150408_lspr-sim07-s35

Master of Arts in Communication : Corporate Communication Studies

elearning.lspr.edu

Course : Strategic Issues Management (1504SIM07)

Session Topic : Theories, Concepts, Principles

and Models

Course: Strategic Issues Management

By Rudi Sukandar, Ph.D

LSPR eLearning Program

Powered by HarukaEdu.com - 1504SIM07- Hal 3

Part 1 Overview

Part 2 Public Policy Part 3 Grunigs 4 Model

Content

Part1: Overview


Overview: Theories, Concepts, Principles & Models

1. Organisational legitimacy

2. Public policy

3. Systems theory

4. Stakeholder theory

5. Attribution theory

6. Grunigs 4 models of public relations

7. Contingency theory

8. Situational theory

9. Social exchange theory

10. Agenda setting theory

11. Framing

The content of this lecture complements the

information in:

Harrison, K. (2011) Strategic Public Relations,

chapters 3, 5, 16, 21 and 22. Melbourne, Australia:

Palgrave Macmillan.

Kim Harrison

President of PRIA

Western Australia


Overview: Theory Valuable

Q: Why is theory valuable for PR?

A:

Essentially, theory aids prediction:

1. Theories help us,

to explain and predict phenomena of interest to us and, therefore, to make intelligent practical decisions (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1992). 2. The outcomes of applied theory are organisation, explanation, prediction and

greater control of the situation.

All these factors help practitioners build programs that are more likely to achieve their objectives because...

...they are built on a valid, reliable base.

Professor Tom Watson blog 4.3.2013:

http://fiftyonezeroone.blogspot.co.uk/

Also understanding theories makes it easier to identify, label and explain facts and

trends.


Overview: Frankfort-Nachmias, Nachmias & Tom Watson

Chava Frankfort-

Nachmias

Emeritus Prof. of

Sociology at the Univ.of

Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

Prof. David Nachmias

Head of Specialization in Policy & Public

Administration,

Founders of the Dept. of Public Policy at Tel Aviv

Univ.

Tom Watson

Professor of Public

Relations at Bournemouth

Univ. (2007 - present)


Overview: Organisational Legitimacy

To exist legitimately, every organisation depends on the approval of society

through,

1. conforming to regulations and

2. receiving informal social consent.

Legitimacy

Defn:

a generalised perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper or appropriate within...

...some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions (Suchman, 1995).

Legitimacy,

provides organisations with a reservoir of support (or bank of good will) that enhances...

...the chances of organisational survival (Dowling & Pfeffer, 1975; Rao, 1994, cited in Tost, 2011).


Overview: Organisational Legitimacy (cont.)

The legitimisation and ultimate survival of a firm may depend on,

adequately managing the relationship between the organisation and its social and political stakeholders (Meznar & Nigh, 1993).

In issue management,

it is essential to maintain high levels of legitimacy and a good reputation. Strengthening reputation helps to increase the legitimacy or an

organisation.

Audiences perceive the legitimate organisation not only as more worthy, but

also as more...,

meaningful, predictable, and trustworthy (Suchman, 1995).


Overview: Suchman, Pfeffer & Meznar

Mark C. Suchman Ph.D.

American Sociologist Professor in Sociology

at Brown Univ.

Jeffrey Pfeffer

Thomas D. Dee II

Professor of Org.

Behavior at the

Graduate School of

Business, Stanford Univ.

Martin B. Meznar

Associate Professor of

International Mgt.

Appalachian State Univ.


Overview: Climate Fraud

Part2: Public Policy


Public Policy


Public Policy: Making

Public policy making, The origin of issue management Involves how legislative and regulatory decisions are

made by government. A competitive process because few public policy

decisions are unanimously supported.

Classic model of public policy making: 1. Agenda setting 2. Policy formation 3. Implementation 4. Policy evaluation

Legislators, Dont have the resources to consider all policies. Therefore, policies have to compete for the attention

of policy makers. Agenda setting can include an issue rising to the

attention of policy makers (politicians) (Coombs & Holladay, 2010).


Public Policy: Phases of the Public Policy Life Cycle

Problem Definition

Agenda Setting

Policy Adoption

Implementation

Evaluation


Public Policy: Phases of the Public Policy Life Cycle (cont.)

1. Problem definition Problem is identified, and Possible solutions are explored through research and analysis.

2. Agenda setting Efforts are made to raise the profile of the problem and Possible solutions among the public and decision-makers.

3. Policy adoption Policy makers discuss options and possible solutions and adopt new or amend

existing policy. Strategies for policy adoption include issue advocacy, regulatory advocacy,

community organising or public/private partnership creation.

4. Implementation Critical decisions are made. Approaches: issue advocacy, regulatory advocacy, litigation, public/private

partnerships.

