18th Century and the EnlightenmentThe triumph of rational thought

Definition and CharacteristicsThe Enlightenment: intellectual revolution of the 18th C. which enthroned REASON, stressing natural law and progress in their criticisms of prevailing philosophies and social injusticesRationalismNatural Law (Isaac Newton and the scientific revolution)Application of the scientific method to social problemsThe world behaves according to patterns and these ought to be obeyedContinuation of patterns of thought begun with the RenaissanceFoundation of Classical art and musicParallel to the scientific revolution/awakening

(More characteristics)Political Implications/Consequences of this thinkingReligious tolerationFreedom of Expression and ThoughtMovement toward Constitutional GovernmentSocial Implications/Consequences of this thinkingBelief in progress, optimism about the futureHumanitarianism: Prison and Social ReformsScientific spirit: exaggerated abilities of science (physiognomy)Education for all social classesAdam Smith: economics laissez faire leave it alone: economics, too, follows natural law

Precursors: NewtonBy applying reason to observed nature, discover natural laws by which nature worksLaws of motionLaw of gravityUse natural laws to describe universe, ultimately control, subdue nature for mans endsConclusion: natural laws discoverable by application of reason must also govern all of mankind, as well: art, government, economy, even behavior

Hobbes (1588-1679)"All that is real is material, and what is not material is not real." natural law, of government is absolutism becausestate of nature (without civilization, law) =life of man nasty, brutish, shortmen would give up liberty and rights for securityContext = British revolution; if no strong king, chaos and crime

Locke (1632-1704)natural law = constitutional monarchy with king limited by representative body (legislature)View of mankind in Essay Concerning Human Understandingstate of nature = man is reasonable and willing to get alongTabula rasa (blank slate) man is born neutral as a blank sheet of paper: he is influenced by experiences in society, environment through his senses to make himself what he isMen equal in birth; no divine right giving one man an advantage over another just because born into a particular group

(more Locke)Two Treatises on GovernmentNatural rights: all men have natural, inalienable rights to life, liberty and property.Social Contract: government is conditional contract between man and those who govern: If government fails to protect natural rights, people have the duty to overthrow government and establish one that does protect those rightsContext: 17 when Charles I executed, writing during Glorious Revolution in England

Liebniz17th C German philosopher/mathematicianMathematics:Brilliant: self taught in math and scienceClaimed to have invented calculus (disputed with Newton over it) Journeyed to England at the right time to have been shown Newtons unpublished ideasWas known when served as a diplomat, to have falsified and back dated documents, so untrustworthyMany knew, like and trusted him Did achieve much:Calculating machine that did all four arithmetic operationsBinary math (base 2), system all computers use

In philosophy, he is mostly remembered for optimism:"There must be a sufficient reason [often known only to God] for anything to exist, for any event to occur, for any truth to obtain.Since God is good, "God assuredly always chooses the best."

Therefore, since God has created it, this must be the best of all possible worlds. This best of all possible worlds will contain all possibilities, with our finite experience of eternity giving no reason to dispute nature's perfection."

PhilosophesSocial critics of the 18th C. Believed social institutions and practices should accord with natural law = reasonPublicists, men of letters: wrote to bring attention to social injustice, governmental abusesPhilosopher asked, philosophe answeredMet in salons hosted usually by upper class womenMostly in France, enjoyed much social prestige; influenced future society: thinking, living

Voltaire (French) 1694-1778Bourgeoisie background; spent 11 months in BastilleCorresponded with Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great; admired Louis XIVFavored Enlightened Despots: Id rather obey a lion of good family, whom nature has made much my superior, than 200 rats of my own species.Anti-democratic: common people incapable of governing themselves, silly barbarians in need of wise supervisionDeist : despised organized religion (crush the infamous thingfelt churches kept men from behaving justly toward each other. Strong advocate for freedom of speech: attributed to him: I may not agree with what you say, but Ill defend to the death your right to say it.

Candide: written in reaction to Leibniz belief that this is the best of all possible worlds.Candide, main character, travels throughout the world suffering all kinds of ills because of nature, his fellow men.His adventures expose the hypocrisy and evils of current society.

