14-556 constitutional accountability center

8/9/2019 14-556 Constitutional Accountability Center

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XFZEIBXEWBEJKPo.$#E %2 .0">/'&" ?- .0">/'&" F$?$&B.#'- - ]^M :/%/ ]M? O>QAGP OIH`F XFKHXZEJK SHJZ DIFXFKDSHBELJIPo7"#'%- F$2" 8&(- .%- ?- R6', - ]^@ :/%/ANQ O>QAGP OIH`F XFKHXZEJK BH_HBELJPo K$'5C>"'B ?-=""&(#'6 - ]G@ :/%/ ]GG O>QA>P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK `HXERBHS cXLcFXBe XEKCBIPoJ'' ?- J'' - ]]@ :/%/ ?NA O>Q^QPOIH`F XFKHXZEJK ZE0LXWF SHkPoT6>0%5A$ ?- *",C6$0 -]M] :/%/ M^] O>QÂP OIH`F XFKHXZEJK `HXXEHKFPo*"",?- *"", - ]@] :/%/ ^> O>Q^>P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK FIBHBFISHkPoF"?E ?- F%/$($6&6 - MQ> :/%/ NA O>QNAP OIH`F XFRKHXZEJK YHÈSe SHkPoF%?$&B ?- Q$'B$&$6- MAA :/%/ >

O>QN^P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK `HXXEHKFPo @'%D& ?- @,- %2;,/5- - M]^ :/%/ ]AM O>QG]P OIH`F XFKHXZEJK FZDWHRBELJP/



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There is no “marriage exception” to the Four-teenth Amendment’s guarantee of equality under theSHk/ 'J BCF WLJBXHXe- HI BCEI 2LDXB CHI IBHBFZ- BCFright to marry is “one of the vital personal rights es-IFJBEHS BL BCF LXZFXSe cDXsuit of happiness,” F%?$&B -388 U.S. at 12, and is “sheltered by the Fourteenth

Amendment against the State’s unwarranted usurpa-tion, disregard, or disrespect.” 7-F-@- ?- :-F-M- - G>Q:/%/ >@?- >>N O>QQNP/

$lDHS XEKCBI DJZFX SHk EI JLB H cLSEWe cXFYFXFJWFBL UF kFEKCFZ Ue BCF 0LBFXIo EB EI H WLJIBEBDBELJHS

`HJZHBF EJIWXEUFZ EJ BCF BF_B LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB . By deferring to the “democratic pro-cess” and empowering the people of H IBHBF BL E`cLIFH WSHIIRUHIFZ UHZKF LY EJYFXELXEBe LJ SL0EJK- WL`ÈBRBFZ IH`FRIF_ WLDcSFI HJZ BCFEX WCESZXFJ- BCF WLDXB LYHccFHSI ÈIHccXFCFJZFZ BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZRment’s guarantee of equal protection— kCEWC cXLBFWBIHSS cFXILJI YXL` IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXEÈJHBELJ- EJRWSDZEJK BCF cFBEBELJFXI EJ BCFIF WHIFI HJZ HSS LBCFXKHe `FJ HJZ SFIUEHJI kCL kEIC BL F_FXWEIF BCFEX XEKCBBL `HXXe — HJZ ZEIXFKHXZFZ 0EBHS cXEJWEcSFI LY WLJIBER

BDBELJHS IDcXF`HWe/

=CQ9PE!G

D$ GLE GERG =!O LD;G.CI .F GLE ;9(JCEP=5I 5H=9;E QDSE 5.9CG; GLEO9GI G. E!F.C5E GLE 5.!;GDG9(TION’S SUPREMACY .SEC =HH F.CP;.F ;G=GE H=0 =!O JC.LDBDG ;G=GEP=T.CDGDE; FC.P SD.H=GD!Q 5.!;GD(G9GD.!=H Q9=C=!GEE;$

$0FJ kEBC H 0EUXHJB YFZFXHSEI` HB EBI CFHXB- BCF2LJIBEBDBELJ kHI kXEBBFJ HKHEJIB BCF UHWaZXLc LYHUDIF LY BCF ZF`LWXHBEW cXLWFII EJ BCF IBHBFI/ .CFXHBEYEWHBELJ LY BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- HI *LXZLJ 7LLZ CHI



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observed, was “more than a response to the obviouskFHaJFIIFI LY BCF "XBEWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ/ 1B UFRWH`F HI kFSS HJ HJIkFX BL BCF cXLUSFÌ LY BCF IBHBFgovernments.” Gordon S. Wood, OC" .'"6#$%& %2 #C"

34"'$56& *"+/>0$5) UVV[PUVWV - HB ]N^ O>QNQP/

.CF ZXHYBFXI LY LDX 2LJIBEBDBELJ kFXF HWDBFSeHkHXF LY SFKHS kXLJKI Ue IBHBF KL0FXJ`FJBI DJZFXBCF "XBEWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ- kCEWC FIBHUSEICFZ Hloose confederacy built on a “firm league of friend-ship” UFBkFFJ BCEXBFFJ EJZFcFJZFJB IBHBFI O("" "XBERWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ LY >Â>- HXB/ 111P- HJZ kXLBF BCF

2LJIBEBDBELJ BL E`cLIF WCFWaI LJ BCF cLkFX LY KL0FXJREJK `HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI/ .CF +XH`FXI ZFSEUFXHBFRSe made the Constitution “the supreme Law of the, and,” superior in force BL“any Thing in the Consti-BDBELJ LX ,HkI LY HJe %BHBF BL BCF 2ontrary.” U.S.2LJIB/ HXB/ 51- WS/ ?/ (e EJWSDZEJK EJ BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJH IkFFcEJK ZFWSHXHBELJ LY WLJIBEBDBELJHS IDcXF`HWe-BCF +XH`FXI YEX`Se XFbFWBFZ BCF JLBELJ BCHB YFZFXHSWLJIBEBDBELJHS KDHXHJBFFI ICLDSZ UF SFYB BL BCF ZF`LRWXHBEW cXLWFII HJZ ZFWEZFZ Ue BCF cFLcSF LY BCF IBHBFI/

