic property. Thesefindings are in accordance with those of Casagrande (2003) and Pieroni and Torry(2007). The latter workers mention that taste retains an importance in determiningemic medicinal perceptions of the botanicals.

Murcha plants generally tend to be sweeter in taste. The sweet taste is due to simplesugars. It is explicable at this point that murcha plants support the growth and

proliferation of yeasts and molds by providing readily assimilable sugars. This impliesthat only select plants can serve as a habitat for murcha flora. This assumption is alsosupported by the earlier works (KC et al ., 1999) that there are only select plants that

can serve as habitat for murcha flora.

4.4 Knowledgebase on Biodiversity and Ecology

It is known that floral diversity in any particular location depends on habitatmanipulation, endemism, and microclimatic conditions. Sharp variation in elevationover short distance also has a material influence on the floral diversity.

The knowledge on biodiversity and ecology was found to be eroding slowly. Mostinformants had only a feeble memory of what their predecessors would do or say intimes of natural disasters.

The key informants of Chokmagu VDC remember planting plenty of banana trees inthe kitchen garden as a precautionary measure against fire. Throwing chopped bananastems over the conflagration is considered a very effective means of controlling thefire, especially in places where water is scarce. The practice of keeping hay and driedfodders (which catch fire easily) at some distance from the house is another

prophylactic measure. It was relieving to find that the natives do not remember anyfire disaster in the recent years.

Flash floods and erosion are the major abiotic problems facing farmers in uplandslopes of hills. Attempts are made to control them by constructing stone dikes on the

banks of the rivulets in a traditional way. Terracing and mini dike construction iswidely practiced to conserve topsoil and increase fertility, and these have been in

practice from eons past. They are fully aware that landslides and erosion can becontrolled by planting shrubs and trees, especially bamboo ( Bambusa and



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Dendrocalamus spp.) and simali (Vitex negundo). Planting amliso (Thysanolina

maxima) is more popular these days but had been in practice from ages.

The use of simali, bamboo and amliso for controlling erosion is well documented. Inaddition, simali has a number of medicinal and insecticidal uses (Chadha, 1976). This

plant is generally a host to sunlahara (Cuscuta reflexa). The leaves of simali arearomatic and are considered tonic and vermifuge. The extracts from the leaves contain2 alkaloids (nishindine and hydrocotylene) and many other bioactive components thatendow the plant with medicinal properties (Chadha, 1976). The plant is alsoconsidered analgesic. Leaves are applied externally to reduce arthritic pain. A leafdecoction brings the uterus to normal size after delivery. The seeds are used to correctskin disorders (IRRI, 1994).

In the recent years, Chokmagu VDC is experiencing unprecedented landslides at some places. We observed the some lengths of kaccha road (motorable in the winter)leading to the VDC slowly sliding down. In some places, the condition is very severe(the road has dropped down by as much as 10 m). There is very little the villagers can

do to prevent this because the whole ridge seems to be spontaneously inching its waydownward. Most probably, the construction of the road might have destabilized themost sensitive spot of the ridge, which catalyzed the landslide.

Subsistence agriculture is widely practiced. The production system is based on anintegration of agricultural and livestock activities and this allows a somewhat rationaluse of the soil capabilities in a sustainable way. The natives have an average farm sizeof 0.5-0.75 ha and family members carry out most farm operations. They haveadopted mixed farming, crop rotation, and planting multipurpose trees. In some

places, swidden agriculture is also followed but this is being restricted because of theemergence of community forests. Maize, rice, and millet are the major cereals. We

came to know that only the local varieties of maize, millet and rice are being used.More than 1836 varieties of rice germplasms have been registered in Nepal. There are4 wild types of rice. Nepal is the only place where rice plantation is carried out in

places that are from 70 m to 2850 m masl. In Nepal, more than 50 improved ricevarieties have been released but only about 20 varieties are widely grown in thecountry. Rice varieties that have been developed for the hills need to be introduced inthese areas also. Maize is the major crop, with its usage in food, beverage, feed andseed approximately 54, 24, 16, and 1%. The rest (4%) is sold or bartered. Maizecontributes to about 46% of food grain. Maize is planted in ‘bari’ (slopes) as well as‘khet’ (terraced plots for rice) with pre-monsoon rains. Maize planting in bari isusually relayed with millet, potato and other crops.

The modern concept of biodiversity conservation has not fully permeated the regions.Although they seem to understand how environment is being constantly degraded byhuman activities, they could not relate biodiversity with environment andsustainability. Although oblivious of the far-reaching consequences of biodiversity,the villagers were found doing things their own way to conserve the localenvironment. They set up religious forests such as ‘Raniban’ and sacred places suchas ‘Devithan’ (altar for worshipping deity). They have a very strong belief that thesereligious areas should not be defiled. According to some of the informants, the naturaldrinking water source is guarded by ‘nag’ (serpent God). Anyone who defiles thewater source (e.g., by defecating, urinating, etc.) will not escape the wrath of the

serpent God. This belief, be it a superstition, is serving a good purpose by guardingthe water source against contamination. Drying up of drinking water sources was



53

observed in several wards of both Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC. People believe thatthis is due to cemented (concrete) structures (reservoir). How natural ponds are moresustainable than the cemented structures is still unclear but the natives believe that‘paniko mool’ (water source) tends to shift upon such interventions.

During the interviews, particularly in Chokmagu VDC, women were found to possessan astounding wealth of knowledge about medicinal plants and their use, oftensurpassing their male counterpart. It appears that the patrilocal residence system has arole to play in the transmission of traditional knowledge by women. It is known thatwomen very avidly distribute/share among themselves plant seeds and knowledge.

These days, cardamom- and tea plantation are growing very popular in Chokmagu andRanitar VDC, According to personal communication with the head master of a localschool, Ranitar VDC was the first to carry out tea plantation in Panchthar district on acommercial scale. Cardamom plantation is more intensive in Ranitar VDC and thishas been a major source of cash income for these people. Shady ravines and gulliesthat would otherwise have no use are being intensively used for cardamom farming.

Dikes have been constructed to control the flow of water, which in turn have helpedcontrol landslide and erosion. We did not observe any ecological imbalance due tocardamom farming. The respondents said that they not yet observed ecologicaldisturbances due to tea and cardamom plantation. It may be too early to say thatthings will remain this way for a long time, given the expansion of cardamom and tea

plantation still taking place. At this time, tea, cardamom, ginger, lemongrass andcinnamon produced in these areas (under Kanchanjungha Tea Estate) have beencertified by National Association of Sustainable Agriculture, Australia (NASAA) asorganic. This implies that a very heavy emphasis is being given in indigenousmethods of plant nutrition.

Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used in modest amounts (when available) inother crops. When used appropriately, this will contribute to intensive farming,without much environmental effects. Indiscriminate use must be discouraged, as thiswill not only degrade the environment but also affect the entire trophic levels. Someforms of integrated pest management do exist but this has to be intensified further toreduce the chemical inputs.

Integrated pest management is widespread in both the VDCs. People use biopesticidessuch as titepati ( Artemisia indica), bojho ( Acorus calamus), stinging nettle or sisnu(Urtica dioica), neem ( Azadirachta indica), etc., to protect their seeds during storage.Wood ash and cow urine or dung slurry is sometimes used on the standing crop. Mostgrain storage structures they use have a remarkable scientific basis. Storage of maizecobs in ‘thankro’ (stacks), for example, has been scientifically proved to be moreefficient than any other methods available in the rural setting. This is a very goodmethod to prevent grains from going moldy. Moldy grains have the risk of developingaflatoxin, a potent carcinogenic toxin that brought a death toll of 106 people in Indiain 1974.