From Discourse on ManThis world is a great dance in which fools, disguised under the laughable names of Eminence and Highness, think to inflate their being and elevate their baseness. All mortals are equal.All are born from the same mud; they drag out their childhood in the same weakness; and the rich and the poor, and the weak and the strong, all go on equally from sorrow to death.

Montesquieu (French) 1689-1755Aristocratic baron, but despised absolutism and looked on Louis XIV as a villainSpirit of the Laws (1748) separation of powersExecutive, legislative, judicial divide powers of governmentForms of government should vary according to the climate and circumstances of a societyNo UNIVERSAL LAWDifferent peoples in small city states, large or medium sized nations; tropical or cold countries, call for different forms of government to meet differing needs. Women not naturally inferior to men. Climate, culture, politics responsible. Basic differences between two sexes, so men should dominate marriage and family.

Diderot (French) 1713-1784Encyclopedie (1751)17-35 large volumes26 years to completeFirst large-scale synthesis of knowledgeVery biased: criticized current society and institutionsContributors included Voltaire, Rousseau, MontesquieuCovered practical arts of crafts, inventions, technology, as well as fine arts, philosophy, natural science, etcSold library to Catherine the Great, who allowed him to keep it while he lived and paid him an annual salary as its librarian

EncyclopediaTeach people how to think criticallySolicited articles from many expertsControversial articles brought criticismOverall, moved forward the ideas of Enlightenment

Rousseau (French) 1712-1778Really beginning of Romantic thought; reaction AGAINST rationalismFrom lower classes, social misfit, protestant, maladjusted (gave away his children for others to raise because he reasoned he would be a bad parent), gained recognition later in life (after 40)Basic idea: society/civilization has corrupted man; In a state of nature everyone =; inequality because of material possessions; evil in world due to inequalities: man is born free, but is everywhere in chains.

More RousseauState of nature man is compassionate, humane and merciful; civilization is regression; inequality breed indifference to others sufferingsConcept of noble savage: people closest to nature (American Indians, etc) much superior to European aristocratssocial contract differing from Locke: best form of government is commonwealth/democracy: we give up our natural rights to fuse our will into a combined general will to govern justly.

Even more RousseauEmile: ideas on educationSelf expression, not repressionLearn by doing, by investigating nature, not by studying in booksViews on Women Men and women in separate spheresWomen more capacity to love and feel, not thinkWomen educated to meet needs of men, subordinate to menWomens function to bear children, make selves pleasing to men ONLYWomen excluded from politics, philosophy, etc

Deism, religion for rationalistsbackgroundtime of Newton and other scientists who use the scientific method to find out about the natural worldReaction against the irrational religious view of the world of the Puritans and othersThe watchword is REASONDistrust of the emotional, enthusiasm

View of GodClockmaker metaphorMaster scientist who created the world to operate according to scientific lawNature: source of knowledge that allows man to REASON out natural law

Good life: apply REASON to experience to understand the natural laws that apply to living ones lifeLive according to these natural laws to achieve success, balance, goodnessTrust in instinct or emotion, enthusiasm may lead to negative results, even tragedy, failure

Arts during EnlightenmentREASON out natural laws of writing, painting, architecture, etc to make ones expression most effective and successfulBalance and restraint, avoiding emotion, enthusiasmRealistic basenot imaginative; first novels presented as biography

Writers: applying reason to writingSamuel Johnson: the Enlightenments Renaissance ManAlexander Pope

Music: beyond BaroqueJohann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)Mozart (1756-91) child prodigy, composing at 6, 1st opera at 12Hayden (1732-1809) Darling of Europe

Art: RococoArtistic style 1720-89: excessively ornate, intricate, elegant and full of frivolityCommon: rosy cheeked cherubs, lovers in theatrical costumes, (aristocrats dressed as shepherdesses,), escapist, mythology and nature; love a basic themePastel colors + white, billowy clouds

FragonardTypical rococoAristocratic, but delicate and feminineLove themeIdealistic settings

Watteau Pilgrimage to Cythera

BoucherPastoraleTypical style, from middle class, but aristocrats loved his paintings.Widely imitated, so fell out of style