.CF +XH`FXI CHZ kEBJFIIFZ JD`FXLDI HUDIFI LYIBHBF HDBCLXEBe DJZFX BCF "XBEWSFI LY 2LJYFZFXHBELJ-kCEWC FIBHUSEICFZ H IEJKSF UXHJWC LY BCF YFZFXHS KL0RFXJ`FJB- UDB WLJBHEJFZ JL `FWCHJEI` YLX FJIDXEJKYFZFXHS IDcXF`HWe/ "I !H`FI #HZEILJ ZFIWXEUFZ EB-the “vices” of government under the Articles weremany: “[f]ailure of the States to comply with the Con-stitutional requisitions”; “[e]ncroachments Ue BCF%BHBFI LJ BCFfederal authority”; “[v]iolations of thelaws of nations and of treaties”; “[t]respasses of theStates on the rights of each other”; “ mEnJbDIBEWF LY BCFlaws of States.” James Madison, Q$5"( %2 #C" !%0$#$560:E(#"4 %2 #C" 9&$#", :#6#"( O"cX/ >Â^P- $& Q OC" !6P

+"'( %2 M64"( 76,$(%& M]G- M]A- M]Q- MG] O)LUFXB "/)DBSHJZ d 7ESSEH` #/ $/ )HWCHS FZI/- >Q^GP/ .CF



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+XH`FXI KHBCFXFZ BLKFBCFX EJ 8CESHZFScCEH EJ >Â^ BLcorrect these “vices” resulting from the lack of “effec-BDHS WLJBXLDS EJ BCFwhole over its parts.” 1 OC" *"5P%',( %2 #C" =","'60 .%&?"&#$%& %2 UVWV - HB >N^ O#H_+HXXHJZ FZ/- >Q>>P mCFXFEJHYBFXFarrand’s Records n/

.CF HWBELJI LY IBHBF KL0FXJ`FJBI DJZFX BCF "XRBEWSFI ESSDIBXHBFZ BL BCF +XH`FXI BCF ZHJKFXI LY YHWRBELJI HJZ BCF JFFZ YLX WLJIBEBDBELJHS WCFWaI BL SEÈBBCF cLkFX LY `HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI/ "I #HZEILJ F_Rplained in Federalist 10, “measures are too often de-WEZFZ- JLB HWWLXZEJK BL BCF XDSFI LY bDIBEWF HJZ BCF

XEKCBI LY BCF ÈJLX cHXBe- UDB Ue BCF IDcFXELX YLXWF LYHJ EJBFXFIBed and overbearing majority.” OC" =","'60P$(# L%- U_ - (/+'6 - HB ]G O!H`FI #HZEILJP/ #HZEILJobserved that “[w]hen a majority is included in a fac-BELJ- BCF YLX` LY cLcDSHX KL0FXJ`FJB / / / FJHUSFI EB BLIHWXEYEWF BL EBI XDSEJK cHIIELJ LX EJBFXFIB ULBC BCF cDURlic good and the rights of other citizens.” 8,- HB ]A/What Madison had seen in the states called “intolDFIBELJ BCF YDJZH`FJBHS cXEJWEcSF LY XFcDUSEWHJ*L0FXJ`FJB- BCHB BCF `HbLXEBe kCL XDSF EJ IDWC *L0RFXJ`FJBI- HXF BCF IHYFIB *DHXZEHJI ULBC LY cDUSEW

Good and of private rights.” !H`FI #HZEILJ- Q$5"( %2#C" !%0$#$560 :E(#"4 %2 #C" 9&$#", :#6#"( - $& Q OC" !6P +"'( %2 M64"( 76,$(%& - (/+'6 - HB MG]/

2LJWFXJFZ BCHB `HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI kLDSZtrample on the rights of “the minor party in the com-munity,” OC" =","'60$(# L%- VW - (/+'6 - HB ]M^ O"SF_RHJZFX 3HÈSBLJP, and that “additional fences” wereneeded to protect “personal security and privaterights,” OC" =","'60$(# L%- `` - (/+'6 - HB ?G@ O!H`FI#HZEILJP- BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ kFJB BL KXFHB SFJKBCI BLWCFWa HUDIFI LY cLkFX Ue IBHBF HDBCLXEBe/ .L BCHBFJZ- "XBEWSF 1- %FWBELJ >@ LY BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ YLXUEZIIBHBFI YXL` FJHWBEJK UESSI LY HBBHEJZFX LX F_ cLIB YHWBLSHkI- LX E`cHEXEJK BCF LUSEKHBELJI LY WLJBXHWBI EJ LXR



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der “to prevent state legislatures from exploiting ci BERzens of sister states and foreigners” and “to preventIBHBF SHk`HaFXI YXL` KHJKEJK Dc LJ H ÈJLXEBe LYBCFEX LkJ WEBETFJI — EJRstate creditors, to be specific.”

"aCES )FFZ "`HX- America’s Constitution: A Biog-'6+CE >?M O?@@GPo("" 60(% %BF0FJ */ 2HSHUXFIE- 6LBF-

3 76,$(%&$6& 8&#"'+'"#6#$%& %2 #C" ;^/60 !'%#"5#$%& G%5#'$&"- Q> 9HSF ,/!/ >]@M- >]?M O>QA?P OF_cSHEJEJKthat the Contracts Clause “served to protect a minori-ty from majoritarian politics at the state level”). Here, “the federal Constitution would i J IL`F WHIFIinsinuate itself between a state and its own citizens.”

"`HX- America’s Constitution X 3 @$%B'6+CE- (/+'6 - HB>?]/

Along similar lines, Article IV’s Privileges HJZ1``DJEBEFI 2SHDIF cXLCEUEBFZ IBHBFI YXL` ZEIWXEÈRJHBEJK HKHEJIB XFIEZFJBI LY LBCFX IBHBFI/ +HWBELJI EJ HIBHBF WLDSZ JLB DIF IBHBF HDBCLXEBe BL ZEIHZ0HJBHKFLDBIEZFXI/ 4FIWXEUFZ Ue "SF_HJZFX 3HÈSBLJ HI BCF“basis of the Union,” the Clause was designed to en-sure the “inviolable maintenance of that equality ofcXE0ESFKFI HJZ E``DJEBEFI BL kCEWC BCF WEBETFJI LY BCF

:JELJ kE ll be entitled.” OC" =","'60$(# L%- W_ - (/+'6 -HB ]]N O"SF_HJZFX 3HÈSBLJP/ :"" !6/0 ?- Q$'B$&$6 -^G :/%/ OA 7HSS/P >NA- >A@ O>ANA) (“[W nEBCLDB IL`FcXL0EIELJ LY BCF aEJZ XF`L0EJK YXL` BCF WEBETFJI LYFHWC %BHBF BCF ZEIHUESEBEFI LY HSEFJHKF EJ BCF LBCFX%BHBFI- HJZ KE0EJK BCF` FlDHSEBe LY cXE0ESFKF kEBC WEBRETFJI LY BCLIF %BHBFI- BCF )FcDUSEW kLDSZ CH0F WLJIBERBDBFZ SEBBSF `LXF BCHJ H SFHKDF LY %BHBFIo EB kLDSZ JLBCH0F WLJIBEBDBFZ BCF :JELJ kCEWC JLk F_EIBI/”).

