0

Development of Biodiesel Conversion Plant and Properties

Comparability with Mineral Diesel.

Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree

of

Bachelor of Technology

Under Supervision of

Er. J.N. Gangwar

By-

Vijay Kumar Patel 20103082

Satyanarayan 20103080

Satyendra Kumar Patel 20103056

Tarachand Kumar Maurya 20103069

Saurabh Kumar 20103054

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology,

Allahabad, UP - 211004.

( May, 2014 )

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Certificate

This is to certify that the project entitled “Development of Biodiesel Conversion Plant and

Properties Comparability with Mineral Diesel” submitted by Vijay Kumar Patel

(20103082), Satyanarayan (20103080), Satyendra Kumar Patel (20103056), Tarachand

Kumar Maurya (20103069) and Saurabh Kumar (20103054) in partial fulfilment of the

requirement of the degree, Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering has been carried

out under my supervision and that this work has not been submitted elsewhere for a degree.

Date: 27/04/2014

Place: Allahabad.

Signature of Supervisor

Er. J.N. Gangwar

Asst. Professor,

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

MNNIT Allahabad - 211004.

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Undertaking

We hereby declare that the written submission presented in this report titled “Development of

Biodiesel Conversion Plant and Properties Comparability with Mineral Diesel” under

supervision of Er. J.N. Gangwar, represents our ideas in our own words and where others'

ideas or words have been included, we have adequately cited and referenced the original

sources. We also declare that we have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and

integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source

in our submission.

We understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by

the institute and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been

properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.

Finally, we also declare that we have not submitted the same report anywhere else for the award

of a degree.

Date: 27/04/2014

Place: Allahabad

Students:

1) Vijay Kumar Patel 20103082 ……………

2) Satyanarayan 20103080 ……………

3) Satyendra Kumar Patel 20103056 ……………

4) Tarachand Kumar Maurya 20103069 ……………

5) Saurabh Kumar 20103054 ……………

3

Acknowledgement

We are extremely grateful to our project guide Er. J.N. Gangwar, Assistant faculty of

Mechanical Engineering Department, for his guidance and encouragement, which has led us to

the completion of the project. Without his constant appraisal and continuous efforts, this task

would not has been possible in present form. He provided us all the necessary guidance,

technical support and moreover the moral support and motivation during whole course of

project.

We are also thankful and grateful from bottom of our hearts to our esteemed visiting faculties

Prof. S. K. Agrawal, Prof. R. K. Srivastava (HOD), Prof. H. S. Goyal, Prof. Ravi Prakash,

Dr. S. K. Poddar, Mrs. Vandana Agrawal, Dr. Rahul Dev, Er. Bireswar Paul and Er.

Manoj Kumar Gupta. Without their continuous support and valuable appraisals this project

would not have been possible in present form.

We are thankful to Dr. Samir Saraswati for his guidance and kindness. Without his support

our small lab would not have been so arranged.

We are also thankful to the Thermodynamics Lab (Mechanical Engineering department),

Chemistry Department and Environment and Ecology Lab (Civil Engineering department) for

providing us various equipment during production and properties testing. We are grateful to

our PhD scholars in Mechanical engineering department, Ecology department and Chemistry

department and our MTech counterpart for their valuable support.

Finally we also thank one and all who helped us directly or indirectly in carrying out this project

work.

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Index

Certificate 1

Undertaking 2

Acknowledgement 3

1. Chapter 1

1.1. Abstract 7

1.2. Scope of project 9

1.3. Objective of project 12

2. Chapter 2

2.1. Introduction 13

2.2. Biodiesel 13

2.3. Physical Characteristics of biodiesel 14

2.4. Physiochemical properties of methyl esters 14

2.5. Advantages and limitations of biodiesel 15

2.6. Biodiesel blends 16

2.7. Feedstock 17

3. Chapter 3 : Biodiesel production

3.1. The process: Transesterification 18

3.2. Chemicals and equipment Required 19

1. Alcohol 19

2. Catalyst or lye 19

3. Vegetable oil 20

4. Equipment 20

3.3. Production of one batch of biodiesel 20

1. Methoxide Preparation 21

2. Transesterification 21

3. Transfer and settling 21

4. Separation 21

5. Quality Testing 21

A. Wash Test 21

B. Methanol Test 22

6. Water Washing 22

A. Mist washing 23

B. Bubble washing 23

C. Stir Washing 23

7. Drying of biodiesel 23

8. Washing with acids 24

9. Wash water disposal 24

A. Some Biodiesel 24

B. Some excess Methanol 24

C. Catalyst ( lye) 24

D. Sulphur 24

E. Soap 25

10. Dry Washing or solid absorbent 25

11. Glycerine neutralisation 25

12. Recycling the wash water 25

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3.4. Effect of various factors 25

1. Effect of lye or catalyst 25

2. Effect of oil to alcohol ratio 27

3. Effect of water and FFA 27

4. Supercritical Process 27

5. Membrane separation 28

6. Effect membrane pores size 28

3.5. Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification 29

3.6. Safety 29

3.7. Various samples prepared and their result 30

4. Chapter 4: Properties Testing

4.1. Properties Testing 31

I. Kinematic Viscosity 31

II. Density 33

III. Flash Point 33

IV. Fire Point 33

V. Calorific Value 35

4.2. Other important fuel properties 36

5. Chapter 5: Economic Analysis

5.1. Equipment cost 38

5.2. Feedstock cost 38

5.3. Cost analysis per litre of biodiesel 38

5.4. Potential cost reduction and recommendation 39

6. Chapter 6: Summary and conclusion 40

7. Appendix 43

8. References 46

6

7

Chapter 1

1.1 Abstract:

Reference [1]

The future global economy is likely to consume ever more energy, especially with the rising

energy demand of developing countries such as China and India. At the same time, the

tremendous risk of climate change associated with the use of fossil fuels makes supplying this

energy increasingly difficult.

We rely on coal, oil and gas (the fossil fuels) for over 80% of our current energy needs – a

situation which shows little sign of changing over the medium-term without drastic policy

changes. On top of this energy demand is expected to grow by almost half over the next two

decades. Understandably this is causing some fear that our energy resources are starting to run

out, with devastating consequences for the global economy and global quality of life.

The potential for crisis if we run out of energy is very real but there is still time before that

occurs. In the past two decades proven gas reserves have increased by 70% and proven oil

reserves by 40%. At expected rates of demand growth we have enough for thirty years supply.

Moreover, better technology means that new oil and gas fields are being discovered all the time

while enhanced recovery techniques are opening up a potentially huge array of unconventional

sources, including tar sands, shale gas and ultra-deep-water. Ultimately, the near-unlimited

supply potential of renewable energy sources should ensure that the world does not fall short

of its energy needs.

How secure is our access to energy?

The security of global energy supplies continues to be problematic. Today, oil and gas reserves

are in the hands of a small group of nations, several of which are considered political unstable

or have testy relationships with large consuming countries. Eighty per cent of the world’s

proven oil reserves are located in just three regions: Africa; Russia and the Caspian Basin; and

the Persian Gulf. And more than half of the world’s remaining proven gas reserves exist in just

three countries: Russia, Iran, and Qatar.

Concerns over energy security prompt policymakers to seek independence from foreign

sources of energy. In Europe, new coal-fired power stations are back on the political agenda,

partly because Russia is no longer seen as a reliable supplier of gas. In the US, home-grown

biofuels have been promoted by successive administrations as an alternative to Middle Eastern

oil imports, despite being more expensive. These reactions are a natural consequence. The more

governments can extract themselves from the dependence on foreign energy resources, the

more secure they feel.