Acorus calamus has been used worldwide in the form of medicine (for cough, motionsickness, ulcer, etc.). However, recent researches on Acorus calamus of the Indian

subcontinent have shown that it contains β-asarone, a component that can causecancer. The FDA (Food and Drug Association) has therefore put a ban on the use this

plant (or its parts) as food additive. The plant (rhizome) can be used in the

preservation of grains (e.g., wheat, maize), particularly against the weevils, Sitophilus



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species in particular (Paudyal, 2005). Given the carcinogenic property of the plant, itsuse should be limited to the preservation of seed grain only (not food grain).

The effects of titepati on caterpillars have been studied by Yamazaki et al (2004) andthe results are encouraging. In fact Japanese have been doing work on titepati in

Nepal since the establishment of Titepati Promotion and Research Center (TPRC) in2001 (Anon, 2003). Chanphen et al (1998) have shown the presence of several

bioactive compounds (e.g., exiguaflavone A and B, mackiain, and benzofuranderivatives). Exiguaflavone A and B have antimalarial properties.

The use of neem as a pesticide is well established. Its extract has been shown to beactive against some 65 worms. The mode of action is very varied. Depending on theworm, it inhibits molding (of larva), mating, chitin (exoskeleton) formation, andswallowing. A range of bioactive components have been isolated from neem but themost potent component is azadirachtin A (Laura and Martin, 1996).

The effects of Urtica extracts on aphids have been studied (Gaspari et al ., 2007) butthe effect of sisnu (Urtica dioica) in particular is not very encouraging. The traditionaluse of sisnu in grain protection might have stemmed from the sting that this plantgives. The painful sensation in the sting has been attributed to the presence of formicacid, serotonin, choline and histamine. Today, this plant is being used in commercialmedications for the treatment of a range of illnesses such as seasonal allergies,rhinitis, sinusitis, arthritis, high blood pressure, and hair loss (Anon, 2008).

Application of farmyard manure (FYM) is the most important soil fertilitymanagement practice farmers’ use. They make considerable effort to increase FYM

by collecting jungle foliage and composting it with dung. Green manuring (directly orindirectly) by sowing local legumes and botanicals is also carried out. Kalo dal (Vigna

mungo), bhatmas (Glycine max), masyam (Vigna umbellata), etc., are intercropped

with rice by planting them on the mini-dikes. Ghansi (Sesbania aculeata) is alsogrown for green manuring. Moisture conservation and weed control are achieved bymulching, hoeing, etc., in a traditional way. Intensive farming has not reached its limitand there is ample scope for improving the output. Encouraging intensive farming,coupled with integrated pest management is required to avoid ploughing of additionalhectares of land for feeding the ever-growing population (McNicoll, 2000). This is notonly sustainable but also environment-friendly and thus has to be encouraged. AsBhowmik (2000) puts it, the economic losses (in developing countries) account for33% of the total losses due to pests, followed by 26% by pathogens, and 20% byinsects. Recent estimates show that average crop yield reductions (worldwide) due toweeds vary from 12% to 72% depending on the crop. Much can therefore be donethrough integrated pest management.

Depending on the crop, farmers in the study site were also found to adopt minimum-tillage and no-tillage cropping. This system, called ‘conservation tillage’, has beenconsidered very effective in saving top soil from erosion elements. Besides protectingthe top soil, this method also saves rivers and water supplies from vast amount of

pollution by natural contaminants and chemical inputs.

Chokmagu has no community forests but planting and nurturing of essential trees (forfodder, fruits and a host of other purposes) is very common. In Ranitar VDC, there are2 community forests and some Community Forest User Groups (CFUG). Althoughthe concept of community forest has an element of modern science, the traditionalmanagement practice has been greatly emphasized and respected.



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The contribution of plants to rural economy is obvious. Plants provide food, fodder, building materials, medicines, and cash. Cardamom, tea, fruits, ginger, vegetables,and jadibuti are the major source of plant-based income. Their trade provides bothwage and self employment. Some of the important jadibuti that are commerciallytraded in these sites are majito ( Rubia majitha), pakhanbhed ( Bergenia ciliata),

chiraito (Swertia chirayita), and bojho ( Acorus calamus). Details regarding theircontribution to the rural economy could not be assessed because of the lack of data.Middlemen still operate as the ‘necessary evils’ between the farmgate and the largescale collectors.

The natives are also involved in many value-addition activities (of agricultural produce). Preparation of ‘sinki’ and ‘grundruk’ (fermented vegetable products) in theglut season, preparation and sale of local alcoholic beverages (jand and raksi,described elsewhere), collection and sale of murcha plants, preparation and sale ofmurcha, etc., are some of the important value-addition activities that havesignificantly contributed to the rural economy. Murcha trade is a very lucrative

business. The collection, use, and sale of murcha plants (plants that are used as aningredient in murcha making) are taking an unsustainable form these days.Overharvesting has occurred in some places, putting at stake the floral diversity ofmurcha plants (there are some 40 species of murcha plants) as well as the livelihoodof the dependents. A serious study is needed to address this problem.

4.5 Use of Botanicals is Traditional Medicine

The responses on the use of different plants or their parts for the treatment of diseasesare as follows:

Stomachache

Stomachache is the most common ailment in the region. Two informants had no ideaabout what to do in stomachache. A few respondents said that they used chimphing(fruit part of Heracleum wallichii, Appendix-III, Fig. A-III.3). Most of therespondents said that they resorted to ‘dhami-jhankri’ (witch-doctor). The knowledgegap in the treatment of stomachache is explicable because stomachache results fromvarious reasons and no single medication is applicable in all cases. Under suchcircumstances, the trial-and-error used by the natives cannot be expected to produceresults that can be easily generalized.

Fever

Most informants said that they use chiraito (Swertia chirayita) infusion (obtained by

boiling in hot water). This treatment is effective against headache also. A few themsaid that they use timur ( Zanthoxylum armatum) oil. This finding suggests that thereexists a void in the transmission/dissemination of traditional knowledge. The differentviews regarding the treatment are natural because fever results from different reasons,ranging from food poisoning to flue. People seemed to relate persistent bitterness of

plants to cure for fever. An informant at Chokmagu VDC showed me a plant called‘budhi okhana’ (Appendix-III, Fig. A-III.1) whose extract could cure fever. The plantis very bitter in taste. The scientific identification of the plant could not be possible.

Today, several literatures on the active components of these plants are available.Chiraito is credited with tonic-, febrifuge-, laxative-, stomachic, anthelmintic-, and

hypoglycemic properties. This plant contains several bitter principles like ophelicacid, chiratin (glucoside), amarogentin (glucoside), and swerchirin as the active



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component (Anon, 2002). The preparations from this plant are under GRAS(Generally Recognized as Safe) list of the FDA (Food and Drug Administration). In

Nepal, this plant (unprocessed) is used for the treatment of fever and malaria (Anon,2006). Timur (bark, fruit and seeds) is extensively used in indigenous system ofmedicine as a carminative, stomachic and anthelmintic. It can also be used in fever

and dyspepsia. Essential oil of the fruit contains linalool, linalyl acetate, citral,geranoil, methyl cinnamate, limonene and sabinene, which probably account for itsantiseptic properties (Chadha, 1976).