5. Evaluation Research and analysis to evaluate if intents met and if any unintended outcomes.


Public Policy: Public Affairs Theories

Public affairs (broadly public relations) has no unique theories. Theories applicable in PA come from

many directions: 1. Communication and public relations 2. Economics 3. Organisational sociology 4. Social psychology 5. Political science 6. Strategic management 7. Business in society 8. Business ethics 9. Ecological systems (Windsor, 2011, p. 401)


Public Policy: Systems Theory

The systems approach Defn: The foundation for issues management (Coombs & Holladay, 2010, p. 192).

An organisation Defn: Interdependent with its environment and seeks balance in a complex way with all other systems. All applicable systems are, interdependent and go through a process of adjustment ...including communication.

3 Issue Change Strategy Options within the Systems Approach a. Reactive: prepares for the effects of the issue. b. Adaptive: accommodative proposes alternative courses of action when the issue arises. c. Dynamic: proactive issue manager anticipates the issue and is the first to make a policy proposal (Coombs & Holladay, 2010, p. 193).


Public Policy: Stakeholder Theory

A stakeholder Defn: Any individual or group or category of individuals, who can affect or be affected by the firm and thus could have interest in collaborating with management.

Stakeholder theory relates to management attempting

collaboration among variable stakeholder interests. Examples: activists, communities, customers, employees, (Covered earlier this semester.)

investors, media, governments or suppliers.


Public Policy: Attribution Theory

People interpret facts and events according to their own pre-existing thinking and behaviour.

Someone trying to understand why another person did something may attribute one or more causes to that persons behaviour, through:

1. Internal attribution the other person is behaving in a certain way because of factors such as their attitude, character or personality 2. External attribution the other person is behaving in a certain way because of the situation they are in. In IM, Stakeholders may attribute organisational behaviour to such internal and

external factors. (Heath & Palenchar, 2009, p. 118). Example: People might believe the company has made a decision because its

managers are incompetent (internal attribution) or, on the other hand, in response to competitors actions (external

attribution).


Public Policy: Coombs, Holladay, Heath & Palenchar

W. Timothy Coombs

Ph.D

Professor, Advertising-

Public Relations at the

Univ. of Central Florida

Sherry J. Holladay,

Ph.D

Professor at the

Nicholson School of

Communication at the

Univ. of Central Florida

in Orlando

Robert L. Heath

Emeritus Professor,

Communication,

Houston Univ.

Published many award-winning

books

Michael J.

Palenchar, Ph.D.

Doctor of

Philosophy, Mass

Communication

Univ. of

Florida (2005)

Part3: Grunigs 4 Model


Grunigs 4 Model: Reminder

No Model Type of Communication

1. Press Agentry / Publicity 1- Way Communication Purpose: propaganda

2. Public Information 1- Way Communication Purpose: dissemination of communication

3. 2 - Way Asymmetrical

2 - Way Communication (imbalanced effects)

Purpose: scientific persuasion Feedback sought, but only to increase

effectiveness of messaging

4. 2 - Way Symmetrical

2 - Way Communication (balanced effects)

Purpose: mutual understanding Feedback sought for adapting to

receivers requirements


Grunigs 4 Model: Reminder (cont.)

1. Press agentry Uses persuasion and manipulation to influence audiences... ...to behave as the organisation desires. 2. Public Information Uses media releases and other one-way communication techniques to distribute

organisational information. The PR practitioner often referred to as the in-house journalist. 3. Two-way asymmetrical Uses persuasion to influence audiences to behave as the organisation desires. Does not use research to find out how stakeholders feel about the

organisation. 4. Two-way symmetrical Uses communication to negotiate with the public, resolve conflict and promote mutual understanding and... ...respect between the organisation and its stakeholders.

Two-way symmetrical communication is considered to be the most ethical and desirable form of communication in public relations.


Contingency Theory: Definition

Contingency theory is based on the conflict between, organisations and stakeholders/publics.

Actions are, on a continuum from pure advocacy to pure accommodation ...in contrast to Grunigs 4 simplistic models.

PR response is, shaped by many factors and there are times to accommodate and

time to advocate, with many variations in between.

The theory is, complex, with 86 variables in 11 categories along... ...two dimensions internal and external.


Contingency Theory: Definition (cont.)

External variables include, 1. external threats, 2. the industry environment, 3. political/social/cultural environment, 4. external stakeholders and 5. the issue under consideration.

Internal factors include, 1. characteristics of the organisation, 2. its PR dept, 3. management, 4. individuals & relationships, and 5. internal threats.