How does climate change affect the energy we use?

Emissions of carbon dioxide into the Earth’s atmosphere – primarily as a result of burning

fossil fuels for energy – are thought to be the cause of rising global temperatures. The scientific

evidence to support this assertion has become increasingly compelling in recent years,

suggesting a need for urgent and concerted action by all nations to prevent ecological

degradation on a massive scale.

For the first time in history we face an energy crisis not because we might run out of energy,

8

but because we are using it in the wrong way. Up to now the energy industry was judged by

two metrics: its contribution to energy security and the cost of energy delivered to the

consumer. To this we must now add a third: its success in reducing the emission of greenhouse

gases, chiefly carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere.

Fortunately, finding solutions to these differing energy crises demands a broadly similar

response:

Solution 1

Reduce growing energy demand through improved energy efficiency and conservation.

The first step to reducing global emissions is to arrest the growth in energy demand with an

aim to eventually setting it on a downward trend. The key for continued economic progress is

to learn how to create more wealth with less energy. This has additional benefits in improving

energy security, preserving precious natural resources and saving money for businesses and the

ordinary consumer.

However, unlocking the potential savings from improved energy efficiency will be very

difficult without government coordination to change consumer behaviour. This will involve

stricter product regulations as well as public education programmes to encourage people to

think differently about energy. Governments should also address the issue of financing,

providing cheap loans to households and small businesses with which they can carry out the

necessary improvement works.

Solution 2

Research, develop and deploy a broad range of energy sources, both domestic and international,

to work with properly functioning global markets to help meet future energy demands.

We need to look at both the short-term and long-term. In the short-term we can push existing

technologies to help reduce carbon emissions. Fortunately we already have many technologies

at our disposal: from wind, wave, solar and biomass for heat and power, to liquid biofuels,

biogas and electric motors for transport. In the long-term, evolutionary technologies need to be

further developed and research into revolutionary ones pursued.

A crucially important technology will be carbon capture and storage (CCS) which allows for

the continued use of fossil fuels in the future energy mix. Coal is widely used to generate

electricity in many of the world’s largest economies (especially the USA, China and India) and

without CCS technology there is little chance that their energy demands can be met whilst at

the same time reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Solution 3

The so-called ‘developed countries’ along with large developing countries such as China, India,

Russia and Brazil, should agree and adopt a common position on climate change, focused on

reducing greenhouse gas emissions through an effective cross-border market and technology

transfer mechanism.

9

Put simply, we cannot hope to avoid the dangerous consequences of climate change unless

global emissions are halved from current levels by 2050. At current rates of population growth

and with current technologies this will be impossible without a global agreement to limit and

disperse the negative consequences. Developed countries must shoulder the initial burden with

an agreement for immediate emissions cuts. In return, the largest developing countries must

agree to cut their own emissions in the future, but only after having achieved some recognisable

level of economic development.

All countries must agree to, and participate in, a carbon market framework with the aim of

reducing emissions where it is most efficient and least costly. At the same time they must

discover new renewable eco-friendly sources of energy and reduce their dependence on fossil

fuels.

With recent advancement in technology and intensive research and development a number of

various viable alternatives of conventional fuels are coming into light and biofuels are one

among these. Biofuels can be domestically produced and hence will reduce burden on imported

crude oil. At the same time it has high employment potential.

1.2 Scope of Project

Reference [2]

Energy is critical, directly or indirectly, in the entire process of evolution, growth and survival

of all living beings and it plays a vital role in the socio-economic development and human

welfare of a country. Energy has come to be known as a `strategic commodity’ and any

uncertainty about its supply can threaten the functioning of the economy, particularly in

developing economies. Achieving energy security in this strategic sense is of fundamental

importance not only to India’s economic growth but also for the human development objectives

that aim at alleviation of poverty, unemployment and meeting the Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs). Holistic planning for achieving these objectives requires quality energy

statistics that is able to address the issues related to energy demand, energy poverty and

environmental effects of energy growth.

A projection in the Twelfth Plan document of the Planning Commission indicates that total

domestic energy production of 669.6 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) will be reached by

2016-17 and 844 MTOE by 2021-22. This will meet around 71 per cent and 69 per cent of

expected energy consumption, with the balance to be met from imports, projected to be about

267.8 MTOE by 2016-17 and 375.6 MTOE by 2021-22.

India’s energy basket has a mix of all the resources available including renewables. The

dominance of coal in the energy mix is likely to continue in foreseeable future. At present

India's coal dependence is borne out from the fact that 54 % of the total installed electricity

generation capacity is coal based and 67% of the capacity planned to be added during the 11

Five year Plan period 2007-12, is coal based. Furthermore, over 70 % of the electricity

generated is from coal based power plants. Other renewables such as wind, geothermal, solar,

and hydroelectricity represent a 2 percent share of the Indian fuel mix. Nuclear holds a one

percent share.

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In 2011-12, India was the fourth largest consumer in the world of Crude Oil and Natural Gas,

after the United States, China, and Russia. India’s energy demand continued to rise inspite of

slowing global economy. Petroleum demand in the transport sector is expected to grow rapidly

in the coming years with rapid expansion of vehicle ownership. While India’s domestic energy

resource base is substantial, the country relies on imports for a considerable amount of its

energy use, particularly for Crude Petroleum.

Table: 1

11

Table: 2

On the other hand, biodiesel can partially replace the use of diesel by mixing it with diesel in

proportion less than 20% and it can be used diesel powered vehicles with little modification in

piping and fitting. For example, Production of biodiesel has increased from about 25 million

gallons in the early 2000s to almost 1.1 billion gallons in 2012. This represents a small but

growing component of the annual U.S. on-road diesel market of about 35 billion to 40 billion

gallons. Reference [3].

In some cases it can fully replace and B100 can be used. The other notable advantage are it is

renewable, biodegradable eco-friendly and can be produced indigenously by using a wide

variety of feedstock like vegetable oils (both edible and non-edible) and animal fats. It has a

potential to harness the waste lands in India by planting non edible oil crops and trees and at

the same time it has very huge employment opportunities along with potential industrial

development. It has potential to save our foreign exchange and insure energy security. For

example, There are currently about 200 biodiesel plants across the country in USA – from

Washington state to Iowa to North Carolina – with registered capacity to produce some 3 billion

gallons of fuel. The industry is supporting more than 62,000 jobs, generating billions of dollars

in GDP, Reference [3].

No doubt, biodiesel has certain constraints too. The notable constraint is production cost per

litre which is generally higher than current diesel price. Hopefully it can be reduced by

intensive research and planning large scale production facilities.

Thus we can claim that biodiesel is a potent solution for a cleaner, greener and sustainable

tomorrow.

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1.3 Objective of Project

In our project, we have put our efforts to explore and learn the process of making biodiesel

form various vegetable oils (both edible and non-edible oils). Mustard oil, soybean oil and palm

oil are edible oils and jatropha oil is the non-edible oil which is chosen for study. The overall

objective of the project can be described as

A. To study the various processes and equipment involved in the production of biodiesel.

B. To set up a small laboratory for producing it.

C. To produce biodiesel by using stated vegetable oils on academic scale.

D. To find out some of its (B100) properties (kinematic viscosity, density, flash point, fire

point and calorific value) experimentally and compare it with available data.