Fracture

A number of items were named by the respondents for the treatment of fracture, viz.,mahuwa /mauwa ( Engelhardia spicata) bark, honey, eggs, milk, mistletoe orhadchoor (also spelt harchur, hadchud, Fig. A-IV.3) (Viscum album), pakhanbhed(also spelt pakhanved or pasanabhed, Fig. A-IV.2) ( Bergenia ciliata), horsetail or‘sallibisalli’/ghodpuchre ( Equisetum sp.), bhuinchampa ( Kaempferia rotunda),chamlayo (?) bark, and snails. The information given by the respondents were based

on hearsay. They were not themselves bone setters. As can be seen from the casestudy (Section 4.5) with the bone setters, the ingredients mentioned by the informantsof Focus Group Discussion do not necessarily match with those mentioned by the

bone setters themselves. This shows that the distribution of knowledge is not uniformamong the natives. The consumption of milk can be related to supply of calciumnecessary of the regeneration of bone tissue.

Information on active ingredients from some of the above plants is available.Sallibisalli (ghodpuchhre) is known to contain salicic acid, nicotine, palustrine,

palustridine, sterols and malic acid. These ingredients have antimicrobial, antiseptic,and anti-inflamatory effects. These properties become important in the treatment of

bone fracture.Researches show that pakhanbhed rhizomes contain an active principle, bergenin. It

also contains gallic acid, glucose, mucilage/wax, β-sitosterol and four flavonoids. Thedrug is reported to possess astringent tonic-, antiscorbutic-, and laxative properties. Itis given in pulmonary infection, dysentery, ulcers, dysuria, spleen enlargement, coughand fever. It also helps dissolve kidney stone (Anon, 2002). A recent research byRajbhandari et al (2007) has shown that methanolic extracts of Bergenia ciliata rhizomes have antiviral properties (against influenza virus A). There relevance ofthese properties in the treatment of fracture is not very clear.

Traditional medicinal uses of hadchoor bark have been mentioned by various authors

(Widmann et al ., 203; Bishokarma et al ., 2001) but details on its chemicalcomposition and active ingredients are not available.

Bhuinchampa tubers are used as local application in tumors, swellings and wounds.They are also stomachic and given in stomach complaints. Rhizomes and leaves areused for flavoring (Chadha, 1976).

Dental problem

All the interviewees named clove oil and timur oil as the most effective treatment.Other options included latex from saruwa kadam ( Jatropha curcas), extracts fromkaalo unyu rhizome (Tectaria macrodonta), neem, pakhanbhed, pire jhaar (Spilanthes

acmella), tulasi (Osimum sanctum), and guava bark. Additional details on medicinalaspects of these plants have been mentioned earlier in Section 2.2.1 Some informantsmentioned of ‘tantrik’ (casting spells) treatment also. Traditionally, it is believed that



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toothache is due to worms and the latter can be removed by a combination of tantrikmethod and medication. However, people of this region do not have much dental

problem.

Epistaxis (nosebleed)

This condition occurs occasionally, and there are several reasons leading to thiscondition. Minor irritation and rupture of small veins of the septum of the nose are themain reasons. These veins may rupture spontaneously, or the rupture may be caused

by a cough or sneeze that raises the blood pressure inside the veins of the nose. Peopledrop extracts from dubo (Cynodon dactylon) or titepati ( Artemisia indica) into thenostrils for stopping the nosebleed. It is common to plug the nostrils with rolled leavesof titepati to clot the blood. Some informants mentioned that they rub soot from themud (or stone) tripod of traditional firewood stove on the forehead. The details ofreactions that may/may not take place when plant extracts are administered are asubject of further study (except that they have proven antiseptic property) but the useof soot appears to have a psychological role. It is obvious that plugging of the nostril

with rolled leaves provides counter pressure and stops bleeding. The components oftitepati have been mentioned earlier (Section 4.4).

The use of dubo in cuts and wounds by Bantar community of Morang district of Nepalhas been mentioned by Acharya and Pokhrel (2006), which shows that this plant can

be used for other purposes also. Chopra et al (1986) have mentioned that a decoctionof the root is diuretic. The infusion is also useful in stopping bleeding from piles andtreatment of fresh cuts and wounds.

Scabies

People use juice squeezed from titepati ( Artemisia indica), bojho ( Acorus calamus), or

angeri ( Lyonia ovalifolia) shoots. Angeri is a very potent medicine but it gives anintense burning sensation. For the sensitive ones, treatment with angeri can be veryagonizing and therefore care must be taken during its administration. According to the

people, angeri is simply an absolute medicine for scabies. Scabies is a contagious skindisease caused by itch mite (Sacroptes scabiei). The disease is characterized byintense itching. To counteract this itching, people resort to the above mentioned most

painful phytochemical alternatives. Modern treatments of scabies involve topicalapplication of lotions containing permethrin and lindane.

The active components bojho and the associated implications have been mentionedearlier (Section 4.4). The use of angeri buds in the treatment of skin diseases andexternal parasites have been mentioned by Chadha (1976), Manandhar (2002) and

Chopra et al (2005) also but the active components responsible for this are stillelusive. According to Chadha (1976), the leaves contain a toxic substance,andromedotoxin, and are insecticidal, and this may be responsible for the antiparasitic

property.

Wart

Wart is a benign tumor caused by papilloma virus. In modern treatments, it can beremoved by surgical method, burning with electric needle, etc. People of the study siteuse juice obtained by crushing ‘kagekira’ ( potato leaf hopper ). A small lesion is madearound the wart and the juice applied. Within a few days, the tissue supporting thewart gets septic and the wart subsequently falls off. The principle here is the decayingof tissues at the foot of the wart. However, care must be taken not to aggravate the



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sepsis. Some people mentioned using murcha. When scientifically viewed, this alsodoes the same work of bringing about sepsis.

Burns

Many natives have heard about use of ghiu kumari ( Aloe vera), and some of them use

it. Babari (Ocimum basilicum) juice, harro (Terminalia chebula) oil, Ghoda khori( Lyonia ovalifolia) oil and ranikhel or saruwa kadam ( Jatropha curcas) sap are alsoused. A few informants told that they dip the affected portion in ‘raksi’ (a local,distilled alcoholic beverage). Tantrik method is also used to speed up the recovery.The use of Aloe vera is prevalent in other regions of Nepal also and it appears that the

practice is not indigenous to the study site. These medicines may have chemicals thetopical application of which may lessen the pain or hasten the healing but this needsfurther study to validate it. The dipping in alcohol may serve two functions, viz., as a

pain reliever (local anesthesia) and disinfectant.

As such, the origin of Aloe vera is believed to be in the Mediterranean region. This plant has a viscid gel in the interior of the leaf and a yellow liquid between the leafand the gel. In modern practice, the gel is used for skinburn and cuts, the yellow

portion is used as a potent laxative, and the leaf is used to prepare a range ofmedicines.

There are more than 800 publications about the Aloe vera and research is going on tothis day. Among other things, carbohydrates termed veracylglucan B and C have beenfound to be very bioactive. Veracylglucan B is anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic,antibacterial and antiviral. Veracylglucan C is anti-inflammatory and cell proliferative(Eusa, 2006).

Saruwa kadam seeds possess poisonous and purgative properties. However, they are

rarely used as purgative. The toxic principles of the seeds are curcine and curcasin (atoxalbumin resembling ricine) with nauseating and purgative properties. The twigyields a translucent sap and this is reported to relieve toothache and strengthen gums.Rural people often use twigs from this plant for brushing teeth (Chadha, 1976).

Chadha (1976) has mentioned several uses of babari. The oil is used in food products, perfumes, etc. It is also effective against mosquitoes, houseflies, and bacteria. The plant is stomachic, anthelmintic, expectorant, and antipyretic. The infusion is used forgargle for foul breath, nasal douche, throat irritation, and ringworm.

