1450-1750

Africa and the Atlantic World

2

African states, 1500-1650

Berbers

GOLDGOLD

SALTSALT

Gold-Salt Trade

4

The States of West AfricaDeveloped over 8th-16th centuriesKingdom of Ghana

Not related to modern State of GhanaMajor Gold Trader

Mali Empire, 13th centurySonghay Empire, 15th century

Sunni Ali (r. 1464-1493) created effective army, navy

Musket-bearing Moroccan army destroys Songhay forces, regional city-states exert local control

Swahili-Speaking Areas of E. Africa

SWAHILI [“the coast’] = Bantu + some Arabic

6

Swahili Decline in East AfricaPortuguese Vasco da Gama skirmishes with

Africans on eastern coast, 1497-14981502 returns, forces Kilwa to pay tribute 1505 Portuguese gun ships dominate Swahili

ports

7

The Kingdom of KongoRelations with Portuguese beginning 1483King Nzinga Mbemba (Alfonso I, r. 1506-

1542) converts to Christianity, which endorsed their ruleUseful connection with Portuguese interestsBut zealous convert, attempts to convert

population at large

8

King Garcia II of Kongo and European Ambassadors

Benin Empire [15c-19c]

Bronze Heads from Benin (16c)

Benin Bronze Leopard

12

Slave Raiding in KongoInitial Portuguese attempts at slave raidingSoon discovered it is easier to trade weapons

for slaves provided by African tradersDealt with several authorities besides Kongo

Kongo kings appeal without success to slow, but not eliminate, slave trade

Relations deteriorate, Portuguese attack Kongo and decapitate king in 1665

Improved slave market develops in the south

African Captives in YokesAfrican Captives in Yokes

Slave Trade in the CongoSlave Trade in the Congo

Angola

16

The Kingdom of Ndongo (Angola)

Ndongo gains wealth and independence from Kongo by means of Portuguese slave trade

But Portuguese influence resisted by Queen Nzinga (r. 1623-1663)Posed as male King, with male

concubines in female dress attending her

Nzinga establishes temporary alliance with Dutch in unsuccessful attempt to expel PortugueseDecline of Ndongo power after her death

17

Regional Kingdoms in South AfricaChieftans develop trade with Swahili city-

states1300: Great ZimbabweDutch build Cape Town in 1652, increased

involvement with southern African politicsEncounter Khoikhoi people (“Hottentots”)

British colonies also develop

Great Zimbabwe [1200-1450]

“Zimbabwe” = “stone enclosure”

Great Zimbabwe Street

Great Enclosure, Zimbabwe

21

Islam in Sub-Saharan AfricaPre-Islamic paganism, ancestor worshipIslam develops in commercial centersTimbuktu becomes major center of Islamic

scholarship by 16th centuryAfrican traditions and beliefs blended into

IslamGender relations, standards of female

modesty

Timbuktu-”Heavenly Clay”

Timbuktu Rooftop, Mosque

Tuaregs

Mosque in Gao

Great Mosque at Djenne, Mali

Distant Mosque at Djenne, Mali

28

The FulaniMovement to

impose strict adherence to Islamic norms in Africa

1680 begins military campaigns to enforce sharia in west Africa

Considerable influence extends to south as well

Modern Fulani women with traditional facial tattoos

29

Christianity in Sub-Saharan AfricaLike African Islam, syncretic with African

beliefsAntonian movement flourishes early 18th

centuryFounded by Doña Beatriz, claims possession

by St. Anthony of Padua (13th century Franciscan preacher, patron saint of Portugal)

Promotes distinctly African Christianity Jesus a black man, Kongo the holy land, heaven for

AfricansChristian missionaries persuade King Pedro

IV of Kongo to burn her at the stake

30

Social Change in Early Modern AfricaTrade with Europeans brings new goods to

AfricaNew crops from Americas

Manioc (cassava) becomes staple bread flourIncreased food supply boosts population

growth despite slave trade

31

Population Growth in Africa

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1500 1600 1700 1800

Millions

32

Foundations of the Slave TradeAfrican slavery dates to antiquity

War captives, criminals, people expelled from clans

Distinct from Asian, European slaveryNo private property, therefore wealth defined

by human labor potential, not landSlaves often assimilated into owner’s clan

33

The Islamic Slave TradeDramatic expansion of slave trade with Arab

tradersNew slaves acquired by raiding villages,

selling on Swahili coastArab traders depend on African

infrastructure to maintain supplyEuropean demand on west coast causes

demand to rise again

Overland & Sea Trade Routes by 16c

35

Arab Slave Traders

36

The Early Slave TradePortuguese raid West African coast in 1441,

take 12 menMet with stiff resistanceAfrican dealers ready to provide slaves1460: 500 slaves per year sold to work as