13

Chapter 2

2.1 Introduction

Three choices Reference [4].

There are at least three ways to run a diesel engine on vegetable oil:

1. Mix it with petroleum diesel fuel, or with a solvent, or with gasoline;

2. Use the oil just as it is -- usually called SVO fuel (straight vegetable oil) or PPO fuel

(pure plant oil);

3. Convert it to biodiesel.

The first two methods sound easiest, but, as so often in life, it's not quite that simple.

1. Mixing it

Vegetable oil is much more viscous (thicker) than either petro-diesel or biodiesel. The purpose

of mixing or blending straight vegetable oil (SVO) with other fuels and solvents is to lower the

viscosity to make it thinner, so that it flows more freely through the fuel system into the

combustion chamber.

2. Straight vegetable oil (SVO).

Unlike biodiesel, which runs in any diesel without modification, you have to modify the engine

to use SVO.

3. Biodiesel or SVO?

Biodiesel has some clear advantages over SVO:

It works in any diesel, without any conversion or modifications to the engine or the fuel

system.

It also has better cold-weather properties than SVO (but not as good as petro-diesel).

Unlike SVO, it's backed by many long-term tests in many countries, including millions

of miles on the road.

2.2 Biodiesel:

Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel obtained from biological sources

like vegetable oils and animal fats or triglycerides.

Technically Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel consisting of long

chain of alkyl (methyl, ethyl or propyl) esters, made by transesterification of vegetable

oils or animal fats, which can be used (alone, or blended with conventional mineral

diesel) in unmodified diesel engine vehicles.

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The National Biodiesel Board (USA) also has a technical definition of "biodiesel" as a

mono-alkyl ester. Reference [5, 8].

Rudolf Diesel's prime model ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg,

Germany on 10 August 1893 running on nothing but peanut oil. In remembrance of this

event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day”. Reference [5, 9].

Most major European vehicle manufacturers provide vehicle warranties covering the

use of pure biodiesel -- though that might not be just any biodiesel. Some manufacturers

insist on "RME", rapeseed methyl esters, and won't cover the use of soy biodiesel,

because soy biodiesel fails the EU biodiesel standard, EN 14214. Reference [4].

Germany has thousands of filling stations supplying biodiesel, and it's cheaper there

than petro-diesel fuel. Reference [4].

All fossil diesel fuel sold in France contains between 2% and 5% biodiesel. EU laws

will require this throughout Europe. Reference [4].

2.3 Physical Characteristic of Biodiesel

Table: 3

Reference [3]

Specific gravity 0.88

Kinematic viscosity at 40°C, mm2/s 4.0 to 6.0

Cetane number 48 to 65

Higher heating value, Btu/gal 127,042

Lower heating value, Btu/gal 118,170

Density, lb/gal at 15.5°C 7.3

Carbon, wt% 77

Hydrogen, wt% 12

Oxygen, by dif. wt% 11

Boiling point, °C 315-350

Flash point, °C 100-170

Sulphur, wt% 0.0 to 0.0024

Cloud point, °C -3 to 15

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2.4 Physiochemical Properties of Methyl esters from various bio-oils.

Table: 4; Reference [7, 11]

Serial

No.

Oil or fat %Oil

content

AT 40C

Kinematic

Viscosity

(mm2/s)

Calorific

Value

MJ/kg

Cetane

Number

Cloud

point

(C)

Cold

filter

plugging

point

C

Flash

Point

C

Oxidation

Stability

(h), 110C

Density

(kg/m3)

1 Jatropha 30–40 4.800 41.17 57.1 2.7 0 135 2.3 879.5

2 Karanza 35-40 3.99 35.56 57.6 12 - 160 --- 880

3 Neem 40–50 5.213 38.15 --- 14.4 11 --- 7.1 884.5

4 Mustard - 4.5 37.25 52 - - 156 - 879

5 Soybean 15–20 4.039 40 52.00 1.0 -4 178 2.1 884.0

6 Sunflower 25–35 4.439 39.3 49.00 3.4 -3 183 0.9 880.0

7 Palm oil 30–60 5.700 34 62.00 13.0 12 164 4.0 876.0

8 Peanut oil 45–55 4.900 40.1 54.00 5.00 17 176 2.0 883.0

9 Coconut 63–65 2.726 56.7 0.0 -4 110 35.5 807.3

10 Mineral

Diesel

--- 2.68 45.1 45-55 --- 13 50-88 --- 833

2.5 Advantages and Limitations of Biodiesel

Reference [3, 6, 13, 17]

Advantages:

Renewable, Bio degradable (5 times), Eco-friendly, Non-toxic.

Less Sulpher Content (1-2%) as compared to diesel (15%).

High Cetane Number (>45) and excellent lubricating property (higher engine life).

Less Flammable & higher flashpoint (>130°C) as compared to diesel (52°C).

Less Polluting HC, CO, CO2, Sulphur, Particulate matter, (except NOx),

High Lubricity, hence less engine wear.

Can be blended in any proportion with mineral diesel (B2, B5, B10, B20, B100 etc.)

Can be produced with a variety of biological sources (vegetable oil and animal fats).

Can be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps and can be used without any

engine modification.

Limitations:

Less power per unit of fuel consumed as compared to mineral diesel.

High NOx emission.

Higher cloud point.

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Oxidatively less stable.

Material compatibility constraints. High density polyethylene, stainless steels and

aluminium are unaffected, but brass, zinc, tin, lead, and cast iron, natural rubber are not

compatible.

Figure Reference [13]

2.6 Biodiesel Blends:

Reference [6]

Biodiesel can be blended with mineral diesel in many different concentrations, for example.

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B100 (pure biodiesel),

B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% mineral diesel),

B5 (5% biodiesel, 95% mineral diesel)

B2 (2% biodiesel, 98% mineral diesel).

B20 is a common biodiesel blend in the United States. Reference [6].

B5

Low-level biodiesel blends, such as B5 and B2 are ASTM approved for safe operation in any

compression-ignition engine designed to be operated on mineral diesel without any engine

modification. Reference [6].

B20

B20 is popular because it represents a good balance of cost, emissions, cold-weather

performance, materials compatibility, and ability to act as a solvent.

B20 and lower-level blends generally do not require engine modifications.

B20 has a higher cetane number (a measure of the ignition value of diesel fuel) and

higher lubricity (the ability to lubricate fuel pumps and fuel injectors) than mineral

diesel.

For B20, this could mean a 1% to 2% less energy per gallon than mineral diesel.

Reference [6].

B100

B100 contains about 8% less energy per gallon than petroleum diesel.

B100 increases nitrogen oxides emissions, although it greatly reduces other toxic

emissions.

B100 has a solvent effect and also it has poor cold weather performance (clogging of

filters).

B100 encounters material compatibility issues and requires equipment modifications

such as hoses and gaskets.

B100 is less common than B5 or B20 due to a lack of regulatory incentives and pricing.

Reference [6].

2.7 Feedstock

Biodiesel can be produced from a wide variety of vegetable oils (both edible and non-edible

oils) and animal fats. Some of notable feedstock are soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, corn,

coconut, peanut, palm, mustard oil, mahua, camelina, canola, cotton, pumpkin, jatropha curcas,

pongamina pinnata, sea mango, tallow (animal fat), poultry, used cooking oil, palanga, neem,

karanja, etc. Reference [13]. Rapeseed and soybean oils are most commonly used, soybean oil accounting for about

half of U.S. production. Reference [5,12].