Reaction: popular religionReligious revival: emphasis on improvement of soul, not formPietism: not social institutions; individual; rejection of mechanistic universe and rationalist godJohn Wesley: MethodismFree Masonry: rationalist religion + social organization + drive to improve social justice

PhysiocratsEconomists who reasoned out natural laws of economicsFrancois Quesnay (1644-1674) Only true measure of wealth is nature/landAgriculture = basis of any nations economyAdam Smith Wealth of NationsLaissez faire economicsTheoretical basis of capitalism

Movement toward Social Reform: Cesare Beccaria (Prison Reform) Crimes and Punishments Severe punishment unnecessary for most crimesPunishment to deter crime and reform criminalEffective punishment: certain, quick, immediateAbolish torture and capital punishment

The Idea of Enlightened DespotsTotal power, BUTRuled state by reason, not divine right or heavenly mandateKings first servant to the state

Frederick II the Great of PrussiaConsidered to be best example of enlightened despotFriends with Voltaire; poetry and fluteAbolished torture and unreasonable punishmentEstablished education for all: elementary school systemPromoted industry, agriculture, commerceReligious toleration for Catholics, Jews

BUT:Foreign policy: total anti-enlightenmentBegan War of Austrian Succession simply to aggrandize Prussia/BrandenburgSeized Silesiaand kept itContinued policies of militaristic-centered societyTreatment of peasantryNo more than serfs, hereditary subjectsCouldnt leave junker estates Couldnt marry or learn a trade without junkers permission

Catherine the great of Russia(reign: 1762-1796)Minor German princess married to Romanov Peter III; Peter was also German, mother Romanov daughter of Peter the Great; made him a nephew of ruler, Empress Elizabeth, who had taken the throne from half brother Ivan VI when he was very young, kept him prisonerHe was ugly and not overly bright because of smallpox, other diseases He openly favored his lover, bragged about other womenShe was isolated, only child taken from her by Empress to raiseSpent her time reading, favored Enlightenment ideas, which put even more distance between her and PeterNotorious for her lovers Count Orlov, who helped put her in powerAfter Empress d., rumors Peter would kill Catherine and marry his loverGregory Potemkin: able minister and advisor (married her?)Other, younger men as she aged

How Catherine, German, became Absolute Autocrat of RussiaPeter III idolized Frederick II of PrussiaWore ring with his pictureHated warring against him in 7 Years WarAs soon as mom died, made peace and gave back all territories Frederick lost in 7 years War in secret treatyTried to model army, with Prussian discipline and uniforms, after FredericksPlot of Peters mistresss sister, Orlovs, others to depose Peter and put in CatherineCatherine gained support of militaryUpset over 7 Years War sacrifices thrown awayDidnt like Prussian model reformsDidnt trust or like PeterPeter surrendered, held, killed (Orlov?)

Enlightenment achievementsFriends with Voltaire (whom she called champion of the human race) and with DiderotPatronized artsEstablished schools Established hospitals and public welfare projectsContinues westernizing Russian cultureRevolutionized economy (horrible conditions she turned around to profitability and government solvency)Modern methods, tools, machines for farmsMining: established training school, encouraged minesManufacturing: supported even peasants to set up factories

BUTPugachev Revolt: bloody peasant revolt in 1773convinces Catherine to support nobles, stop internal reformsPugachev proclaimed end of serfdom, taxes, military draftPugachev claimed to be Czar Peter IIITurned against Enlightenment (revolt proved to her it didnt work for Russia)Burned books, exiled or jailed intellectual criticsSerfdom greatest height: from 7,600,000 to 20 millionIn exchange for support of nobility, nobles accepted her absolute power (laws, officials, army, policies)

Catherines foreign policyCaptures Crimea for Russia (warm water near Mediterranean, Black Sea port), but it took two wars with TurkeyGreek Project 1768 war: Russ defeats Turkey and claims right to protect E/Gr Orthodox Christians vs Ottoman Muslim Turkish rule; took CrimeaAustria/Russia vs Turkey delayed because of Fr. Rev.Partitions of Poland to Prussia, Russia, Austria