miners, porters, domestic servants in Spain and Portugal

1520: 2,000 per year to work in sugarcane plantations in the Americas

37

Slaves at Work in a Mine

38

The Triangular Trade1. European manufactured goods (especially

firearms) sent to Africa2. African slaves purchased and sent to

Americas3. Cash crops purchased in Americas and

returned to Europe

The Triangle TradeThe Triangle Trade

40

The Middle Passage (Africa-Americas)African slaves captured by raiding parties,

force-marched to holding pens at coastMiddle passage under horrific conditions

4-6 weeksMortality initially high, often over 50%,

eventually declined to 5%Total slave traffic, 15th-18th c.: 12 millionApproximately 4 million die before arrival

Slave Ship InteriorSlave Ship Interior

Onboard the Slave ShipOnboard the Slave Ship

Revolt Aboard a Slave ShipRevolt Aboard a Slave Ship

African Captives Thrown OverboardAfrican Captives Thrown Overboard

Sharks followed the slave ships across the Atlantic!

Notice of a Slave AuctionNotice of a Slave Auction

First Slave AuctionNew Amsterdam (Dutch New York City - 17c)

First Slave AuctionNew Amsterdam (Dutch New York City - 17c)

Slave Auction in the Southern U. S.Slave Auction in the Southern U. S.

Inspection and SaleInspection and Sale

Slave Master BrandsSlave Master Brands

Slave With Iron MuzzleSlave With Iron Muzzle

A Slave LynchingA Slave Lynching

Abolitionist Symbol, 19cAbolitionist Symbol, 19c

54

African Slave Export per Year

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

16th c. 17th c. 18th c.

55

Impact on African RegionsRwanda, Bugunda, Masai, Turkana resist

slave tradeBenefit from distance from slave ports on

western coastOther societies benefit from slave trade profit

Asante (mostly from modern Ghana) , Dahomey (modern Benin), Oyo peoples (mostly from modern Nigeria)

56

Social Effects of Slave TradeTotal African population expands due to

importation of American cropsYet millions of captured Africans removed

from society, deplete regional populationsDistorted sex ratios result

2/3 of slaves male, 14-35 years of ageEncouraged polygamy, women acting in

traditionally male roles

57

Political Effects of Slave TradeIntroduction of firearms increases violence of

pre-existing conflictsMore weapons, more slaves; more slaves,

more weaponsDahomey people create army dedicated to

slave trade

58

African Slaves in Plantation SocietiesMost slaves in tropical and subtropical

regionsFirst plantation established in Hispaniola

(Haiti, Dominican Republic) 1516Later Mexico, Brazil, Caribbean and AmericasSugar major cash crop

Later: tobacco, rice, indigo, cotton, coffeePlantations heavily dependent on slave laborRacial divisions of labor

59

Destinations of African Slaves

50%

33%

12%

5%

Caribbean

Brazil

Central, South America

North America

60

Regional DifferencesCaribbean, South America: African population

unable to maintain numbers through natural meansMalaria, yellow feverBrutal working conditions, sanitation, nutritionGender imbalance

Constant importation of slavesNorth America: less disease, more normal sex

ratioSlave families encouraged as prices rise in 18th

century

61

Resistance to SlaveryHalf-hearted work effortSabotageFlight (Maroon populations - were runaway

slaves who formed independent settlements together)

Revolts

62

Slave RevoltsOnly one successful revolt

French-controlled St.-Domingue (1793)Renamed Haiti

Elsewhere, revolts outgunned by Euro-American firepower

63

African-American CultureDiversity of African cultures concentrated in

slave populationBlend of culturesAfrican languages when numbers permit,

otherwise European language adapted with African influencesCreole languages

Christianity adapted to incorporate African traditions

64

The Abolition of SlaveryOlaudah Equiano (1745-1797), former slave

authors best-selling autobiographyEloquent attacks on institution of slavery

Economic costs of slavery increaseMilitary expenses to prevent rebellions18th century: price of sugar falls, price of slaves

risesWage labor becomes more efficient

Wage-earners can spend income on manufactured goods

65

End of the Slave TradeDenmark abolishes slave trade in 1803,

followed by Great Britain (1807), United States (1808), France (1814), Netherlands (1817), Spain (1845)

Possession of slaves remains legalClandestine trade continues to 1867Emancipation of slaves begins with British

colonies (1833), then French (1848), U.S. (1865), Brazil (1888)

Saudi Arabia and Angola continue to the 1960s

“Black Gold” for Sale!“Black Gold” for Sale!