Algae, grown on waste materials such as sewage, can be used for biodiesel production.

Reference [14].

Animal fats including tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat, fish oil. Reference [15].

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Chapter 3

Biodiesel Production

There are three basic routes to biodiesel production from oils and fats:

Base catalysed transesterification of the oil.

Direct acid catalysed transesterification of the oil.

Conversion of the oil to its fatty acids and then to biodiesel.

Almost all biodiesel is produced using base catalysed transesterification as it is the most

economical process requiring only low temperatures and pressures and producing a 98%

conversion yield. That is why we have chosen base catalysed transesterification process only

in this report. Reference [18].

3.1. The Process: Transesterification

Biodiesel is made from vegetable and animal oils and fats, or triglycerides. It cannot be

made from any other kinds of oil such as used engine oil. Reference [2].

Chemically, triglycerides consist of three long-chain fatty acid molecules joined by a

glycerine molecule.

The biodiesel process uses a catalyst (lye) to break off the glycerine molecule and

combine each of the three fatty-acid chains with a molecule of alcohol (methanol),

creating mono-alkyl esters, or Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) -- biodiesel.

Figure reference [16].

19

Figure reference [24].

3.2 Chemicals needed: Reference [4].

1. Alcohol: Biodiesel can be produced by using any of the fallowing alcohols.

1. Methanol, which makes methyl esters,

2. Ethanol (ethyl esters),

3. Isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol).

Methanol is poisonous so proper safety must be exercised.

Methanol must be 99+% pure.

2. Catalyst or Lye: can be either potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (caustic

soda, NaOH).

NaOH should be 97% pure.

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Both KOH and NaOH are hygroscopic, which means they rapidly absorb moisture from

the atmosphere. Water makes them less effective catalysts: so always keep lye

containers sealed and air tight.

NaOH is cheaper to use.

KOH is a better catalyst all-round than NaOH. Commercially KOH is used to make

top-quality biodiesel.

KOH can also provide potash fertiliser as a by-product of the biodiesel process.

With KOH, the process is the same as with NaOH, but you need to use 1.4 times as

much (1.4025). Reference [4].

CAUTION:

Lye (both NaOH and KOH) is extremely caustic -- don't get it on your skin or in your

eyes, don't breathe any fumes, keep the whole process away from food.

3. Vegetable oil:

1. Jatropha oil.

2. Mustard oil.

3. Soybean oil.

4. Mahua oil.

5. Palm oil.

4. Equipment:

A Magnetic stirrer: Capacity 2 liters, RPM range up to 1000, Temperature range

upto120C.

A separating funnel: Capacity 2 liters

A conical flask of capacity 2 liters.

Beakers of capacity 500ml, 250ml, conical flask of capacity 250 ml.

A thermometer of range up to 120C.

A digital weighing machine accuracy 1mg.

Funnel, distilled water etc.

3.3 Production of a batch of Biodiesel

Stuff: Reference [4]

1 litre of new vegetable oil.

200 ml of methanol, 99+% pure.

Catalyst or Lye, either potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can

be used, KOH is easier to use and it gives better results.

NaOH must be at least 97% pure, use exactly 3.5 grams.

With KOH it depends on the strength. If it's 99% pure (rare) use exactly 4.9 grams (4.90875).

If it's 92% pure (more common) use 5.3 grams (5.33), with 90% pure use 5.5 grams (5.454),

with 85% pure use 5.8 grams (5.775). Any strength of KOH from 85% or stronger will work.

21

Steps: Reference [4]

1. Methoxide Preparation

Take 200 ml methanol in a dry flask and 3.5 gm of 97% pure NaOH and dissolve it

completely by shaking. Lye will completely dissolve in the methanol, forming sodium

methoxide.

2. Transesterification

Take 1 liter of vegetable oil in a container (flask, beaker, HDPE container) and heat the

container to about 50oC-60oC at 600 rpm for 30 minutes on a magnetic stirrer.

Pour methoxide solution very slowly into the heated vegetable oil. Keep stirring for an

hour, while keeping the temperature at ~ 60oC and rpm 600.

Keep the temperature below 60oC since methanol will boil at 65oC and will be lost.

The reaction starts immediately, the mixture rapidly transforms into a clear, golden

liquid. Then allow the mixture to settle overnight.

The system should be closed to the atmosphere to prevent loss of methanol during the

reaction.

Sharma reported that increased in molar ratio of methanol to oil ratios beyond 6:1

neither increase the product yield nor the ester content, but rather makes the ester

recovery process complicated. Reference [25].

3. Transfer and Settling

As soon as the process is completed, pour the mixture into a separating funnel. Allow to settle

for 12-24 hours (longer is better).

4. Separation

Darker-coloured glycerine by-product will collect in a distinct layer at the bottom of the

funnel. Separate it by gravity separation method.

5. Quality Testing

Proceed to the wash-test and the methanol test to check the quality of your biodiesel.

A. Wash test

Put 150 ml of unwashed biodiesel (settled for 12 hours or more, with the glycerine

layer removed) in a half-litre glass or bottle.

Add 150 ml of water (at room temperature), screw the lid on tight and shake it up and

down violently for 10 seconds. Then let it settle.

The biodiesel should separate from the water in half an hour or less, with amber (and

cloudy) biodiesel on top and milky water below, and no more than a paper-thin white

interface layer between the oil and water.

22

B. Methanol Test

Jan Warnqvist of Sweden developed this extremely useful test, first introduced at the

Biofuel list in August 2005.

a. Take exactly 25 ml of biodiesel and dissolve it in exactly 225 ml of methanol

in a measuring glass.

b. The biodiesel should be fully soluble in the methanol, forming a clear bright

phase. If not, there is pollution in the biodiesel. Each ml of undissolved

material corresponds to 4% by volume. Is there any undissolved material at

the bottom of the measuring glass? If there is, your reaction is not complete

and this is causing you trouble with the water test.

If wash test is passed, wash it and use it with confidence. But if it fails process needs

improvement. The following are the causes of failures-

Either too much catalyst and made excess soap, or

An incomplete reaction with poor conversion has left with half-processed

monoglycerides and diglycerides, fuel contaminants that also act as emulsifiers.

Remedies: more accurate measurements, better titration; longer processing time, better

temperature control, also try using more methanol.

6. Water Washing

If the test sample passes the quality tests then wash the rest of the biodiesel with

normal/ warm distilled water.

The main objective of biodiesel purification is to remove free glycerol, soap, salts,

excess alcohol, and residual catalyst.

Emulsion: Oil and water don't mix, and well-made biodiesel should separate quickly and

cleanly from the wash water when it settles. But if the biodiesel isn't made properly it will

contain half-processed oil molecules -- monoglycerides and diglycerides (MGs and DGs),

which are emulsifiers. Too much presence of emulsifiers will create problems during

water washing.

They cause injector coking and damage engine, especially with prolonged use.

No wash method should be used on any batch unless it is known for certain that

the reaction has completed.

Types of water washing

A. Mist washing: Mist-washing uses a fine spray above the wash-tank to send a mist of

water droplets down onto the surface, creating zero agitation. It is slow process and it

uses a lot of water, and usually the water is not re-used.