Jaundice

Jaundice results from various conditions, but all of which stem from the health of the

liver. The tantrik method of treatment is very rife. They also follow a strict dietregimen. The patients are encouraged to drink black sugarcane juice and eat a lot of

papaya. This is justifiable because the liver is weak and easily assimilable forms offoods are needed under these conditions. The ‘functional ingredients’ found in thesefoods may well play complex and synergistic role in speeding up the recovery. Thereis growing interest in the scientific community on functional foods but theinformation is still fragmentary. Besides diet regimen, they also administer juice ofsunlahara or amarlata (Cuscuta reflexa) and aqueous extracts of ban ghiraula(Trichosanthes cucumerina) in modest doses. Some were found to be using totala(Oroxylum indicum) bark. This item has also been mentioned by Ramdev (a yogaguru from India).



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Most parts of totala find use in traditional medicine (Chadha, 1976). Root bark istonic and astringent, and is used in diarrhea and dysentery. The stem and root barkcontain three flavones (oroxylin A, baicalein, and chrysin), which may be responsiblefor the medicinal value. Tender shoots and flowers are considered a delicacy by some

people.

Sunlahara is a yellow-colored epiphytic plant that finds an important place inayurveda. It is used in bilious disorders (Chopra, 1986), protracted fever, and as

purgative (Chopra, 1986; Manandhar, 2002). The use of this plant in the treatment of jaundice may have relation to the sensory property of this plant, namely, the goldencolor. Recently, Muhammad Ali (2004) has carried out a very extensive study on thecomponents of sunlahara, in which 26 components were isolated (1 new and 25known). The author has also discussed the anticancer properties of some of thesecomponents.

The tantrik method is simply an illusion, as we saw some of the healers performing. In practice, the healer takes a brass cup half-filled with cooking oil. He chants mantra

and swings a small bunch of dubo (submerged in the oil) until a lumpy mass isformed. The healer considers formation of lump (which is nothing but an emulsion) asthe successful extraction of the jaundice (also called ‘gayo’). People mention ofoccasional argument between the gayo healer and allopathic health personnel on thetantrik method. Thus, the tantrik method is only a psychological one. However, onemust not forget that psychology has a very great effect on the well being of humans.

According to Chadha (1976) the root of ban ghiraula is used as a cure for bronchitis,headache, and boils. Both root and fruit are considered cathartic. Leaves are used in

biliousness.

Dysentery

The natives, especially of Chokmagu VDC use budhi okhona (?) and pakhandbhed( Bergenia ciliata). The medicine is masticated like betel nut. Dysentery as we know isa condition of food poisoning caused by bacteria. The oral administration of theabove-mentioned herbs may have actions similar to antibiotics that are used to combatdysentery. In Ranitar, they use lalchan or belchanda ( Hibiscus sabdariffa), andrhizomes of kaalo unyu / kaalo nigure (Tectaria macrodonta). Lalchan can be eaten assuch but the rhizomes of kaalo nigure are first rubbed on a stone with some water andslurry that results is taken orally.

Among other things, belchanda contains gossypetin, hibiscin, anthocyanins, pecticsubstances, vitamin C and many other organic acids (Duke, 1983). Elsewhere, this

plant is used for numerous therapeutic purposes, ranging from the treatment ofallergic eczemas to the control of inflammation. The extracts are reported to belaxative, antibacterial, and antifungal.

Other plant-based medicines reported to be used in both the VDCs are guava ( Psidium

guajava) bark and ‘mehel chook’ (concentrate of Pyrus pashia juice).

Recent researches show that guava contains more than 20 identified components from

leaves, β-selinene, guajavarin, quercetin (and a number of flavonoids), to name a few.Reports validate that quava leaf and bark extracts can be effective againsthypertension and diarrhea (Belemtougri, 2006)

On the whole, people were found to relate acidic or alkaline taste of plants (or their parts) with the treatment of dysentery.



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Altitude sickness

Although not very common, people were familiar with altitude sickness. According tothem, chewing ginger or eating saatu (flour prepared from roasted corn) can be

beneficial in altitude sickness.

TonsillitisTonsillitis, incorrectly called ‘tonsil’ by the natives, is the inflammation of tonsils ofthe mouth, caused by either bacteria or virus, which makes the throat very sore andcan lead to fever and ear ache. The natives believe that chewing corn seed is

beneficial in tonsil. Abhijaalo (Limbu name: wana or varanthungna) ( Drymaria

diandra) can also be chewed to soothe the pain. These medicines most probably work by destroying/inhibiting the causative organisms, much like the antibiotics used inallopathic treatment.

Modern treatments involve administration of antibiotics for acute tonsillitis andsurgical treatment (tonsillectomy) for recurrent tonsillitis. Ding et al (2005) have

discussed the presence of 3 cyclic peptides and 4 flavone glucosides (drymareatin A,B, C, and D) in abhijaalo plant. The plant is also used by the Chinese in the treatmentof acute hepatitis (Ding et al ., 2005).

Sinusitis

Sinusitis is a skull disease that occurs due to inflammation (caused by bacterialinfection) of the membrane lining a sinus of the skull. This problem is not verycommon but they know what to use in its treatment. A plant called haachhyun jhaar( Dichrocephala integrifolia) is very popular but this is not a permanent remedy. The

plant induces sneezing, which temporarily relieves the condition. Some people alsosaid that they administer juice of ban ghiraula (Trichosanthes cucumerina) through

the nostrils (Section 2.2.1). Hot salt water was reported to stabilize the complication.

In modern therapy, acute sinusitis is treated with antibiotics but chronic sinusitis isdifficult to eradicate.

Boils/Abscess

Boils result from staphylococcal infection beneath the skin. In the survey, it wasfound that people deliberately made boils more septic by topically applying extractsfrom freshwater shrimps called ‘jhinge machha’ ( Machrobrachium sp.), murcha, etc.Sometimes paste prepared from amliso (Thysanolina maxima) roots is also used.Bringing about septic condition fills the boils with pus and can be easily squeezed out.

Although this method is risky, particularly for immuno-compromised subjects, peopleseem to have no other alternatives. The septic boils are poked with hard thorns orsharp glass chips to rupture them. The pus is then slowly squeezed out. This practiceappears to be somewhat acceptable compared to using non-sterile needles or similarmaterials.

Piles

People have heard eating meat of common mynah called ‘ruppi’ ( Acridoheres tritis)and ‘kalchundo’( Myiophoneus caeruleus) (both are birds) but no one seemed to havetested it. Some people narrated the hearsay that raw blood of deer can be beneficial. Afew people mentioned use of harro (Terminalia chebula). Some people even

mentioned drinking of ‘raksi’ made from fox meat. Since these methods are hardlyused by the people, it does not appear sensible to direct research in it. At any rate,



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modern science attributes piles to several factors such as stress, constipation, pregnancy, and so forth. The treatments include, among other things, control overdiet, improvement in sitting habit, and use of medications that keep stool soft.Whether or not the above mentioned items have relation to this fact needs furtherstudy.

Harro (also called harra) seeds are extensively used in medicinal and non-medicinaluses. The most important non-medicinal use is in tannery. A good number ofliteratures are available regarding its processing. The seed flesh is rich in tannin(mainly chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, and corilagin). The fruit is credited withlaxative, stomachic, tonic, and alterative properties. The main purgative ingredient oftriphala (a well-known Indian ayurvedic medicine) is harro.