$0FJ `LXF E`cLXBHJB BCHJ BCFIF IcFWEYEW cXLBFWRBELJI HKHEJIB IBHBF 0ELSHBELJ LY cFXILJHS- EJZE0EZDHSXEKCBI- BCF %DcXF`HWe 2SHDIF ZFWSHXFZ BCF 2LJIBEBDRtion to be the “supreme Law of the Land,” rendering“any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State



Q

to the Contrary” null and void. Simply put, the peo-cSF LY H IBHBF WLDSZ JLB WCLLIF BL HZLcB H IBHBF 2LJIBERBDBELJ- LX IBHBF SHkI- BCHB BXHJIKXFIIFZ BCF YFZFXHS2LJIBEBDBELJ- YFZFXHS SHkI- LX BXFHBEFI/ 7EBCLDB H IDRcXF`F YFZFXHS cLkFX L0FXIFFEJK BCF IBHBFI- !H`FI#HZEILJ HXKDFZ- LDX IeIBF` LY KL0FXJ`FJB kLDSZ UFa “monster, in which the head was under the direc-tion of the members.” OC" =","'60$(# L%- `` - (/+'6 - HB?GG O!H`FI #HZEILJP/

.CF +XH`FXI WCLIF BL `HaF BCEI ZFWSHXHBELJ LYthe Constitution’s supremacy exceptionally broad in

IWLcF- XFJZFXEJK JDSS HJZ 0LEZ HSS YLX`I LY IBHBF HWRBELJ EJWLJIEIBFJB kEBC BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- YFZFXHS SHkI-HJZ BXFHBEFI/ "I EJEBEHSSe EJBXLZDWFZ Ue "JBER+FZFXHSEIB ,DBCFX #HXBEJ- BCF %DcXF`HWe 2SHDIF kHIHJF`EWf Martin’s proposal did not establish the Con-IBEBDBELJ HI BCF IDcXF`F SHk LY BCF SHJZ HJZ kLDSZCH0F HSSLkFZ BCF cFLcSF LY H IBHBF BL HZLcB H IBHBFWLJIBEBDBELJ BCHB WLJYSEWBFZ kEBC BCF YFZFXHS 2LJIBEBDRBELJ/ :"" ? Farrand’s Records - (/+'6 - HB ?AR?Qo "aCES)FFZ "`HX- J2 :%?"'"$B&#E 6&, =","'60$(4 - QN 9HSFL.J. 1425, 1458 (1987) (noting that “when the su-

cXF`HWe WSHDIF kHI YEXIB EJBXLZDWFZ HB 8CESHZFScCREH / / / EB cLEJBFZSe YHESFZ BL IcFWEYe BCF IDcXF`HWe LYBCF YFZFral Constitution over its state counterparts”).+LXBDJHBFSe- BCF +XH`FXI XFWLKJETFZ BCHB IDWC H IeIRtem of government would have “inver[ted] . . . theYDJZH`FJBHS cXEJWEcSFI LY HSS KL0FXJ`FJBo EB kLDSZCH0F IFFJ BCF HDBCLXEBe LY BCF kCLSF ILWEFBe F0FXeRkCF re subordinate to the authority of the parts,” OC"=","'60$(# L%- `` - (/+'6 - HB ?GG O!H`FI #HZEILJP-HJZ BCFe ZFWEIE0FSe XFbFWBFZ EB/ 1J WLJBXHIB BL #HXRtin’s initial proposal - BCF YEJHS YLX` LY BCF %DcXF`HWe

Clause written into our Founding charter “[i] I WLJBERnental: one Constitution, one land, one People.” Am-HX-J2 :%?"'"$B&#E 6&, =","'60$(4 - (/+'6 - HB >]GA/



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To ensure the Constitution’s supremacy not`FXFSe LJ cHcFX UDB EJ YHWB- BCF +XH`FXI KH0F YFZFXHScourts the duty to enforce the Constitution’s com-`HJZI HJZ `HEJBHEJ BCF XDSF LY SHk EJ bDIBEWEHUSFWHIFI UFYLXF BCF`/ .CF +XH`FXI DJZFXIBLLZ BCHBconstitutional “[l]imitations . . . can be preserved incXHWBEWF JL LBCFX kHe BCHJ BCXLDKC BCF `FZED` LYWLDXBI LY bDIBEWF- kCLIF ZDBe EB `DIB UF BL ZFWSHXF HSSHWBI WLJBXHXe BL BCF `HJEYFIB BFJLX LY BCF 2LJIBEBDRBELJ 0LEZ/ 7EBCLDB BCEI- HSS BCF XFIFX0HBELJI LY cHXBEWRular rights or privileges would amount to nothing.”OC" =","'60$(# L%- VW - (/+'6 - HB ]M] O"SF_HJZFX 3H`RESBLJP/ “[C]ourts of justice” would function as “bul-warks of a limited Constitution,” HJZ “guard the Con-stitution and the rights of individuals” from “design-ing men” who have a “tendency . . . to occasion dan-KFXLDI EJJL0HBELJI EJ BCF KL0FXJ`FJB- HJZ IFXELDILccXFIIELJI LY BCF ÈJLX cHXBe EJ BCF WL`` unity.”8,- HB ]M^/ "I !LCJ #HXICHSS LUIFX0FZ- “[t]o whatlDHXBFX kESS eLD SLLa YLX cXLBFWBELJ YXL` HJ EJYXEJKFR`FJB LJ BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- EY eLD kESS JLB KE0F BCFcLkFX BL BCF bDZEWEHXeh .CFXF EI JL LBCFX ULZe BCHBcan afford such a protection.” M OC" G">6#"( $& #C":"?"'60 :#6#" .%&?"&#$%&( %& #C" 3,%+#$%& %2 #C" =",P"'60 .%&(#$#/#$%& GG] O!LJHBCHJ $SSELB FZ/- >AMNP/ .CFConstitution’s Framers concluded that judicial reviewUe EJZFcFJZFJB bDZKFI kHI FIIFJBEHS BL cXFIFX0F YXFFRZL` HJZ cXF0FJB `HbLXEBEFI YXL` HUDIEJK BCFEX cLkRFX/