B. Bubble washing

It uses a small air-pump, usually an aquarium aerator pump with a bubble-stone. Water is added

to the biodiesel in the wash tank (usually a quarter to a half as much water as biodiesel) along

23

with bubble stone and switch on the pump. Air-bubbles rise through the water and into the

biodiesel, carrying a film of water around them, which washes the biodiesel around the bubble.

When it reaches the surface the bubble bursts, leaving the water to sink back down again,

washing the fuel a second time. It is very time taking usually three or four washes, each of six

to eight hours.

It's easy and doesn't take much effort.

Bubble-washing is gentle and can mask an incomplete reaction.

It takes a lot of time.

It causes fuel oxidation and polymerisation.

Polymerisation happens when the double bonds in unsaturated oil molecules are broken

by oxygen from the air or water.

Saturated oils don't polymerise, unsaturated oils do. The level of unsaturation is called

the Iodine Value (IV) -- the higher the IV, the more unsaturated the oil, the faster it

will oxidise and the more it will polymerise.

Without oxygen the oil can't oxidise and polymerise.

"The specification for biodiesel should include a limit on the tendency of the fuel to

oxidize and a limit on the maximum degree of oxidation allowable for use of the fuel

in diesel engines." Reference [19]

C. Stir washing

It employs a motor-driven impeller to mix the water-biodiesel mixture for about 5

minutes, until it looks homogenous.

Let it settle for 1 hour.

Drain the water from the bottom and repeat steps 4, 5 and 6 two more times.

Quick and effective, no masking of a poor reaction, no oxidation.

An alternative to stir washing is to use a small pump and a garden sprinkler.

7. Drying the biodiesel

Freshly washed biodiesel is often a bit cloudy. It should clear in a day or two. Leave it

in a sealed container out in the sun, or heat it to 45-50 deg C and let it cool in a vented

container.

If the biodiesel goes cloudy again after it's cooled. Give it another wash or heat it to

45-50 deg C a second time.

8. Washing with acids

Reference [25].

To neutralize the catalyst and split the soap from crude glycerine, strong hydrochloric

acid (HCl) is added.

Soap + Hydrochloric acid Fatty acid + Salt.

As free fatty acids are not soluble in glycerine; so it can be easily separated using a

centrifuge.

24

Methanol can be removed by vaporization. Remainder impurities are salt. high free

fatty acid (FFA) during biodiesel production may cause obstruction to the separation of

methyl esters and glycerine.

Fatty acid + NaOH Soap + Water.

Fatty acid + Methanol H2SO4 ethyl ester + Water.

The acid based catalization slows the trans-esterification reaction. The two-step

approach of acid-catalysed esterification followed by base-catalysed trans-

esterification gave a complete reaction at moderate temperature (50 to 61°C).

9. Wash-water disposal

Wash-water may contain the following:

A. Some biodiesel

Biodiesel is not an environmental hazard: US Environmental Protection Agency

studies found that biodiesel is "more biodegradable than sugar and less toxic than

table salt".

B. Some excess methanol

Methanol is poisonous, but only for humans and monkeys.

"Methanol is a fixed-carbon nutrient source for plants." Reference [20].

Methanol is not viewed as an environmental hazard.

According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the

International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the World Health Organization

joint International Programme on Chemical Safety, methanol is readily

biodegradable in the environment, in fact it might even be an advantage, some

of the waste-water digester bacteria like it. Reference [4].

C. The lye catalyst

D. Sulphur :

If acid-base process is used, the wash-water will contain some sodium sulphate or

potassium sulphate salt.

Sulphur is one of important plant "macro-nutrients. It's essential for plant growth, all

soils contain sulphur.

E. Soaps: Lye is commonly used as a drain-cleaner and presents no problems for waste-

water treatment systems, and domestic waste-water contains much soap, also no

problem for waste-water treatment.

10. Dry-washing or Washing with solid adsorbents :Reference [4, 25 ]

"Dry-washing" can be useful where water is scarce or expensive -- but it's not faster than

ordinary high-speed stir-washing, and it's not "more efficient" either. There are two types of

dry-washing compounds:

25

Absorbent such as Magnesol has the potential of selectively absorbing hydrophilic

materials such as glycerol and mono- and di-glycerides effectively.

Use of a solid absorbent, such as activated clay, activated carbon, activated fibre, etc.

purify the resultant biodiesel, followed by use of glycerine as a solvent to wash

impurities.

Activated carbon bed is an effective way to remove excessive biodiesel colour.

Ion-exchange resins: It removes all impurities (salts, soap, catalyst, glycerine and

water) from raw biodiesel following separation of the glycerine by-product.

11. Glycerine Neutralization

The glycerine by-product contains unused catalyst and soaps that are neutralized with an acid

and sent to storage as crude glycerine. In some cases the salt formed during this phase is

recovered for use as fertilizer. In most cases the salt is left in the glycerine. Water and alcohol

are removed to produce 80-88% pure glycerine that is ready to be sold as crude glycerine. In

more sophisticated operations, the glycerine is distilled to 99% or higher purity and sold into

the cosmetic and pharmaceutical markets.

12. Recycling the wash-water

The counter-current method of re-using the wash water reduces water use for three washes

by two-thirds.

3.4 Effect of Various Factors on Conventional Biodiesel Preparation Techniques

Effects of Catalyst:

1. Effect of Lye or catalyst: Reference [27].

There are two types of catalysts:

A. Alkali Homogeneous Catalysts ( NaOH , KOH) yields higher conversion of

vegetable oil to methyl esters in short time at lower temperature.

Drawbacks:

Energy intensive; recovery of glycerol is difficult; the catalyst has to be removed from

the product.

Alkaline wastewater requires treatment as free fatty acids (FFA) and water interfere

with the reaction and the presence of water lowers the activity of catalyst.

FFA react with the catalyst to produce saponified product. Soap renders biodiesel

purification and catalyst removal more challenging.

Fatty acid +NaOH Soap + Water.

B. Heterogeneous catalysts (solid and enzymes) eliminates neutralization and washing

steps needed for processes used in homogeneous catalysts.

26

Drawbacks:

Higher temperature of trans-esterification reaction,

Longer reaction time and lower yield of esters.

High cost of the lipases as catalyst.

Heterogeneous catalysts such as H-Y zeolites, sulphated titanium oxides and cation-

exchange resin in the esterification of FFA and made use of calcium oxide and higher

methanol ratios in the trans-esterification and achieved biodiesel yield of 93%.

Comparison of homogeneously and heterogeneously catalysed

transesterification

Table: 5 Comparison of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis:

Factors Homogeneous Catalysis Heterogeneous Catalysis

Catalysts NaOH, KOH, CaO, CaTiO3, CaZrO3, zeolite,

Al2O3, etc.

Reaction rate Fast and high conversion Moderate conversion

Yield (Purity of

methyl esters)

Higher close to 98 % Less close to 80%

Post-treatment Catalyst cannot be recovered

must be neutralized leading

to waste chemical production

Catalyst can be recovered

Processing

Methodology

Limited used of Continuous fix bed continuous

methodology operation

possible

Presence of Water

and Free Fatty Acids

Sensitive Not sensitive

Catalyst reuse Not possible Possible

Cost Comparatively costly Potentially cheaper

2. Effects of oil to alcohol ratio

Reference [27].

The lower the oil to alcohol ratio, the lesser the complexity of the separation and

purification processes vice versa.

27

Sharma reported that increased in molar ratio of methanol to oil ratios beyond 6:1

neither increase the product yield nor the ester content, but rather makes the ester

recovery process complicated.