Snake bite

People use black bikhma ( Aconitum spicatum syn bisma) as the primary aid. Bitinggarlic ( Allium wallichi) and sucking out of blood from the wound is a very effectivefirst aid. Some people mentioned of quasi-universal tourniquets with lachha (artificialhair braid extension) or siru ( Imperata cylindrica). Although this tourniquetalternative appears sound, it is strongly discouraged by most experts on the groundsthat it increases local complication by increasing tissue anoxia (oxygen deficiency)and triggering severe systemic envenoming (increasing poisoning) right after itsremoval. Garlic and bikhma may be effective as an antitoxin (though not exactly likean anti-snake venom serum, ASVS). Sucking out of blood from the affected areaseems logical but may be dangerous. The tying of upstream part with flexible cord isvery logical as it delays the spread of toxin. Success stories were also narrated but wewould like to take these reports with some reservation because only about 22 of the 77species of snakes found in Nepal are really poisonous enough to take our life (Sharma

et al ., 2004).Bikhma contains five diterpene alkaloids: palmatiscine, vakognavine, vakatisine,vakatisinine, and vakatidine. The root is intensely bitter (like quinine). It is effectiveagainst bowel pains, diarrhea and vomiting. It can be externally used for rheumatismand cuts or wounds (Chadha, 1976). A number of plants from Aconitum genus are

poisonous. Some contain pseudaconitine (a potent neurotoxic alkaloid). Aconitine iseasily absorbed through skin and poisoning may occur through this route simply by

picking the leaves. Therefore, care must be taken in identifying only the correct plant.

Allium wallichi has a wide range of culinary and medicinal uses. As a medicine, itfinds use in cough, cold, altitude sickness, and so on. It is also used to reduce

cholesterol level (Manandhar, 2002). Bulb part is mostly used. The extract containsnumerous antiseptic chemicals and sulfur compound (e.g., allyl isothiocyanate) thatimpart the characteristic flavor.

Worms

Aqueous extracts of firewood ash is used by all. Many people also use lemon juice.Some people use root extracts of siru ( Imperata cylindrica), amliso (Thysanolina

maxima), sallibisalli ( Equisetum sp), bhirgaule (Coix lachrymajobi), and ulte kuro( Achyranthes aspera). The roots are rubbed on a stone and the aqueous dispersionorally administered. Some people mentioned using fruit decoction of lapsi(Choerospondias axillaris). Opposing views can be seen in the use of ash and lemon

because ash is alkaline whereas lemon is acidic. The role of root extracts of amliso



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and siru is unclear but might function, at least in some cases (as there are several typesof worms), very much like deworming drugs.

It is known that rhizomes of siru contain, inter alia, appreciable amounts ofdimethylsulfopropionate and potassium. The moisture absorbing ability of thesecomponents has been commercially exploited by various herbal companies byincluding rhizome extracts in lotions and ointments. Elsewhere, siru extract iscombined with other herbs to prepare liver cleansing medicines. It has antibacterial-,diuretic-, febrifuge-, and anthelmintic properties (Yeung, 1985; Manandhar, 2002).

Fresh wounds/Cuts

People topically apply extracts or juices of kaali jhaar ( Eupatorium odoratum), titepati( Artemisia indica), tinpate (?), and certain lichens. Some people also topically applyhairs of dhusure (Colebrookea oppositifolia). Under normal health conditions, cutsand wounds tend to heal themselves but septic condition may develop if the healingtime is longer. The above plants extracts obviously work as disinfectant. Some mayalso work as pain reliever. In Ranitar, VDC, some informants were found to usetender shoots of thaade unyu (Thelypteris appendiculoides) and rhizomes or leaves ofchiple ( Pouzolzia hirta). One unknown plant, called Limbuni phul (could not be foundin the study site) and kherabe (a Limbu name) or phachyang ( Zingiber cassumunar )were used by some of the informants. Cinnabar or vermilion (called simrik orshingraff or hingula in the Indian subcontinent, which is mineral rather than plant) is

believed to be helpful in speedy healing of septic wounds and cuts.

Zingiber cassumunar is an aromatic plant. Elsewhere, rhizomes of this plant are usedfor curing nausea and headache. A small piece of rhizome may be chewed andswallowed or paste topically applied for the same. The plant is believed to ward offevil spirits and repel snakes.

Chemically, cinnabar is a sulfide of mercury. Today, ayurvedic companies prepare‘pure’ shingraff (as used in medicine) by grinding raw cinnabar in goat milk for over6 hours followed by grinding this mixture in lime juice for 1 hour. Mercury in verymodest amounts increases red blood corpuscles (RBC) but excess can lead to

poisoning. Shingraff is considered to be extremely efficacious in liver complaints(Anon, 2002). Excess ingestion of this mineral reportedly leads to infertility in bothsexes.

Muscle Sprain

Muscle sprain is treated by applying paste of chitu ( Plumbago zeylanica) root. Some

people also use aankh (Calotropis gigantea) leaves. The leaves are baked on fire orunder hot cinders and pressed over the sprain while still hot (the heat may sometimes become unbearable). The process is repeated for a number of times. The treatment, insome respects, is similar to radiation therapy used for backaches, sciatica,rheumatism, etc. People also said that they use ghoda khori (Viburnum cylindricum)oil and ‘rifle oil’ (whenever available) to rub over the sprain. This massaging relieves

pain and speeds up healing.

Several uses of aankh have been mentioned in the Wealth of India (Chadha, 1976).

The root bark contains α-amyrin, β-amyrin, taraxasterol, gigantin, giganteol, etc. Thelatex gives cardiac glycosides, calotropin, uscharin, calotoxin, colactin and uscharin.The calotropin and calotropain comlponent of the latex have anti-inflamatory andanthelmintic properties. Warmed leaves are bandaged to soothe swellings and sprains.



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The traditional use of ghoda khori oil for rubbing against pain and backache has beenmentioned by Chadha (1976) and (Widmann, 2003). The oil can also be used for

burning. Extracts from the aerial part of plant show antiprotozoal activity (Chadha,1976).

Rabid dog bite

Bark of kaphal ( Myrica esculenta) tree or stinging nettle or ‘sisnu’ (Urtica dioica)root is ground into paste and applied over the affected area. A small amount the pasteis also administered orally. Some people mentioned use bikhma ( Aconitum spicatum)and root extracts of kaali jhaar ( Eupatorium odoratum). Tantrik methods are alsoused. As we know today, rabies occurs through rabies virus. It is unknown how thesetraditional medications work against the virus. However, the villagers use thisapproach only as a primary treatment. They all know that allopathic treatment isavailable for the treatment of rabies. They also know how to ascertain whether the dogwas rabid after all.

According to Chadha (1976), kaphal bark is astringent, carminative and antiseptic. Adecoction of the bark is useful in asthma, diarrhea, fever, etc. The bark is rich intannins. The fruit part is eaten. The active components of the botanicals mentionedabove have been described earlier.

Sore throat

People eat corn seed, pumpkin seeds, and laligurans ( Rhododendrom arboreum)flower to relieve sore throat.

Rhododendron has been shown to possess antiviral properties by Rajbhandari et al (2007). Rhododendron lepidotum flower in particular is effective against fever, cough,cold and tonsillitis. Rhododendron arboreum is used in the preparation of a kind of

snuff. Tender leaves are stated to be used as a vegetable, and also applied to theforehead to relieve headache. They have, however, been reported to produce toxicsymptoms when eaten by livestock, and in view of the poisonous compounds in them,their utilization as a vegetable appears doubtful. Green leaves contain a glucosidecalled ericolin. Eating flowers in large amounts causes intoxication. Petals can beused in diarrhea and dysentery (Chadha, 1976). There are about 31 species ofrhododendron in Nepal. It must be noted that some Rhododendron species, e.g., R. campanulatum and R. ponticum, are extremely poisonous. Indiscriminate ofrhododendron is therefore not advisable.