1J >ÂQ- ZDXEJK BCF ZFUHBFI L0FX BCF (ESS LYRights, the Founders reaffirmed the judiciary’s criti-WHS XLSF EJ FJIDXEJK WLJIBEBDBELJHS IDcXF`HWe HJZ0EJZEWHBEJK EJZE0EZDHS XEKCBI/ "I !H`FI #HZEILJ F_R

plained, “[i]f mBCF (ESS LY )EKCBIn HXF EJWLXcLXHBFZ EJBLBCF WLJIBEBDBELJ- EJZFcFJZFJB BXEUDJHSI LY bDIBEWF kESSWLJIEZFX BCFÌFS0FI EJ H cFWDSEHX `HJJFX BCF KDHXZER



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HJI LY BCLIF XEKCBIo BCFe kESS UF HJ E`cFJFBXHUSF UDSRkHXa HKHEJIB F0FXe HIID`cBELJ LY cLkFX EJ BCF SFKEIRSHBE0F LX F_FWDBE0Fo BCFe kESS UF JHBDXHSSe SFZ BL XFIEIBF0FXe FJWXLHWC`FJB DcLJ XEKCBI F_cXFIISe IBEcDSHBFZfor in the constitution by the declaration of rights.” >

"JJHSI LY 2LJK/ ]G^ O>ÂQP/ !DZEWEHS XF0EFk kHI BCFaFe BL FJIDXEJK BCHB BCF KDHXHJBFFI WLJBHEJFZ EJ BCF(ESSof Rights were not “paper UHXXEFXI / / / BLL kFHa BLbe worthy of attention,” $,- HB ]GG- UDB XHBCFX BCHBBCFe FIBHUSEICFZ XFHS- FJYLXWFHUSF SEÈBI LJ BCF cLkFXof government that would operate “against the major-ity in favor of the minority.” 8,- HB ]G]/

$0FX IEJWF 76'>/'E ?- 76,$(%& - G :/%/ >MÔ>A@MP- EB CHI UFFJ XFWLKJETFZ BCHB EB EI BCF XLSF LYWLDXBI BL SEÈB BCF cLkFX LY `HbLXEBEFI BL 0ELSHBF WLJRIBEBDBELJHS cXLBFWBELJI ZFIEKJFZ BL KDHXHJBFF BCFXEKCBI LY HSS/ "I76'>/'E HYYEX`FZ- FJYLXWEJK BCF2LJIB itution’s guarantees is “the very essence of judi-cial duty” and necessary to ensure the Constitution’sstatus as “the fundamental and paramount law of thenation.” 8,- HB >^^RÂ/ .CF WLDXB LY HccFHSI CFXF HURZEWHBFZ EBI WLJIBEBDBELJHS XFIcLJIEUESEBe BL FJYLXWF BCF

Constitution’s supremacy over all forms of state law. DD$ GLE GERG =!O LD;G.CI .F GLE EU9=H

JC.GE5GD.! 5H=9;E Q9=C=!GEEEU9=HDGI 9!OEC GLE H=0 =!O HDPDGGLE J.0EC .F P=T.CDGDE; D! GLE;G=GE; G. OE!I EU9=H CDQLG; G. PD(!.CDGDE;$

.CF LXEKEJHS 2LJIBEBDBEon’s limits on state gov-FXJ`FJBI cXL0FZ EJIDYYEWEFJB BL IFWDXF SEUFXBe HJZFlDHSEBe/ "WWLXZEJKSe- Jearly 70 years later, “[t]he

WLJIBEBDBELJHS "`FJZ`FJBI HZLcBFZ EJ BCF HYBFX`HBCof the Civil War fundamentally altered our country’sfederal system,” 75G%&60, ?- .$#E %2 .C$56B% - GN>:/%/ ^]?- ^G] O?@>@P/ .CFIF "`FJZ`FJBI HZZFZ BL



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BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ IkFFcEJK JFk SEÈBI LJ IBHBF KL0Rernments designed to secure “the civil rights andprivileges of all citizens in all parts of the republic,”("" *"+%'# %2 #C" M%$&# .%44$##"" %& *"5%&(#'/5#$%&-MQBC 2LJK/- >IB %FII/- HB __E O>ANNP- HJZ aFFc“what-F0FX IL0FXFEKJBe mH %BHBFn `He CH0F EJ CHX`LJe kEBCH XFcDUSEWHJ YLX` LY KL0FXJ`FJB HJZ BCF 2LJIBEBDRtion of the country.” Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st%FII/ >@AA O>ANNP/ +LX BCF YEXIB BE`F EJ CEIBLXe- BCF2LJIBEBDBELJ KDHXHJBFFZ BCF FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ LY BCFSHkI BL HSS cFXILJI- YLXUEZZEJK SFKEISHBE0F LX cLcDSHX`HbLXEBEFI EJ BCF IBHBFI YXL` ZEIWXEÈJHBEJK HKHEJIBZEIYH0LXFZ ÈJLXEBEFI/ 7EBC BCF XHBEYEWHBELJ LY BCF+LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB- FlDHS XEKCBI DJZFX (#6#" SHkkFXF WLJIBEBDBELJHSSe KDHXHJBFFZ HJZ JLB IDUbFWB BL HcLcDSHX 0LBF/

.CF WLDXB LY HccFHSI SLIB IEKCB LY BCFIF YLDJZHRBELJHS FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ cXEJWEcSFI- F`cLkFXEJK BCFcFLcSF LY H IBHBFto “disparage and to injure” loving,WL`ÈBBFZ IH`FR sex couples, “whose moral and sexu-al choices the Constitution protects.” R$&,(%' - >MM %/2B/ HB ?NQN- ?NQ]/ .CHB EI H `HbLXEBHXEHJ UXEZKF BLL

YHX/ 7CESF BCF cFLcSF LY H IBHBF `He- LY WLDXIF- WXFHBFSHkI EJ BCF ÈJF XDJ LY WHIFI — kCFBCFX BCXLDKC SFKREISHBELJ LX UHSSLB `FHIDXFI — BCFe WHJJLB WLJBXH0FJFthe Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of eq DHSEBe LYXEKCBI DJZFX BCF SHk/

.CF cSHEJ BF_B LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB-kCEWC cXLCEUEBIa state from denying to “any person”the “equal protection of the laws -” establishes a broadKDHXHJBFF LY FlDHSEBe YLX HSS cFXILJI/ 1B IFWDXFI BCFIH`F XEKCBI HJZ IH`F cXLBFWBELJ DJZFX BCF SHk YLX HSS`FJ HJZ kL`FJ- LY HJe XHWF- kCFBCFX eLDJK LX LSZ-WEBETFJ LX HSEFJ- KHe LX IBXHEKCB/:"" S$5A R%- ?- H%+PA$&(, 118 U.S. 356, 369 (1886) (“These provisions areDJE0FXIHS EJ BCFEX HccSEWHBELJ- BL HSS cFXILJI kEBCEJ