3. Effects of water and free fatty acids

Reference [25].

Water present, at elevated temperatures, can hydrolyse the triglycerides to di-glycerides

and form an FFA, which causes soap formation in presence of base catalyst.

Fatty acid +NaOH Soap + Water.

Presence of water at average temperatures leads to excessive soap formation which may

form a semi-solid substance that is very difficult to recover.

Demirbas reported that even a little amount of water (0.1%) in the trans-esterification

reaction will sufficiently reduce the methyl ester conversion from vegetable oil .

5. Esterification and trans-esterification without catalyst supercritical processes

Reference [27]

Esterification (180–220 ◦C) and trans-esterification reactions occur spontaneously at

high temperatures (>350 ◦C).

Catalyst is not required.

Reaction rate is not affected by the presence of water.

Reaction rate is very high and it is possible to complete the reaction in less than 10

minutes.

Biodiesel Separation and Purification:

Ineffective biodiesel separation and purification causes severe diesel engines problems

such as plugging of filters, coking on injectors, more carbon deposits, excessive engine

wear, oil ring sticking, engine knocking, and thickening and gelling of lubricating oil.

The major limiting factor to biomass use is the technology development for the

separation, purification, and transformation of it into bio-chemicals and biofuels.

Currently, “down-stream processing” alone accounts for 60-80% of the process cost.

Biodiesel and glycerol produced are typically sparingly mutually soluble.

Density of biodiesel 880 kg/m3 and glycerol 1050 kg/m3, or more.

Gravitational settling or centrifugation for the separation of biodiesel and glycerol is

based on density differences.

6. Biodiesel Membrane Separation and Purification

Reference [27]

Minimization of higher capital cost and other related costs of production.

Provide higher specific area for mass transfer.

Made from inorganic micro-porous ceramic membranes such as membrane reactor and

separative ceramic membrane.

28

Membrane reactors can be employed to carry out a trans-esterification reaction as well

as separation and purification simultaneously.

Lower the thickness of membrane, the higher the productivity

Membrane performance is governed by: selectivity or separation factor and

permeability.

7. Effect of membrane pore size for biodiesel separation and

Purification

Reference [27]

It is important to estimate the minimum particle sizes in the vegetable oil-alcohol

emulsion for efficient refining process.

The average pore size for an oil emulsion was determined to be 44 mm with lower and

upper limits of 12 mm and 400 mm respectively.

The oil droplet was found not to pass through the membrane pores because of their

large molecular size relative to membrane pore size.

3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Transesterification

Table: 6 Reference [27]

Technologies Advantages Disadvantages

Trans-esterification 1.Fuel properties is

closer to diesel

2. High conversion

efficiency

3. Low cost

4. It is suitable for

industrialized

Production

1. Low free fatty acid and water

content are required (for base

catalyst)

2. Pollutants will be produced

because products must be

neutralized and washed

3. Accompanied by side reactions

4. Difficult reaction products

separation

Supercritical

Methanol

1.No catalyst

2. Short reaction time

(2-4min), less rxn lag.

3. High conversion

4. Good adaptability

1.High temperature and pressure

are required (above critical point).

2. Equipment cost is high

3. High energy consumption

29

3.6 Safety:

Reference [4]

Wear proper protective gloves, apron, and eye protection and do not inhale any

vapours.

Methanol can cause blindness and death. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide

can cause severe burns and death.

Mixed with methanol they form methoxide, This is an extremely caustic chemical.

Have a bottle of vinegar handy to neutralise any lye or methoxide you may get on

your skin -- rinse it off with vinegar, then rinse thoroughly with water. (If you don't

have any vinegar handy, just use lots of water.)

The workspace must be thoroughly ventilated.

Don't use "open" reactors -- biodiesel processors should be closed to the atmosphere,

with no fumes escaping.

All methanol containers should be kept tightly closed anyway to prevent water

absorption from the air.

Generally 80% of methanol in sewage systems is biodegraded within 5 days.

Methanol is a normal growth substrate for many soil microorganisms, which

completely degrade methanol to carbon dioxide and water.

3.7 Various Sample prepared and their Result

Table: 7

Sr.

No.

Date Vegetable Oil Methanol NaOH Preheating of

Vegetable oil at

600 RPM

Heating of

mixture of

Methoxide

Solution and

vegetable oil at

600 RPM

Settling

time

Water

washing

Remarks

Oil name Amount

(ml)

Amount

(ml)

Amount

(gm)

Time

(min)

Temp.

(℃)

Time

(min)

Temp.

(℃)

In

Hours

No of

Times

1 3/3/14 Jatropha 500 125 2.5 130 65 10 60 36 5 Partial Success

2 4/3/14 Jatropha 500 125 2.5 60 65 60 60 24 - Unsuccessful

3 26/3/14 Jatropha 1000 250 5.0 70 65 70 55 72 - Unsuccessful

4 2/4/14 Jatropha 1000 250 5.0 60 65 60 55 72 - Unsuccessful

5 4/4/14 Jatropha 100 30 0.5 170 65 5 50 10 - Unsuccessful

6 6/4/14 Mustard 250 65 1.25 15 55 70 55 20 3 Successful

30

7 9/4/14 Jatropha 250 65 1.25 20 50 60 50 20 - Partial Success

8 10/4/14 Mahua 250 65 1.25 20 50 60 55 20 - Unsuccessful

9 14/4/14 Mustard 500 125 2.5 20 55 75 55 20 4 Successful

10 15/4/14 Mahua 250 65 1.25 20 50 60 55 20 - Unsuccessful

11 16/4/14 Jatropha 1000 250 5.0 60 55 75 55 24 - Unsuccessful

12 17/4/14 Mustard 1000 250 5.0 60 55 75 55 18 4 Successful

13 18/4/14 Soybean 250 65 1.25 20 55 60 55 12 4 Successful

14 21/4/14 Soybean 250 65 0.90 25 55 60 55 12 4 Successful

15 22/4/14 Jatropha 250 65 0.90 30 55 75 55 18 4 Successful

31

Chapter 4

4.1. Properties Testing

I. Kinematic viscosity:

Viscosity is the property of fluid. It is defined as “The internal resistance offered by the fluid

to the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer. It is due to the cohesion between

the molecules of the fluid.

It controls atomization and flow characteristics of fuel through the system. High viscosity may

lead to formation of soot and engine deposits due to insufficient fuel atomization. For good

quality fuel, kinematic viscosity should be as low as possible.

Measurement: Redwood viscometer

Figure Reference [21].

32

Formula Used: Reference [21].

Kinematic Viscosity (ʋ) = At - B/t (in stokes or cm2/s).

Where

A = 0.0026

B = 1.72

t = time in seconds to fill 50 ml.

Observation:

Oil Temperature = 40 C

Room Temperature = 28 C

Table: 8

Kinematic Viscosity

Serial

Number

Oil Time to fill 50

ml oil (s)

Kinematic

viscosity

measured

(mm2/s)

Kinematic

viscosity (

Diesel as

reference)

1 Mineral Diesel 37.3 5.087 5.087

2 Palm Oil 249 64.05 -

3 Palm Biodiesel 46.5 8.39 5.087

4 Soybean Oil 176 44.78 -

5 Soybean Biodiesel 45 7.87 5.087

6 Mustard Oil 266 68.51 -

7 Mustard Biodiesel 46.6 8.42 5.087

8 Jatropha Oil 278 71.66 -

9 Jatropha biodiesel 42 6.82 5.087

Note: We have taken our measured mineral diesel properties as reference, which is quite

different from standard values. This difference may be arising due reliability of equipment or

process of measurement.