(Coombs & Holladay, 2010, p. 95)


Continuum: PR Communication

Contingency Factors

Internal variables 1. Organisational characteristics 2. PR department characteristics 3. Characteristics of top management 4. Internal threats (how much is at stake) 5. Individual characteristics 6. Relationship characteristics

(Pang, Jin & Cameron, 2010, pp. 20, 29-32)

External variables 1. Threats 2. Industry environment 3. General political/social

environment/external culture 4. The external public (group, individual) 5. Issue under question

------------------------------------------------- Pure

Advocacy

Pure

Accommodation


Continuum: Pang, Jin & Cameron

Augustine Pang, Ph.D

Assistant Professor &

Deputy Head of the

Division of Public and

Promotional

Communication

Dr. Yan Jin

Associate Director of the

Center for Health & Risk

Communication at the Univ.

of Georgias Grady

College of Journalism &

Mass Communication

Glen T. Cameron

Professor & Maxine

Wilson Gregory Chair in

Journalism Research at the

Missouri School of

Journalism


Situational Theory: Factors

The situational theory of communication behaviour explains, why people engage in behaviour and communicate in a process of planning that

behaviour. Probably the only unique PR theory conceived by J. Grunig.

Situational theory helps to identify current and potential publics.

The situational factors are: 1. Problem recognition. People detect that, something should be done about a situation and stop to think what to do. 2. Level of involvement. The extent to which people involve themselves with a situation. Involvement results from the degree of importance they attribute to the situation or

their concern about it. 3. Constraint recognition. People perceive obstacles in a situation that limit their ability to do anything about

it. This discourages communication. (Toth, 2006, p. 509.)


Agenda Setting Theory: News Media

This is really agenda building theory because, news sources provide information and then the news media

report it. News media dont just decide for themselves what to report

from a large list of existing issues they have developed (Grunig & Hunt, 1984, pp. 235-236, citing K & G Lang, 1983).

Q: So who are the news sources who sets the agenda for the news media? A: PR professionals provide at least 50% of the material used in all new stories.


Agenda Setting Theory: News Media

News media, may not tell us what to think,

but they are very successful in telling us what to think about.

When framing is taken into account, the media also tell how to think about some topics

(Harrison, p. 565, citing McCombs & Ghanem, 2001, pp. 68-69).

Therefore media relations is extremely important in issue management.

Maxwell McCombs

Professors of

journalism at Univ.

of North Carolina

Salma Ghanem

Professor & Dean

of the College of

Communication &

Fine Arts at

Central Michigan

Univ.


Framing: Issues

Issues are framed: the way an issue is presented can affect public perceptions of the issue.

A frame limits or, defines the messages meaning by shaping the inferences that... ...individuals make about the message (Heath & Palenchar, 2009, p. 221-222). The way that news media frame an issue can be significantly influenced by

their use of sources to help interpret discordant news events. Example: Critics may frame a mining company general policy as profit corrupts,

and therefore in an issue over mine safety a reporter might believe that all the

mining company communication is... ...tainted by management desire for profits above safety. Frame: Would you rather have a 10% chance of death or a 90% chance of survival?


References

1. Coombs, W., & Holladay, S. (2010). PR Strategy and Application: managing influence. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.

2. Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (1992) Research Methods in the Social Sciences (4th ed.). London: Edward Arnold.

3. Grunig, J., & Hunt, T. (1984). Managing Public Relations. New York: CBS College Publishing.

4. Heath, R., & Palenchar, M. (2009). Strategic Issues Management: organizations and public policy challenges (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.

5. LEtang, J. (2008). Public Relations: concepts, practice and critique. London: SAGE Publications.

6. Meznar, M., & Nigh, D. (1993). Managing corporate legitimacy: public affairs activities, strategies and effectiveness. Business and Society, 32(1), pp. 30-40.

7. Pang, A., Jin, Y., & Cameron, G. (2010). Strategic management of communication: insights from the contingency theory of strategic conflict management. In R. Heath (Ed.) The SAGE Handbook of Public Relations (2nd ed.), pp, 17-34. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.


References (cont.)

8. Suchman, M. (1995). Legitimacy: strategic and institutional approaches. The Academy of Management Review, 20(3), pp. 571-610

9. Tost, L. (2011). An integrative model of legitimacy judgments. Academy of Management Review 36(4), pp. 686-710.

10. Toth, E. (2006). Building public affairs theory. In C. Botan and V. Hazelton (Eds.) Public Relations Theory II. New York: Routledge.

11. Windsor, D. (2011). Theories and theoretical roots of public affairs. In Harris, P., & Fleisher, C. (Eds.), The Handbook of Public Affairs, pp. 401-417. London: SAGE Publications.


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Course : Strategic Issues Management (1504SIM07)

150408_lspr-sim07-s35

Documents

systems theory

stakeholder theory

attribution theory

contingency theory

situational theory

public policy

organisational legitimacy

social exchange theory