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BCF BFXXEBLXEHS bDXEIZEWBELJ- kEBCLDB XFKHXZ BL HJe ZEYRYFXFJWFI LY XHWF- LY WLSLX- LX LY JHBELJHSEBe / / /.”); .$?$0*$BC#( .6("( , 109 U.S. 3, 24 (1883) (“The Fourteenth

"`FJZ`FJB F_BFJZI EBI cXLBFWBELJ BL XHWFI HJZ WSHIRIFI- HJZ cXLCEUEBI HJe %BHBF SFKEISHBELJ kCEWC CHI BCFFYYFWB LY ZFJeEJK BL HJe XHWF LX WSHII- LX BL HJe EJZERvidual, the equal protection of the laws.”). As CEIBLXeICLkI- BCF LXEKEJHS `FHJEJK LY BCF FlDHS cXLBFWBELJguarantee “establishes equality before the law,”Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2766 (1866), “abol-EICFI HSS WSHII SFKEISHBELJ EJ BCF %BHBFIm-n HJZ ZLFIHkHe kEBC BCF EJbDIBEWF LY IDUbFWBEJK LJF WHIBF LY cFXRILJI BL H WLZF JLB HccSEWHUSF BL HJLBCFX.” 8,- .CF`FHJEJK LY FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ- HI BCF ZFUHBFI L0FX BCFFourteenth Amendment show, was that the “law kCEWC LcFXHBFZ DcLJ LJF `HJ ICHSS LcFXHBF"^/600E upon all,” $,- HB ?]GQ OF`cCHIEI EJ LXEKEJHSP- BCFXFUe“securing an equality of rights to all citizens of the:JEBFZ %BHBFI- HJZ LY HSS cFXILJI kEBCEJ BCFEX bDXEIRdiction.” 8,- HB ?G@?/

No person, under the Fourteenth Amendment’stext, may be consigned to the status of a pariah, “a

IBXHJKFX BL mBCFState’s] laws.” *%4"' ?- ;?6&( - G>^:/%/ N?@- NMG O>QQNP/ :JZFX BCF $lDHS 8XLBFWBELJ2SHDIF- IBHBFI `He JLB ZFJe BL KHe `FJ LX SFIUEHJIrights basic to “ordinary civic life in a free society,” $,- at 631, “to make them unequal to everyone else.” 8,- HB NMG/ \DEBF cSHEJSe- BCF $lDHS 8XLBFWBELJ 2SHDIFcXLBFWBI `EJLXEBEFI YXL` IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXE`EJHRtion at the hands of majorities, “withdraw[ing] fromGovernment the power to degrade or demean,” R$&,P(%'- >MM %/ 2B/ HB ?NQG- BCXLDKC BCF ZF`LWXHBEW cXLRWFII/ :"" 60(% .$?$0 *$BC#( .6("( - >@Q :/%/ HB ?]

(“[C]lass legislation . . . [is] obnoxious to the prohibi-tions of the Fourteenth Amendment . . . .”); H% 3C

K%D ?- L/&6& - >? +/ 2HI/ ?G?- ?GN O2/2/4/ 2HS/ >A^QP



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O6L/ N-]GNP O+EFSZ- 2/J.) (“[H]ostile and discr EÈJHBEJKSFKEISHBELJ Ue H IBHBF HKHEJIB cFXILJI LY HJe WSHII-IFWB- WXFFZ LX JHBELJ- EJ kCHBF0FX YLX` / / / EI YLXUEZRden by the fourteenth amendment . . . .”).

)HBCFX BCHJ EJBFXcXFB BCF BF_B EJ SEKCB LY EBILXEKEJHS `FHJEJK- BCF WLDXB LY HccFHSI F`cCHIETFZkCHB EB BCLDKCB kHI BCF F_cFWBHBELJ LY BCF "`FXEWHJcFLcSF EJ >ANA- HIIFXBEJK BCHB“the people who adopt-FZ BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB mJF0FXn DJZFXIBLLZ EBBL XFlDEXF BCF %BHBFI BL WCHJKF BCF ZFYEJEBELJ LY `HXRriage.” G"@%"' - ^^? +/MZ HB ]@M/ .CEI UHIEW `LZF LY

HJHSeIEI EI YSHkFZ/ "I H kXEBBFJ WCHXBFX FIBHUSEICEJKYDJZH`FJBHS cXEJWEcSFI LY KL0FXJ`FJB- BCF cXLcFXEJBFXcXFBHBELJ LY BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ BDXJI LJ BCF `FHJREJK LY BCF BF_B- I"") "-B-- I$>>%&( ?- JB,"& - ?? :/%/ >->AA O>A?]Po G$(#'$5# %2 .%0/4>$6 ?- H"00"' - GG] :/%/G^@- G^NR^^ O?@@AP- JLB BCF cHXBEWDSHX IDUbFWBE0F F_RcFWBHBELJI LY BCF SHk`HaFXI EJ 2LJKXFII LX BCF cFLRcSF EJ BCF IBHBFI kCL XHBEYEFZ BCF ZLWD`FJB/:"") "-B- -

@'%D&- M]^ :/%/ ]AMo F%?$&B - MAA :/%/ >o M-;-@- ?- 306>646 "N '"0- O-@- - G>> :/%/ >?^ O>QQ]Po F6D'"&5"?- O"N6( - GMQ :/%/ GGA O?@@MP/ .CEI- DSBE`HBFSe- EI

kCHB FJIDXFI BCHB kF HXF H JHBELJ LY SHkI- JLB `FJ/“7CHB bDZKFI `DIB UF YHEBCYDS BL EI BCF FJHWBFZ SHk-JLB BCF F_cFWBHBELJI LY BCF cHXBEFI kCL kXLBF BCFSHk/ / / / m1nB EI BCF BF_B LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJBBCHB kHI XHBEYEFZ EJ >ANA/” Steven G. Calabresi d,E0EH +EJF- OD% .C""'( 2%' !'%2"((%' Balkin’sJ'$B$&60$(4) >@M 6k/ :/ ,/ )F0/ NNM- NNQ O?@@QP/

.CHB BF_B kHI kXEBBFJ EJ BCF UXLHZFIB cLIIEUSFBFXÌ/ "I BCEI 2LDXB LUIFX0FZ EJ LJF LY EBI YEXIB ZFWERsions interpreting the Amendment, “[t]he Fourteenth