Constipation

Constipation occurs in these sites only occasionally, in which case they suck the blackcoatings of rajbrikhsa or rajbrikcha (Casssia fistula) seed. It is also believed that gheefrom black cow can relieve the condition. Since rajbriksha treatment is popular amongother people also, it is difficult to say when and from where the practice began. In theRanitar VDC, people mentioned indreni (Trichosanthes tricuspidata) roots, chewed inmodest amounts, are very effective against constipation. The scientific explanation forconstipation, among other things, is due to faulty dietary habits. Prolonged intake offood lacking dietary fiber causes constipation. Since the rural diet is seldom poor indietary fiber, it is logical to expect low probability of constipation incidence in thevillage.

A great deal of literatures are available on Cassia fistula. An extensive review byBahorun et al (2005) shows that this plant contains potent phenolic antioxidants such



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as anthraquinones, flavonoids and flavanol derivatives. Rajbriksha used has purgative,antipyretic, analgesic and antibacterial properties. It is also widely used in thetreatment of stomach disorder.

Rash due to allergy

People believe in a very peculiar treatment method. ‘Puwalo mala’ (a type of beadednecklace) is rubbed against the rashes, which is later pressed with ‘janto’ (a handoperated attrition mill made from a pair of circular stone; used to pulverize grainseeds). Another very effective treatment is to rub phachyang ( Zingiber cassumunar )over the affected area. This plant also supposedly wards off evil spirits.

Common cold

People drink in modest amounts unboiled aqueous extract of titepati. This medicationis also helpful in pneumonia. Some people drink a lot of heavily-seasoned, hotchicken soup to drive away the cold. It is a general belief that fried (sizzled in a smallamount of oil) raksi can also relieve cold. As such, common cold is a viral disease

with no absolute treatment to this day. Unless complication arises, it passes away aftera few days. The treatments mentioned above may be helpful in moderating the effect.

It is also common to chew ginger rhizomes (hot, baked under cinders) to counteractthe irritation in throat and relieve the coughing. Although less common, lasun ( Allium wallichi) and gurans ( Rhododendron lepidotum) are also eaten in modest amounts toget relief from common cold.

Diarrhea

Diarrhea by itself is not a disease. It is a symptom of numerous disorders, such asfood poisoning from contaminated foods or beverages, infections by viruses and

bacteria, or anxiety. The condition is characterized by frequent passage of abnormallyloose, watery stool, often accompanied by abdominal pains. Severe diarrhea leads to acondition called dehydration.

In the study sites, immature banana and guava are considered beneficial in thetreatment of diarrhea. Barks extracts of jamuna (Syzygium cumini), gayo ( Bridelia

retusa), and ambak ( Psidium guajava); fruit extracts of totala (Oroxylum indicum);tender bud extracts of ainselu; and leaf and root extracts of sugandhawal ( Valeriana

jatamansi) were also mentioned as having antidiarrheal properties. Although they arefamiliar with home-based electrolytic treatments such as ‘nun-chini-pani’ (salt-sugar-water) and ‘jivan jal’ against dehydration, as anyone knows, these are not theirdiscoveries. People were found to believe that immature banana owes its medicinal

property to alkaline taste. Guava is supposed to cure diarrhea because of the profuseseeds (which help harden the stool!).

In general, most discussions about illnesses and plant-based treatments take placeamong family members and visiting friends. They talk about diagnoses, etiology and

possible curing strategies. This is also the primary mechanism by which children learnmedicinal plants and by which knowledge is transmitted.

Women spend more time in the households than men, spend more time with otherwomen than men, and are more likely to discuss children’s health among themselves.

Not surprisingly, the survey showed that women tend to know more about local plantsthat grow near households and men are more likely to have learned plants that grow in

other communities. The patrilocal residence system is also very important in thetransmission of knowledge through women.



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The above results and discussion are based on emic perspective. Pharmacologicalanalysis to test the efficacy of plant-based treatments is very difficult.Pharmacological data, especially screenings for bioactivity of phytochemicals, todetermine the relative efficacies of the medicinal plants appears logical but is ratherinvolved.

During the survey, salient characteristics (e.g., bitterness, sourness, etc.) were foundto be associated with treatment, even when dealing with unfamiliar plants, e.g.,avoidance of curcumin (yellow colored) with the treatment of jaundice.

The frequency at which a given illness occurs in a rural setting is rather difficult toassess because people tend to forget the episodes unless they are very important. Here,an attempt was made to determine the frequencies of the illnesses by counting thefrequency of a particular word in the text. Based on this method, following results(Table 4.6) were obtained. The ranking of illness (1 = highest incidence, 8 = lowestincidence) in Table 4.6 is in general explicable. Agriculture in the hills is obviouslyvery difficult. It involves a lot of physical work, often in jungles, among thorny

bushes, and eerily steepy slopes. In fact, there isn’t a day without cuts and wounds.The higher incidence of fracture is justifiable for the same reason.

Table 4.6 Occurrence of illness term in the text.

Illness Frequency in text Rank

Cuts and wounds 35-40 1Fracture 30-35 2Diarrhea 25-30 3Worms / helminthes 20-25 4Piles and jaundice 15-20 5Sinusitis, scabies, tooth ache, fever, and sore throat 10-15 6Dysentery, sprains, dog bites, stomachache,

boils/abscess, tonsillitis, snake bite, and constipation5-10 7

Other illnesses in the list relate mostly to lack of sanitation and faulty food habit.Although these illnesses appear benign, they do affect a lot in one’s ability to work.An ill person naturally cannot work as well as a healthy one. This in turn will lead tofood insecurity, malnutrition and hence the vicious cycle. Improvement in the foodhabit and sanitation can have a significant effect in the lives of these people.

The survey data shows that some of the traditional methods of treatments have rather

questionable or dubious status, the treatments used for piles, snake bite, jaundice, andrabies in particular. Awareness program that addresses the scientific reasons of theseillnesses, prophylactic measures, and possible treatment methods is very pertinent atthis point. Incidences of diseases such as food poisoning, toothache, constipation,worms, etc., can be reduced by several simple and effective measures such assanitation, personal hygiene, and improved eating habits.

4.5 Case Study

4.5.1 Chokmagu VDC

Using free-listing method (altogether 10 respondents) Amritman Tumbapo, a

septuagenarian healer of Chokmagu-3 (Tinmaule village) was selected for the casestudy on traditional herbal healing. He is literate, and carries out subsistence farming



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and bone setting as the main occupation. His feat has received wide acclaim, evenoutside the VDC. The school teachers of the local high school (Saraswati Ma Vi) alsoappeared to know a lot about the miraculous feats of this ‘legend’.

Following is a translation of the interview carried out with this respondent:

1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?Yes, but I do not quite remember the number of generations involved in this art. Thestory of how our forefathers learnt the secret of bone setting is both miraculous andinteresting. Story has it that our forefathers used to go to the Tamor river for fishing.One day, as usual, they packed their day’s collection in some plant leaves andreturned home. When they opened the pack, to their greatest astonishment, they sawthat all the fish had stuck into a lump. After some twiddling, they found that the fishhad been packed in leaves of hitherto unfamiliar plant. They thus concluded that this

particular plant was responsible for the joining of fish bones. It is said that ourforefathers have used this plant [he offers to show the plant the next day as it wasalready dusk] for bone setting ever since.

2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?

I learnt the art from my father, who in turn learnt from my grandfather. I was about 20at that time.

3. How long have you been practicing this art?

I am running 70 and it is almost two 20 years that I have carried out this practice.