33

II. Density:

It is defined as the mass of fuel (substance) per unit volume. It plays important role during

gravimetric separation and water washing of biodiesel.

Observation:

Table: 9

Density

Serial

Number

Oil Volume taken

(ml)

Mass

(gm)

Density

(kg/m3)

Ref.

Density

Kg/m3

1 Mineral Diesel 10 7.555 755.5 755.5

2 Palm Oil 5 4.404 888.08 -

3 Palm Biodiesel 5 4.183 836.6 755.5

4 Soybean Oil 5.1 4.428 868.2 -

5 Soybean

Biodiesel

5 4.286 857.2 755.5

6 Mustard Oil 10 8.560 856.0 -

7 Mustard

Biodiesel

10 8.034 803.4 755.5

8 Jatropha Oil 10 8.535 853.5 -

9 Jatropha

Biodiesel

10 7.996 799.6 755.5

Note: We have taken our measured mineral diesel properties as reference, which is quite

different from standard values. This difference may be arising due reliability of equipment or

process of measurement.

III. Flash point: It is the lowest temperature at which a volatile fuel vaporizes

sufficiently in air and forms an ignitable mixture. Measuring flash point requires an

ignition source. At the flash point, the vapour may cease to burn when the source of

ignition is removed. It is used to assess the overall flammability hazard of a material.

For good quality fuel, flash point should be moderate.

IV. Fire point / Auto-ignition temperature: The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at

which it will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame. At

34

the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapour might

not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Mostly authors list material flash points,

but in general, the fire points can be assumed to be about 10 °C higher than the material

flash points. For good quality fuel, fire point should be moderate.

Note: Neither the flash point nor the fire point is dependent on the temperature of the

ignition source, which is much higher.

Figure Reference [23].

35

Observation:

Table: 10

Flash Point and fire Point

Serial

Number

Oil Flash Point

C

Fire Point

C

Flash Point C

Reference []

1 Mineral Diesel 65 72 50-88

2 Soybean Biodiesel 193 220 178

3 Palm Biodiesel 178 192 164

4 Mustard Biodiesel 165 175 156

5 Jatropha Biodiesel 143 152 135

V. Calorific Value: The amount of heat produced by unit quantity of fuel when it under

goes complete combustion in presence of air. The caloric value of biodiesel is lower

than of diesel because of its higher oxygen content. For good quality fuel, calorific value

should be as high as possible.

Measurement: Bomb Calorimeter

Figure Reference [22].

36

Observation:

Water temperature at room temperature = 28C

Mass of water taken in bomb Calorimeter =

Mass of fuel taken in bomb calorimeter =

Water equivalent of bomb calorimeter =

Specific heat capacity of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K.

Table: 11

Calorific Value

Serial

Number

Oil Initial

Temp.(C)

Final Temp.

(C)

Experimental

Calorific

Value

(MJ/kg)

Reference

Calorific

value

(MJ/kg)

1 Mineral Diesel 45.1

2 Soybean Biodiesel 40

3 Palm Biodiesel 34

4 Mustard Biodiesel 37.25

5 Jatropha Biodiesel 41.7

4.2. Other Important Fuel Properties

Cloud point: It is the temperature at which a cloud of wax crystals first appear when

the fuel is cooled under controlled conditions during a test. The utilization of fuel is

restricted to the temperature above their cloud point. For good quality fuel, cloud point

should be as low as possible.

Cetane number (CN): Cetane number is a measure of the ignition quality of fuel

during compression ignition. It provides information about the ignition delay time of a

fuel upon injection into the combustion chamber. High CN implies short ignition delay,

hence better fuel. For good quality fuel, CN should be as high as possible.

Oxidation stability: It ability of a fuel or any material to resist natural degradation

upon contact with oxygen. The products of oxidation can cause damage to combustion

37

engines. This is why oxidation stability is an important quality criterion for biodiesel,

which needs to be regularly determined during production. For good quality fuel,

oxidative stability, should be higher.

.

Sulphur content: Combustion of fuel containing sulphur causes emissions of sulphur

oxides.(SOx). Most of vegetable oils and animal fat-based bio- diesel have very low

levels of sulphur content. However, specifying this parameter is important for engine

operability as sulphur is corrosive in nature and causes corrosion, wear and tear. For

good quality fuel, sulphur content should as low as possible.

Water and sediments content: The presence of water and sediment has two forms,

which are either dissolved water or suspended water droplets. While bio- diesel is

generally considered to be insoluble in water, it actually takes up considerably more

amount of water than diesel fuel. Water content in biodiesel reduces the heat of

combustion and will cause corrosion of vital fuel system components like, fuel pumps,

injector pumps, fuel tubes, etc. Moreover, sediment may consist of suspended rust and

dirt particles or it may originate from the fuel as insoluble compounds formed during

fuel oxidation. For good quality fuel, water and particulate matter should be as low as

possible.

Flammability: How easily fuel (substance) will burn or ignite causing fire or

combustion. For good quality fuel, flammability should be moderate.

Iodine Value (IV): Polymerisation happens when the double bonds in unsaturated oil

molecules are broken by oxygen from the air or water. Saturated oils don't polymerise,

but unsaturated oils do. The level of unsaturation is called the Iodine Value (IV) -- the

higher the IV, the more unsaturated the oil, the faster it will oxidise and the more it will

polymerise .Without oxygen the oil can't oxidise and polymerise.

38

Chapter 5

Economic Analysis:

5.1 Equipment cost

Table: 11

Serial

Number

Equipment/Feedstock Cost per

equipment/feedstock

Rs.

No. Total

cost

Rs.

1 Magnetic Stirrer 6096 1 6096

2 Separating Flask 2800 1 2800

3 Beakers (1000 ml) 209 2 418

4 Beakers (200 ml) 45 4 180

5 Conical Flask 45 2 90

6 Funnel 15 4 60

7 Aluminum foil 50 1 50

8 Gloves 35 3 105

9 Thermometer 75 1 75

10 Lye (NaOH) 250 - 250

11 Container 120 2 240

Total = 10364 Rs.

5.2 Feedstock cost

Table: 12

Serial

Number

Feedstock Cost/liter Quantity

Liter

Total

1 Jatropha oil 50 10 500

2 Mustard oil 98 4 392

3 Mahua oil 120 ½ 60

4 Palm oil 70 1 70

5 Soybean oil 120 ½ 60

6 Distill Water 4 30 120

7 Methanol 460 3 1380

Total = 2582 Rs.

Other expenses (transportation) = Rs. 576

Total Cost of the project = Rs. 13522

5.3 Cost analysis for production of one batch of biodiesel from various vegetable oil

Cost of one batch of biodiesel consist of cost incurred in various steps. This can be listed

as the cost of following ingredients:

1. 250ml of vegetable oil,

39

2. 65ml of methanol,

3. 0.90 gm of NaOH,

4. Energy cost (electricity).

5. Water washing .

Table: 13

Serial

Number

Vegetable

oil

Cost of

250ml of

Vegetable

oil

Rs.

Cost of

65ml of

Methanol

Rs.

Cost of

0.90gm

of NaOH

Rs.

Yield

ml

Total cost

Rs.

Cost/Litre

of biodiesel

produced

Rs.