"`FJZ`FJB `HaFI JL HBBF`cB BL FJD`FXHBF BCFXEKCBI EB mEIn ZFIEKJFZ BL cXLBFWB/ 1B IcFHaI EJ KFJFXHSBFXÌ- HJZ BCLIF HXF HI WL`cXFCFJIE0F HI cLIIEUSF/1BI SHJKDHKF EI cXLCEUEBLXeo UDB F0FXe cXLCEUEBELJ E`R



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cSEFI BCF F_EIBFJWF LY XEKCBI HJZ E``DJEBEFI- cXLÈRJFJB H`LJK kCEWC EI HJ E``DJEBe YXL` EJFlDHSEBe LYlegal protection, either for life, liberty, or property.”:#'6/,"' ?- R"(# Q$'B$&$6 - >@@ :/%/ M@M- M>@ O>AA@P/

.CEI UXLHZ kLXZEJK kHI JL HWWEZFJB/ 7CFJ BCFMQBC 2LJKXFII ZFIEKJFZ BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB-EB WCLIF DJE0FXIHS SHJKDHKF IcFWEYEWHSSe EJBFJZFZ BLIFWDXF FlDHS XEKCBI YLX600/ 7CESF BCF "`FJZ`FJBkHI kXEBBFJ HJZ XHBEYEFZ EJ BCF HYBFX`HBC LY BCF 2E0ES7HX HJZ BCF FJZ LY ISH0FXe- EB cXLBFWBI HSS cFXILJI/“[S]ection 1 pointedly spoke not of race but of more

general liberty and equality.” Akhil Reed Amar, OC" @$00 %2 *$BC#(X .'"6#$%& 6&, *"5%&(#'/5#$%& ?N@RN> J/=O>QQAP/ 1JZFFZ- BCF )FWLJIBXDWBELJR$XH +XH`FXI IcFRWEYEWHSSe WLJIEZFXFZ HJZ XFbFWBFZ cXLcLIFZ WLJIBEBDRBELJHS SHJKDHKF BCHB kLDSZ CH0F LDBSHkFZ XHWEHS ZEIRWXEÈJHBELJ HJZ JLBCEJK FSIF/:"" (FJbHÈJ (/;FJZXEWa- OC" M%/'&60 %2 #C" M%$&# .%44$##"" %2 =$2P#""& %& *"5%&(#'/5#$%&) YZ#C .%&B'"(() UW[\PUW[V - HB]N- G@- AM O>Q>]P- cXFYFXXEJK H DJE0FXIHS KDHXHJBFF LYFlDHSEBe BCHB IFWDXFZ FlDHS XEKCBI BL HSS cFXILJI/7CFBCFX BCF cXLcLIHSI kFXF UXLHZ EJ IWLcF LX kFXF

JHXXLkSe ZXHYBFZ BL cXLCEUEB XHWEHS ZEIWXEÈJHBELJ EJWE0ES XEKCBI- BCF +XH`FXI LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZR`FJB WLJIE stently rejected limiting the Amendment’sFlDHSEBe KDHXHJBFF BL XHWEHS ZEIWXEÈJHBELJ/:""M-;-@-- G>> :/%/ HB >G> O;FJJFZe- !/- WLJWDXXEJKP(“Though in some initial drafts the Fourteenth

"`FJZ`FJB kHI kXEBBFJ BL cXLCEUEB ZEIWXEÈJHBELJagainst ‘persons b FWHDIF LY XHWF- WLSLX LX cXF0ELDIcondition of servitude,’ the Amendment submitted forWLJIEZFXHBELJ HJZ SHBFX XHBEYEFZ WLJBHEJFZ `LXF WL`RcXFCFJIE0F BFXÌ / / / .”). The Fourteenth Amend-

ment’s “neutral phrasing,” “extending its guaranteeto ‘any person,’’’ $,- HB >G? O;FJJFZe- !/- WLJWDXXEJKP-kHI EJBFJZFZ BL IFWDXF FlDHS XEKCBI YLX HSS/



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1J KDHXHJBFFEJK BCF FlDHS cXLBFWBELJ LY BCF SHkIBL HSS cFXILJI- BCF +XH`FXI LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC

Amendment wrote into our nation’s charter a princi-cSF kEBC ZFFc XLLBI EJ LDX WLJIBEBDBELJHS CFXEBHKF/.CF EZFH LY FlDHSEBe DJZFX BCF SHk kHI XFYSFWBFZ EJBCF >^BC WFJBDXe kXEBEJKI LY !LCJ ,LWaF BCHB cXLRYLDJZSe EJYSDFJWFZ BCF +LDJZEJK KFJFXHBELJ- IFF !LCJ,LWaF- :"5%&, O'"6#$(" %2 I%?"'&4"&# - p >]?- HB ^GO2/ (/ #HWcCFXILJ FZ/- 3HWaFBB 8DUSEICEJK >QA@P(1690) (“They are to govern by promulgated estab-SEICFZ SHkI- JLB BL UF 0HXEFZ EJ cHXBEWDSHX WHIFI- UDBBL CH0F LJF XDSF YLX XEWC HJZ cLLX- YLX BCF YH0LDXEBF HBWLDXB- HJZ BCF WLDJBXe `HJ HB cSLDKC/”) 1B YLX`FZ BCFWFJBFXcEFWF LY BCF 4FWSHXHBELJ LY 1JZFcFJZFJWF(“WeCLSZ BCFIF BXDBCI BL UF IFSYRF0EZFJB- BCHB HSS `FJ HXFWXFHBFZ FlDHS- BCHB BCFe HXF FJZLkFZ Ue BCFEX 2XFHBLXkEBC WFXBHEJ DJHSEFJHUSF )EKCBI- BCHB H`LJK BCFIFHXF ,EYF- ,EUFXBe HJZ BCF cursuit of Happiness.”), andkHI EJWSDZFZ EJ JD`FXLDI +LDJZEJKRFXH IBHBF WLJIBERBDBELJI/ :"" %BF0FJ */ 2HSHUXFIE d 3HJJHC (FKSFe-J'$B$&60$(4 6&, :64"P:"N 76''$6B" - HB GRQ O?@>]P-6?6$06>0" 6# CBBcfggcHcFXI/IIXJ/WL`gILSMgcHcFXI/WY`hHUIBXHWBiEZj?G@Q]]M OWLSSFWBEJK IBHBF WLJIBEBDBELJHScXL0EIELJIP/