4. Success rate?

One hundred percent [displays a wide grin (of accomplishment)]. I have even curedanimals, mostly pigs.

5. Explanation for failure?

I do not remember my treatment having failed, may be except for some pigs.

6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?

Yes, I have a successor, my brother (Chhatra Bahadur Tumbapo), who is workingvery well. I am getting older day by day and hopefully this young lad (not present inthe scene) will continue the art our forefathers have learnt.

7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with

success?

No, I have not made discoveries of my own.

8. How many people have benefited from your service?

I guess 2-3 patients a day on average. To this day, it should be several thousands.



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9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional

healing)?

Yes, yes. I have cured several patients already ‘surrendered’ by doctors. People comefrom far and wide and I have successfully dealt with all cases.

10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are

currently handling?

I do not have much idea about the allopathic treatments. But what I know is I havecured a patient that Bir Hospital (Kathmandu) could not take care of.

11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of

allopathic alternatives?

No, not till now.

12. Can you name the plants that you use for bone setting?Umm…[becomes uncomfortable]... you see, if I reveal the names of the plants, theywill lose efficacy……[however, upon persuasion he reveals the names of some of the

plants he uses for treatment of fracture]. Well, there are four types of plants that I use.One is called kokphung in Limbu…. I think it is called Aule gurans in Nepaleselanguage… it is a climber with fig-like leaves…..white, large flowers…roots areused….. Okay, I’d better show you the plant.. [he calls someone, a male, out of thehouse and tells him to bring some leaves from a tree (already silhouetted) behind thecowshed]. Okay, another plant is, you know it, mauwa (a Nepalese name) and its barkis used…[after some reflection].. you know there are three types of mauwa and it isonly the one with very small leaves and thick bark that is used. The next one is

jamuna (a Nepalese name), and from this also, bark is used. The fourth plant is calledmukumba in Lumbu language, I think you call it kainjal in Nepalese language. Herealso, the bark is used.

13. How do you carry out the treatment?

Everything is ground into a thick paste and applied around the affected area. You needto apply splints to align the bones and support the fractured area.

14. Do you grow medicinal plants?

No. I haven’t thought about that.

15. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?

The plants used in bone setting as well as other medications are of course declining.Some of them have to be fetched from cliffs and steep slopes.

4.5.2 Ranitar VDC

Using free-listing method (altogether 10 respondents) Sukpal Nembang, a healer inhis mid seventies was selected from Ranitar VDC (Ward 4, Tamakhe village) for thecase study on traditional herbal healing. He is literate, and carries out subsistencefarming and bone setting as the main occupation. He is popularly known as baidang , alocal term used for vaidya (herbal healer). Witnesses to his miraculous bone settingfeat include school teachers, senior citizens, and commercial herb collectors.



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Following is a translation (with emphasis on verbatim) of the interview carried outwith this respondent:

1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?

Yes, I am a son of baidang .

2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?

I learnt it from my father. The ‘old man’ is no longer on this earth.

3. How long have you been practicing this art?

Since I was about 35. I am still practicing it.

4. Success rate?

I would say 80 to 90 out of 100 cases. In addition to herbal treatment, I also do tantra-

mantra to ward off evil spirits that may foil the treatment.

5. Explanation for failure?

No failure

6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?

Yes I had a successor (Rudraraj Nembang, 34, Ranitar VDC, Ward 8) but this guyhelped me for only one year. He is now abroad (doing other jobs).

7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with

success?

Yes, I have made several discoveries. I have them all in my dreams.

8. How many people have benefited from your service?

At times, I have treated 9-10 patients a day. I have treated several thousands ofthem…[settles for about 3000 after we insist on his mentioning the exact number].

9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional

healing)?

I have so many of them. I tell you, these people are witnesses, I have cured a boywhose leg was completely cut off, dangling by mere skin. The case was declareduntreatable by the Ilam hospital. When the case reached me, the wound was almostseptic. Why not now ask me where that boy is? He went to Malaysia in 2004 forwork. He is ‘live and kicking’.

10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are

currently handling?

I don’t have any idea about that



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11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of

allopathic alternatives?

What can I say? People are still coming.

12. Can you name the plants that you use for bone setting?

I use several things, including two herbs [he forgets or does not want to disclose thenames], one animal part, and shingraf (cinnabar or vermilion). Some plants cannot befound here. I will tell you about them only if you give me gaindako nabi (part ofrhinoceros). I badly need that, you know….. [Even after much coaxing, he does notdisclose the names of these plants].

13. How do you carry out the treatment?

Well, I can tell you that. Wash the affected area, align the bones……show no mercyeven if the patient screams with pain….., apply the paste over the fracture, and fix itin place with splints. You will also need some oral medicines, taken twice a day. ThenI cast some spells to ward off the evils. That’s all. If you want to know more, youneed to be my chela (formal disciple).

14. Do you grow medicinal plants?

I have grown only two plants. There are well over 100 plants (and many animal parts)that I use. Many plants cannot be grown in the kitchen garden.

15. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?

Still abundantly available.

4.6 Interpretation

The above discursive data show that both the healers (from Chokmagu and RanitarVDC) have acquired knowledge of bone setting from their forefathers. The practice ofhanding down knowledge (indigenous) is therefore very rooted in these regions. Thedata also shows the significance of traditional herbal therapy for primary health care.And as can be gathered from the interviews, the practice will continue to play a veryimportant role in the rural areas where modern health care facilities are almost non-existent. The interviews also reveal the respondents’ reluctance to disclose the namesof the plants used in the therapy, which could basically be due to their deep-seated

belief that plants and/or methods may lose efficacy if disclosed. However, when

linked to today’s concept of intellectual property rights, we need to respect theirtradition. Some of the plants named in the interviews have a Limbu name, which is

probably because these plants are endemic to the region. Although it is important thatsuch plants be identified and conservation status assessed, we could not obtain thespecimen of a number of them despite our repeated visits to the site. This obviously isof serious concern, not only to the conservationists but also the natives who directly orindirectly depend on these plants for primary health care.

In general, the availability of the plants used in bonesetting does not appear to beseriously threatened. However, plants whose roots and barks are widely used should

be of some concern. Stripping the plants off their bark or uprooting them can in the

long run lead to decreased availability.



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The practice of planting the essential (medically) plants is not so widespread and thiscould be due to their (most) ready availability.

The method used by these bonesetters for treating the fractures encompasses scientificas well as intriguing aspects. Alignment of fractured bones and use of splinters isexplicable (as these are done in modern practice also) but the topical application ofherbal concoction and casting spells for a faster cure cannot be outright linked withthe joining of bones. The herbal concoction most probably works as anti-inflammatory and/or antiseptic, which is essential to prevent microbial infection of theaffected area. However, its role in direct joining of the bones defies modern theories.It is unknown whether or not the concoction compounds (can) penetrate the epithelialtissues and induce physiological reactions that hasten healing. Despite this room forsuspicion, people take it for granted because the medication has simply stood the testof time. At the moment, researching on this aspect can be quite expensive, timeconsuming, and may also invite ethical problem. For instance, to design a test forfinding out the efficacy of herbal concoction on fracture healing would require, at the

least, healthy (similar physiological status) homozygous twins of a vertebrate.Fractures must be inflicted on these poor animals. The degree and pattern of fractureshould be precisely the same in both of them. Finally, the experiment will requireseveral replications (with control) to obtain statistically valid data.



CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS

The aim of the present investigation was to document and analyze indigenous Limbuknowledge on ecology, biodiversity and ethnomedicine taking Ranitar and ChokmaguVDCs as the representative study sites.