1 Jatropha oil 12.5 30 0.625 200 43.125 215.625

2 Mustard oil 24.5 30 0.625 235 55.125 234.57

3 Mahua oil 30 30 0.625 - - -

4 Palm oil 17.5 30 0.625 230 48.125 209.25

5 Soybean oil 30 30 0.625 220 60.625 275.5

5.4. Potential Cost Reduction Recommendations:

Glycerine processing: Glycerol can be recovered for multiple purpose like heating,

soap industries, pharmaceuticals.

Alcohol recovery: Alcohol can be recovered from glycerine and further reused.

Wash water recovery: Nearly two- third of wash water can be recovered and reused

for further washing.

Catalyst recovery.

Use of cheaper feedstock.

Use of barren land for plantation of non-edible crops like jatropha.

Use of cheaper sources of energy input like sun light since temperature requirement is

less than 65C.

Use of variety of feedstock.

Research and development for new and cheaper ways for production.

Development of new catalyst for faster reaction and quick settling, etc.

40

Chapter 6 : Summary and Conclusion:

Block Diagram for production of biodiesel

Figure Reference [28].

41

Figure Reference [24].

Alternative fuels are gaining in importance due to unstable crude oil prices and the

consequences of emissions deriving from crude oil compounds. Biodiesel is an increasingly

attractive, non-toxic, environmental friendly, biodegradable fuel alternative that can be

produced from a variety of renewable sources with almost similar processes. Of the various

methods available for producing biodiesel, the alkali catalysed transesterification of vegetable

oils and animal fats is currently the most commonly adopted method. The transesterification

reaction requires an alcohol as a reactant and a catalyst. The most commonly used alcohol is

methanol while sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are the most commonly used

catalysts. This method of catalysis is preferable to others because of its high yield and relatively

low installation costs. During the reaction, glycerol will be produced as a by-product. Because

of its numerous industrial applications, the crude glycerol can be refined with purity higher

than 99% to make it usable. There are four primary factors affecting the yield of biodiesel, i.e.

alcohol quantity, reaction time, reaction temperature, and catalyst concentration. To ensure a

complete transesterification reaction, the molar ratio of alcohol to triglycerides should be

increased to 6:1 with the use of an alkali catalyst. The optimal temperature ranged between

50℃ and 60℃, depending on the oil used.

It is true that the cost involved in per litre production of biodiesel is more than commercially

available mineral diesel. Also, there are certain other issues like material compatibility, cold

42

weather performance, cold staring, storages because of oxidation, lower calorific value, etc.

Most of which can be mitigated by using appropriate additives.

For cost, it can be reduced by various improvements in the process like.

Glycerine processing: Glycerol can be recovered for multiple purpose like heating,

soap industries, pharmaceuticals.

Alcohol recovery: Alcohol can be recovered from glycerine and further reused.

Wash water recovery: Nearly two- third of wash water can be recovered and reused

for further washing.

Catalyst recovery.

Use of cheaper feedstock.

Use of barren land for plantation of non-edible crops like jatropha.

Use of cheaper sources of energy input like sun light since temperature requirement is

less than 65C.

Use of variety of feedstock.

Research and development for new and cheaper ways for production.

Development of new catalyst for faster reaction and quick settling, etc.

Note: Germany has thousands of filling stations supplying biodiesel, and it's cheaper

there than petro-diesel fuel. Reference [4].

With increasing concern over global warming, it is foreseeable that biodiesel usage

would continue to grow at a fast pace. This will trigger the development of more

sophisticated methods of biodiesel production and refining to cope with the increasing

market demand and save nature around us.

It can be said, “Biodiesel is the potential alternative fuel for cleaner, greener and

sustainable tomorrow.”

43

Appendix:

Vegetable oil yields: Reference [17]

Ascending order Alphabetical order

Crop Litres

oil/ha

US gal/acre Crop Litres oil/ha US gal/acre

Corn

(maize)

172 18 Avocado 2638 282

Cashew nut 176 19 Brazil nut 2392 255

Oats 217 23 Calendula 305 33

Lupine 232 25 Camelina 583 62

Kenaf 273 29 Cashew nut 176 19

Calendula 305 33 Castor bean 1413 151

Cotton 325 35 Cocoa

(cacao)

1026 110

Hemp 363 39 Coconut 2689 287

Soybean 446 48 Coffee 459 49

Coffee 459 49 Coriander 536 57

Linseed

(flax)

478 51 Corn

(maize)

172 18

Hazelnut 482 51 Cotton 325 35

Euphorbia 524 56 Euphorbia 524 56

Pumpkin

seed

534 57 Hazelnut 482 51

Coriander 536 57 Hemp 363 39

Mustard

seed

572 61 Jatropha 1892 202

Camelina 583 62 Jojoba 1818 194

Sesame 696 74 Kenaf 273 29

44

Safflower 779 83 Linseed

(flax)

478 51

Rice 828 88 Lupine 232 25

Tung oil 940 100 Macadamia

nut

2246 240

Sunflower 952 102 Mustard

seed

572 61

Cocoa

(cacao)

1026 110 Oats 217 23

Peanut 1059 113 Oil palm 5950 635

Opium

poppy

1163 124 Olive 1212 129

Rapeseed 1190 127 Opium

poppy

1163 124

Olive 1212 129 Peanut 1059 113

Castor bean 1413 151 Pecan nut 1791 191

Pecan nut 1791 191 Pumpkin

seed

534 57

Jojoba 1818 194 Rapeseed 1190 127

Jatropha 1892 202 Rice 828 88

Macadamia

nut

2246 240 Safflower 779 83

Brazil nut 2392 255 Sesame 696 74

Avocado 2638 282 Soybean 446 48

Coconut 2689 287 Sunflower 952 102

Oil palm 5950 635 Tung oil 940 100

45

Oils and esters characteristics: Reference [17]

Oils and esters characteristics

Type of Oil Melting Range deg C Iodine

number

Cetane

number Oil / Fat Methyl

Ester

Ethyl

Ester

Rapeseed oil, h.

Eruc.

5 0 -2 97 to 105 55

Rapeseed oil, i.

Eruc.

-5 -10 -12 110 to 115 58

Sunflower oil -18 -12 -14 125 to 135 52

Olive oil -12 -6 -8 77 to 94 60

Soybean oil -12 -10 -12 125 to 140 53

Cotton seed oil 0 -5 -8 100 to 115 55

Corn oil -5 -10 -12 115 to 124 53

Coconut oil 20 to 24 -9 -6 8 to 10 70

Palm kernel oil 20 to 26 -8 -8 12 to 18 70

Palm oil 30 to 38 14 10 44 to 58 65

Palm oleine 20 to 25 5 3 85 to 95 65

Palm stearine 35 to 40 21 18 20 to 45 85

Tallow 35 to 40 16 12 50 to 60 75

Lard 32 to 36 14 10 60 to 70 65

46

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MINISTRY OF STATISTICS AND PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION

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Hsun Cheng and Harold H. Kung, ISBN 0-8247-9223-8, 1994 (10th printing)

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f

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calorimeter-construction.aspx

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oil refiningGiulio Santori Giovanni Di Nicola, Matteo Moglie , Fabio Polonara

25) Biodiesel from Neem oil as an alternative fuel for Diesel engine Md. Hasan Alia*,

Mohammad Mashudb, Md. Rowsonozzaman Rubelb, Rakibul Hossain Ahmadb

47

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