.CF Fourteenth Amendment’s Framers crafted aUXLHZ KDHXHJBFF LY FlDHSEBe YLX HSS cFXILJI BL UXEJKBCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ UHWa EJBL SEJF kEBC BCFIF YDJZH`FJRBHS cXEJWEcSFI LY "`FXEWHJ FlDHSEBe- kCEWC CHZ UFFJUFBXHeFZ HJZ IBDJBFZ Ue BCF EJIBEBDBELJ LY ISH0FXe/:"" 75G%&60, - GN> :/%/ HB A@ ̂ O.CL`HI- !/- WLJWDXRring) (“[S]lavery, and the measures designed to pro-BFWB EB- kFXF EXXFWLJWESHUSF kEBC BCF cXEJWEcSFI LYFlDHSEBe / / / HJZ EJHSEFJHUSF XEKCBI cXLWSHE`FZ Ue BCF

4FWSHXHBELJ LY 1JZFcFJZFJWF HJZ F`UFZZFZ EJ LDXconstitutional structure.”). After nearly a century inkCEWC BCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ IHJWBELJFZ XHWEHS ISH0FXe HJZ



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HSSLkFZ HSS `HJJFX LY IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ-BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB WLZEYEFZ LDX YLDJZEJKcXL`EIF LY FlDHSEBe BCXLDKC BCF BF_B LY BCF $lDHS 8XLRBFWBELJ 2SHDIF/ As the Amendment’s +XH`FXI F_RcSHEJFZ BE`F HJZ HKHEJ- BCF KDHXHJBFF LY BCF FlDHSprotection of the laws was “essentially declared in theDeclaration of Independence,” Cong. Globe, 39 BC2LJK/- >IB %FII/ ?QN> O>ANNP- HJZ kHI JFWFIIHXe BLsecure the promise of liberty for all persons. “Howcan he have and enjoy equal rights of ‘life, liberty,and the pursuit of happiness’ without ‘equal protec-tion of the laws?’ This is so self RF0EZFJB HJZ bDIB BCHBJL `HJ / / / can fail to see and appreciate it.” 8,- HB?GMQ/

.CF +XH`FXI LY BCF +LDXBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB HWBRFZ YXL` F_cFXEFJWF HI kFSS/ .CFe CHZ IFFJ YEXIBCHJZBCHB IBHBFI WLDSZ JLB UF BXDIBFZ BL XFIcFWB YDJZH`FJRBHS SEUFXBEFI LX UHIEW JLBELJI LY FlDHSEBe DJZFX BCF SHkYLX HSS cFXILJI/:"" *"+%'# %2 #C" M%$&# .%44$##"" %&*"5%&(#'/5#$%&- (/+'6 - HB _0EE OZFBHESEJK YEJZEJKI BCHB-EJ BCF HYBFX`HBC LY BCF kHX- %LDBCFXJ cFLcSF XFYDIFZ“to place the colored race . . . upon terms even of civil

equality” or “tolerat[e] . . . any WSHII LY cFLcSF YXEFJZSeto the Union, be they white or black”) / 7CEBF :JELJREIBI- JL SFII BCHJ BCF JFkSe YXFFZ ISH0FI- JFFZFZ BCFFlDHS cXLBFWBELJ LY BCF SHkI BL FJIDXF BCHB %LDBCFXJIBHBF KL0FXJ`FJBI XFIcFWBFZ BCFEX YDJZH`FJBHSXEKCBI/ :"" 75G%&60, - GN> :/%/ HB ^^Q OZEIWDIIEJKthe “plight of whites in the Sout C kCL LccLIFZ BCFBlack Codes”); 2LJK/ *SLUF- MQBC 2LJK/- >IB %FII/1093 (1866) (“The adoption of this amendment is es-sential to the protection of the Union men” who “willCH0F JL IFWDXEBe EJ BCF YDBDXF F_WFcB Ue YLXWF LY JHR

BELJHS SHkI KE0EJK BCF` cXLBFWBELJ HKHEJIB BCLIF kCLhave been in arms against them.”); $,- HB >?NM(“[W]hite men . . . have been driven from their homes,



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HJZ CH0F CHZ BCFEX SHJZI WLJYEIWHBFZ EJ %BHBF WLDXBI-DJZFX %BHBF SHkI- YLX BCF WXE`F LY SLeHSBe BL BCFEXcountry . . . .”).

1J HZZEBELJ- BCF +XH`FXI XFWLKJETFZ BCHB E``ERKXHJBI- kCL YHWFZ cFX0HIE0F ZEIWXE`EJHBELJ EJ BCF7FIBFXJ :JEBFZ %BHBFI- JFFZFZ BCF cXLBFWBELJ LYFlDHS SHkI HI kFSS/ 2LJKXFII`HJ !LCJ (EJKCH`- LJFLY BCLIF XFIcLJIEUSF YLX ZXHYBEJK BCF +LDXBFFJBC

Amendment, demanded that “all persons, whetherWEBETFJI LX IBXHJKFXI- kEBCEJ BCEI SHJZ / / / CH0F FlDHScXLBFWBELJ EJ F0FXe %BHBF EJ BCEI :JELJ EJ BCF XEKCBI LY

SEYF HJZ SEUFXBe HJZ cXLcFXBem/n” Cong. Globe, 39 BC2LJK/- >IB %FII/ >@Q@ O>ANNP/ 1JZFFZ- EJ >A^@- BkLyears after the Fourteenth Amendment’s ratification,2LJKXFII DIFZ EBI F_cXFII WLJIBEBDBELJHS cLkFX BL FJRforce the Amendment’s guarantee of equality underBCF SHk BL HSS cFXILJI Ue cHIIEJK BCF $JYLXWF`FJB "WBof 1870. This Act secured to “all persons within the

jurisdiction of the United States” the “sameXEKCB / / / BL `HaF HJZ FJYLXWF WLJBXHWBI- BL IDF- UFcHXBEFI- KE0F F0EZFJWF- HJZ BL BCF YDSS HJZ FlDHS UFJFRYEB LY HSS SHkI HJZ cXLWFFZEJKI YLX BCF IFWDXEBe LY cFXR

son and property as is enjoyed by white citizens,” andprotected against the “deprivation of any right se-WDXFZ LX cXLBFWBFZ Ue BCF SHIB cXFWFZEJK IFWBELJ LYBCEI HWB- LX BL ZEYYFXFJB cDJEIC`FJB- cHEJI- LX cFJHSRBEFI LJ HWWLDJB LY IDWC cFXILJ UFEJK HJalien.” $JRYLXWF`FJB "WB LY >A^@- >N %BHB/ >]@- >]] O>A^@Po 2LJK/*SLUF- ]>IB 2LJK/- ?JZ Sess. 3658 (1870) (“[W]e willcXLBFWB 2CEJFIF HSEFJI LX HJe LBCFX HSEFJI kCL` kFHSSLk BL WL`F CFXF- / / /o SFB BCF` UF cXLBFWBFZ Ue HSSBCF SHkI HJZ BCF IH`F SHkI BC at other men are.”); $,- at 3871 (observing that “immigrants” were “persons

within the express words” of the Fourteenth Amend-ment “entitled to the equal protection of the laws”).