The people of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC were found to have a rich knowledgesystem of eco-friendly agricultural practice and forest and landslide management.Subsistence agriculture is widely practiced. The production system is based on anintegration of agricultural and livestock activities and this allows a somewhat rationaluse of the soil capabilities in a sustainable way. Because of the topographical and

microclimatic reasons, these VDCs still suffer from staple cereal deficit. There istherefore scope of intensive farming. Food security measures must be undertaken tocope with the increasing population.

Apart from the common vegetables, staple cereals, and condiments, people ofChokmagu and Ranitar VDC use over 200 botanicals for various purposes (medicine,food, fodder, religious, veterinary and allied uses). Existence of Limbu names foralmost all the plants studied implies how TEK has permeated the lives of Limbu

people. About 110 medicinal plants are found in various degrees of abundance. These plants are extensively used for diseases ranging anything from cold and cough tofracture. Conservation and revival of this knowledge base is very crucial because

traditional medicines are still the most important primary healthcare sources for thevast majority of the rural mass. People were found to use 28 plants as wild foods.Additionally, they use 28 plants for veterinary purpose, 37 for religious purpose, and38 for murcha making. A few plants are also used as biopesticides for storage pestcontrol. This indicates that some form of integrated pest management is in place. Themodern concept of biodiversity conservation has not fully permeated the regions.Some form of awareness program needs to be initiated.



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CONCLUSIONS

Limbus have remarkable ethnobotanical knowledge. Ethnomedicine is still the mostimportant system for primary health care. However, there is an urgent need todisseminate among them some of the recent startling discoveries. For instance, bojhoand gurans (widely used in primary health care) have been found to contain potenttoxins, the cumulative effect of which can be life-threatening.

The sensory attributes of plants were found to have relation in their use for specificdiseases. Contrary to the assumption, abundance of plants showed no association withtheir frequency of use or knowledge about them.

Five medicinal plants from the study area could not be scientifically identified. Thereis, therefore, significant scope for renewed botanical inventory.

Women were found to possess an astounding wealth of knowledge about medicinal plants and their use, often surpassing their male counterpart. It appears that the patrilocal residence system has a role to play in the transmission of traditional

knowledge by women. Since this tradition of orally transmitting the knowledge has itsown serious disadvantage, a parallel documentation practice must be encouraged.

The traditional practice at present is sustainable in terms of ecology and environment.However, some loss of floral diversity (mainly murcha plants) and erosion oftraditional knowledge (use of medicinal plants) that have occurred in the study sitesmerits attention.

Some traditional treatment methods (e.g., for piles, jaundice, rabies, etc.) have ratherdubious status and thus merits concern. Adoption of prophylactic measures such assanitation, personal hygiene, change in food habit, etc., can be very helpful inreducing incidences of common illnesses like food poisoning, toothache, constipation,

etc. (and therefore food security).



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APPENDICES

APPENDIX-I

Details of Key Informants

Table A-I.1 Details of the key informants from Chokmagu VDC

S.N. Name Age (yrs) Occupation Address Education

1 Agni Prasad Tumbapo 55 Teaching Chokmagu-8 SLC

2 Amritman Tumbapo 70 Farming (healer) Chokmagu-3 Literate

3 Dhan Raj Tumbapo 26 Teaching Chokmagu-3 B. Ed

4 Ganga Prasad Tumbapo 57 Farming Chokmagu-2 Literate

5 Kabindra Tumbapo 66 Social activist Chokmagu-7 B. A6 Mahendra Tumbapo 55 Farming (VDC

vice president)Chokmagu-6 Literate

7 Netra Maya Tumbapo 35 Farming Chokmagu-2 Literate

8 Purna Kumar Tumbapo 50 Teaching Chokmagu-8 I. A.

9 Rup Kumar Tumbapo 65 Farming (healer) Chokmagu-2 Literate

10 Sita Nembang 27 Teaching Chokmagu-8 B. A.

Photographs of some of the key informants from the above list are provided in Fig. A-I.1.

Rabindra Kumar Tumbapo Amritman Tumbapo Agni Prasad Tumbapo

Purna Tumbapo Mahendra Tumbapo Netramaya Tumbapo

Fig.A-I.1 Some key informants at Chokmagu VDC



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Table A-I.2 Details of key informants from Ranitar VDC.

S.N. Name Age (yrs) Occupation Address Education

1 Asal Nembang 45 Teaching Ranitar-4 M. A.

2 Sher Bahadur Nembang 32 Farming Ranitar-6 I. A.

3 Sukpal Nembang 77 Farming (healer) Ranitar-8 Literate4 Man Kumar Nembang 44 Farming Ranitar-4 Literate

5 Mahasher Nembang 75 Farming (healer) Ranitar-8 Literate

6 Rudraraj Nembang 68 Farming Ranitar-6 Literate

7 Man Bahadur Wanem 35 Teaching Ranitar-8 I. Sc

8

9

10

Photographs of some of the key informants from the above list are provided in Fig. A-

I.2.

Mahasher Nembang Sukpal Nembang Asal Nembang

Man Kumar Nembang Man Bahadur Wanem Rudraraj Nembang

Fig.A-I.2 Some key informants at Ranitar VDC



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APPENDIX-II

Checklist of questions to be asked to the key informants

Issue: Ethnomedicine

Table provides the selected list of diseases taken for interviewing the people. Theinformants were also asked to provide information on the part(s) of plant(s) used for thetreatment of particular disease. The method of preparation, administration, the amount to be used, and similar related information were also collected during the interview.

Table A-II.1 Selected list of diseases taken for the interview

1 Wounds and boils 2 Head CutsWoundsBoils and abscess

FeverCommon coldSinusitis

3. Orthopedic treatments 4. Stings and bites FractureMuscle sprain

Snake biteDog bite

5. Skin problems 5. Ear, nose and throat ScabiesRashes/allergy

WartBurns

ToothacheSore throat

TonsillitisEpistaxis

6. Gastrointestinal diseases/disorders 7. Others StomachacheWormsDysenteryDiarrheaConstipationPiles

JaundiceAltitude sicknessPilesSnake biteRabid dog bite

Questionnaires and topics of interview (Focus Group)

Area: Ecology and biodiversity

Pertinent questions

1. Is environment protection necessary? Why?2. What efforts have been made for the protection of environment using traditional

techniques?3. How is Limbu community related to biodiversity?



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4. What traditional techniques are adopted for overcoming natural calamities likeflash floods and landslides?

5.

What traditional methods are being used for the protection of forest resources?

6.

What is the present status of medicinal herbs used in traditional healing?

Questionnaires for case study on bone setting/fracture treatment

The questions to be asked to the interviewees will be basically the same as those for thekey informants. A checklist of additional pertinent questions to be asked to theinterviewees will be as follows:

1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?3. How long have you been practicing this art?

4.

Success rate?5. Explanation for failure?6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with

success?8. How many people have benefited from your service?9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional healing)?10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are currently

handling?11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of allopathic

alternatives?

12.

Do you grow medicinal plants?13. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?



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APPENDIX-III

Photographs of some medicinal plants

Fig. A-III.1 Budhi okhana (used for fever treatment)

Front Rear

Fig. A-III.2 Aule gurans (used for treating bone fracture)



85

Fig. A-III.3 Chimphing

Fig. A-III.4 Herbarium of tinpate



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APPENDIX-IV

Miscellaneous photographs

Fig. A-IV.1 Sale of murcha cake in a local market

Fig. A-IV.2 Pakhanbhed on sale in a local market

Fig. A-IV.3 Hadchur on sale in a local market



Fig. A-IV.3 Research assistant engrossed in interview at Ranitar VDC