1968:The Year of Turmoil

1968■1968 was one of the most

turbulent years in U.S. history

–Martin Luther King Jr. & Robert Kennedy were assassinated

–Riots broke out at the Democratic National Convention

–The Tet Offensive showed that the USA was not winning the Vietnam War

Protesting the Vietnam War■The most dramatic focus of

youthful rebellion was Vietnam:–Mostly led by college students

who escaped the draft–Students protested the draft,

military research on college campuses, & disproportionate use of black & Hispanic soldiers

–Protests got stronger as fighting intensified in Vietnam in 1966

Vietnam in 1968■In 1968, the Vietcong launched

the Tet OffensiveTet Offensive against U.S. forces in South Vietnam –The attack was contrary to

media reports that the U.S. was winning the Vietnam War

–The attack led LBJ to believe that Vietnam could not be won

■In 1968, LBJ began discussions to seek a truce & announced that he would not seek re-election

Assassinations in 1968

■In 1968, Martin Martin Luther KingLuther King was assassinated in Memphis & race riots broke out in over 100 cities

■In 1968, leading Democratic presidential candidate Robert KennedyRobert Kennedy was shot during the California primary

The 1968 Democratic Convention■The withdraw of LBJ & death of

RFK, left 2 candidates for the Democratic nomination in 1968:

–MN Senator Eugene McCarthy

–VP Hubert Humphrey

■TV showed angry protestors & police fight outside the convention when Humphrey was nominated

1968 Democratic National Convention

Republicans benefited from the Vietnam disaster & a shattered Democratic party; Nixon won the election as a reconciler

The Presidency of Richard Nixon

Foreign Policy■Nixon proved to be an effective

foreign-policy president:–Most foreign policy decisions

were made by Nixon & National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger

■Developed a plan for détentedétente:–An “honorable” exit from Vietnam –Using U.S. trade to induce

cooperation from the USSR–Improved relations with China

Nixon hoped for a relaxing of Cold War tensions

Ending the Vietnam War■Nixon’s plan for an “honorable

peace” was “VietnamizationVietnamization”:–Gradual withdraw of U.S. troops–Handing over the fighting to

South Vietnamese troops ■Privately, Nixon hoped for a

“knockout blow” & ordered U.S. troops into Cambodia & Laos

■The effect was the largest series of protests in American history

These bombings were conducted without the consent or approval of Congress

In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers ActWar Powers Act requiring Congress’ approval to send U.S.

forces into combat for more than 90 days & must inform Congress within 48 hours as to

the reasons for military intervention

Protests at Kent State & Jackson State resulted in bloody confrontations

between students & National Guard

Kent State, Ohio student protestsKent State student protest, 1970

Ending the Vietnam War■In January 1973, the U.S. & North

Vietnam agreed to a cease fire–By March 1973, U.S. troops

were withdrawn –By 1975, the South Vietnamese

capital of Saigon fell & Vietnam became unified under the Communist government

–Vietnam proved Containment could not be sustained

In Search of Détente

■In Feb 1972, Nixon became 1st U.S. president to visit & recognize the People’s Republic of China:

–These improved Sino-American relations helped eased Cold War tensions & forced the USSR to consider diplomacy with the U.S.

–Presented the U.S. with its 1st economic access to China

In Search of Détente■Nixon traveled to Moscow to meet

with Soviet leader Brezhnev:–The U.S. agreed to sell the

USSR $1 billion worth of grain–USSR agreed to Strategic Arms Strategic Arms

Limitation TalksLimitation Talks (SALT), the 1st Cold War nuclear arms treaty

■Kissinger negotiated an end to the Yom Kippur War in 1973 between Israel & Egypt

Nixon’s Covert Operations

■Despite Nixon’s public détente with the USSR & China, most foreign policy was covertcovert:

–CIA funded the leaders of brutal gov’ts in Iran, South Africa, the Philippines, & Nicaragua

–CIA assassinated Chilean president Salvador Allende

Nixon’s Domestic Policy■Nixon entered office as a

moderate who kept LBJ’s Great Society in place

–But, Nixon shifted responsibility for social problems to state & local governments

–Nixon reshaped the Supreme Court along conservative lines when 4 justices retired

Nixon’s Domestic Policy■Nixon oversaw the creation of:

–Environmental Protection Agency

–Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)

–A failed plan to replace welfare benefits with a minimum income

–Quotas for minority construction firms for gov’t projects

–Ended the gold standard in 1971

The Election of 1972■In 1972, Nixon ran for re-election

–Democrat George McGovern was labeled an “outsider” who supported “acid, abortion, & amnesty”

–Nixon won in the 4th largest margin of victory in history

■But…the Watergate scandal ended the Nixon presidency

Watergate: A Crisis of Democracy

The Watergate Scandal ■In 1972, a break-in at Democratic

candidate George McGovern’s headquarters revealed a well-funded plan of espionage & sabotage by the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP)

■The Watergate cover-up led to Nixon’s resignation & a changed American perception of the gov’t & the role of the media

Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post broke the Watergate story

Their investigation revealed…

Daniel Ellsberg’s Pentagon Papers

The Watergate Scandal■The Watergate scandal began to

unravel in 1973:–The discovery that Nixon

recorded conversations proved most damning

–The Supreme Court ordered Nixon to turn over all tapes to a Senate investigative committee