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The Framers’ F_cFXEFJWF kEBC BCFIF `HJe YLXÌLY IBHBFRIcLJILXFZ ZEIWXEÈJHBELJ WLJYEX`FZ kCHB!H`FI #HZEILJ CHZ IL FSFKHJBSe ZFIWXEUFZ EJ +FZFXRHSEIB >@f XDSF Ue YHWBELJI EJ BCF IBHBFI kHI EJWL`cHBERUSF kEBC WLJIBEBDBELJHS cXLBFWBELJI LY SEUFXBe HJZFlDHSEBe YLX HSS/ 1J LXZFX BL cXF0FJB BCFIF ILXBI LYcHIB HUDIFI- HJZ JFk LJFI HXEIEJK HYBFX BCF 2E0ESWar, the Fourteenth Amendment “put in the funda-`FJBHS SHk BCF ZFWSHXHBELJ BCHB HSS WEBETFJI kFXF FJBERtled to equal rights in this Republic,” Chi. Trib., Aug.?- >ANN- HB2, placing all “throughout the land uponBCF IH`F YLLBEJK LY FlDHSEBe UFYLXF BCF SHk- EJ LXZFXto prevent unequal legislation.” Cincinnati Com.,

"DK/ ?@- >ANN- HB ?o“With this section engrafted uponBCF 2LJIBEBDBELJ- EB kESS UF E`cLIIEUSF YLX HJe ,FKEISHRBDXF BL FJHWB IcFWEHS WLZFI YLX LJF WSHII LY EBI WEBERTFJI / / / .” 2EJWEJJHBE 2L`/- !DJF ?>- >ANN- HB ]o ("" 2CHXSFI +HEX`HJ- G%"( #C" =%/'#""&#C 34"&,4"&#8&5%'+%'6#" #C" @$00 %2 *$BC#(]- ? %BHJ/ ,/ )F0/ G- ^?R^G O>Q]QP OZEIWDIIEJK cXFII WL0FXHKF LY +LDXBFFJBC

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1J ICLXB- EJ H `HJEYFIB ZFcHXBDXF YXL` HJBFUFSR

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Amendment’s text and history. Under the Amend-ment’s plain text and original meaning, this sweep-EJK- DJE0FXIHS KDHXHJBFF LY FlDHSEBe HccSEFI BL BCF

cFBEBELJFXI EJ BCFIF WHIFI HJZ BL HSS LBCFXI kCL kEICBL F_FXWEIF BCF XEKCB BL `HXXe BCF cFXILJ LY BCFEXWCLEWF/ .CF $lDHS 8XLBFWBELJ 2SHDIF KDHXHJBFFI



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FlDHSEBe DJZFX BCF SHk HJZ FlDHSEBe LY XEKCBI BL HSScFXILJI- EJWSDZEJK BCF XEKCB BL `HXXe- H XEKCB XFWLKRnized by the Framers as part of the “attributes of aYXFF`HJ HWWLXZEJK BL BCF DJE0FXIHS DJZFXIBHJZEJK LYthe American people[.]” Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st%FII/ G@] O>ANNPo("" 60(% $,- HB M]M OF_cSHEJEJK BCHBBCF“poor man, whose wife may be dressed in a cheapWHSEWL- EI HI `DWC FJBEBSFZ BL CH0F CFX cXLBFWBFZ UeFlDHS SHk HI EI BCF XEWC `HJ BL CH0F CEI bFkFSFZ UXEZFprotected by the laws of the land”).

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Consistent with the Constitution’s text and his-BLXe- BCEI 2LDXB CHI XFcFHBFZSe XFbFWBFZ BCF JLBELJBCHB BCF cFLcSF LY BCF IBHBFI `He DIF BCF ZF`LWXHBEWcXLWFII BL `HaF HJ FJZR run around the Constitution’sEJZE0EZDHSRXEKCBI KDHXHJBFFI/ :JZFX LDX WLJIBEBDRtional scheme, “[o]ne’s right to life, liberty, and prop-FXBe- BL YXFF IcFFWC- H YXFF cXFII- YXFFZL` LY kLXICEcHJZ HIIFÙSe- HJZ LBCFX YDJZH`FJBHS XEKCBI `He JLBUF IDUÈBBFZ BL 0LBFo BCFe ZFcFJZ LJ BCF LDBWL`F LYJL elections.” @6'&"##"- M>Q :/%/ HB NMA/ .CF +LDXRBFFJBC "`FJZ`FJB KDHXHJBFFI LY cFXILJHS- EJZE0EZDRHS XEKCBI SEÈB BCF IBHBFI- kCFBCFX IBHBF HWBELJ EI EJBCF YLX` LY H SFKEISHBE0F HWB LX H IBHBF SHk LX WLJIBEBDRBELJHS H`FJZ`FJB HZLcBFZ Ue BCF 0LBFXI LY H IBHBF/

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#LXF XFWFJBSe- EJ Arizona Free Enterprise’s='"",%4 .0/> !3. ?- @"&&"## - >M> %/ 2B/ ?A@N O?@>>P-BCF 2LDXB IBXDWa ZLkJ HJ "XETLJH WH`cHEKJ YEJHJWFIBHBDBF HZLcBFZ Ue BCF 0LBFXI- WLJWSDZEJK BCHB BCF`FHIDXF DJZDSe UDXZFJFZ cLSEBEWHS IcFFWC kEBCLDBIDYYEWEFJB bDIBEYEWHBELJ/ "I 2CEFY !DIBEWF )LUFXBI F_Rc lained, “the whole point of the First Amendment isBL cXLBFWB IcFHaFXI HKHEJIB DJbDIBEYEFZ KL0FXJ`FJBXFIBXEWBELJI LJ IcFFWC- F0FJ kCFJ BCLIF XFIBXEWBELJIreflect the will of the majority.” 8,- HB ?A?A/ "I BCFIFcases make clear, there is no “will of the majority”

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14-556 constitutional accountability center

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