–The House brought 3 articles of impeachment against president

Obstruction of justice

Abuse of power Contempt of Congress

Conclusions: Politics After Watergate

■The Watergate scandal eroded public trust in their own gov’t

■The growing tension between president & Congress prevented strong, effective leadership from meeting foreign & domestic problems in the 1970s

■The discontent of the 1960s & 1970s revealed an America at war with itself

Carter’s Cold War

A Declining Superpower■America’s international dominance

declined sharply in 1970s due to:–Americans’ increasing desires

to avoid “another Vietnam”–The War Powers Act forced the

president to consult with Congress before sending troops

–The escalating military costs & deficit spending made sustaining the Cold War impossible

Foreign Policy & Human Rights■In Nov 1977, Egyptian leader

Sadat made an appeal with Israel to settle the October War of 1973

■Carter invited Egyptian leader Sadat & Israeli leader Begin to the U.S. to negotiate terms

■The Camp David accordsCamp David accords in 1979 led to a peace treaty between Egypt & Israel, but alienated other Arab nations

The Cold War Resumes■During the Carter years, the

Cold War rivalry between the U.S. & USSR grew due to:–A new arms race as the U.S.

adopted new MX missiles & Trident submarines

–SALT II failed to make lasting arms reduction

–Increased U.S.-Sino relations put the USSR on the defensive

The Cold War Resumes■Détente ended when the USSR

invaded Afghanistan in 1979

■The U.S. interpreted the attack as a move to take the Middle East & responded with:

–Economic embargo of the USSR

–Boycott of the Moscow Olympics

–Aid to the Afghani resistance

Carter hoped to limit nuclear arms & advance human rights, but found himself in a heightened Cold War

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1979

The Iranian Hostage Crisis ■The Camp David victory was offset

by the 1979 Iranian hostage crisis:

–Exiled Islamic fundamentalist Ayatollah Khomeini led a coup against U.S.-backed the shah

–When Carter allowed the shah to enter the U.S. for medical aid, irate mobs in Tehran took 52 hostages from the U.S. embassy

ConclusionsConclusions:A Failed Presidency

A Failed Presidency■Carter’s failures with inflation,

Iran, & Afghanistan overshadowed his foreign policy victories with the Panama Canal & the Middle East

■The failures of Johnson, Nixon, Ford, & Carter led to a desire among Americans for a strong leader who could face both domestic & foreign challenges

Carter’s 1980 approval rating was 23%

The Cold War of Reagan

Reagan & Foreign Policy■Reagan was committed to restoring

America’s supremacy in the world

–Blamed Carter for allowing U.S. prestige to drop to an all-time low

–Increased military spending

–Confronted challenges in the Middle East & in Latin America

–Ended the Cold War with the Soviet Union

Trouble Spots in Latin AmericaReagan attempted to resist Communism in Latin America

In 1979, Nicaraguan Sandinista rebels led a coup against a U.S.-backed regime

In 1983, Congress denied Reagan’s request to aid Nicaraguan efforts to

overthrow the Sandinista gov’t (Contras)

U.S. Marines invaded Grenada in 1983 to keep a radical regime from turning over

an airfield to Cuba or the USSR

The Iran-Contra Affair■In 1987, the Iran-Contra AffairIran-Contra Affair

rocked the Reagan administration:

–To free 6 U.S. hostages in Iran, the NSC & CIA covertly sold missiles to Khomeini’s gov’t

–Profits from missile sales were used to aid Nicaragua Contras

■Reagan avoided implication through “plausible deniability”

The “Teflon president”

The “Teflon President”

Challenging the "Evil Empire"■Reagan viewed the USSR as the

"focus of evil in the modern world” & as a threat to U.S. security

■Maintained a hard-line approach–Sent 572 nukes within range of

Moscow to match USSR ICBMs aimed at NATO nations

–Began the Strategic Defense Strategic Defense InitiativeInitiative, an anti-missile laser system in space to defend U.S.

SDI was dubbed the “Star Wars” program

Ending the Cold War■Reagan’s most important foreign

policy triumph was working with new USSR leader Mikhail Gorbachev to end the Cold War: –In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev

began perestroikaperestroika & glasnost glasnost & eased Cold War tensions

–The Reagan-Gorbachev summits from 1986 to 1988 led to a reduction of nuclear arms

Introducing moderate capitalism into the Soviet economy such as legalization of small private business cooperatives, relaxed laws prohibiting land ownership, & approval of

foreign investment within the USSR

“Political openness” led to freedom of press, assembly, travel, & religion; the 1st working legislature; the 1st competitive elections; & liberation of hundreds of political prisoners

Gorbachev cut the Soviet defense budget, withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan, &

promoted the democratization of former satellite nations in Eastern Europe

The End of the Cold WarIn 1989, Gorbachev’s promotion of democratization in Eastern

Europe inspired the overthrow of 40 years of communist rule

In 1990, following the example of Eastern Europe, many

Soviet republics within the USSR demanded

independence, leading to…

Countries of the former USSR by 2000

Conclusions■Reagan was the 1st president to

serve 2 full terms since Eisenhower–Reagan’s supporters claim he

restored the economy, military, patriotism, family values, & America’s place as a world power

–Reagan’s detractors claim he removed social safety-nets, skirted Congress in foreign policy, & tripled the national debt