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EXERCISES: CHAPTER 2

1. Tandem GestaltsExpose a roll of film in such a way that pairs of frames serve as one through somekind of connection or association. The Gestalt principles of similarity,continuation, closure, proximity, symmetry, and common fate can serve asconnectors. (Cut the roll of film into appropriate strips and make a contact printof each strip.)

2. Cut-and-Paste GestaltTake some of your old photographs or those printed in magazines and cut theminto smaller pieces. Lay the pieces on a table as you would a jigsaw puzzle. Nowselect pieces and arrange them in a way so that they create an interesting gestalt.As a variation, try grouping visual elements that do not normally belong together,elements that when combined provide humor or puzzlement (Zeigarnik effect).

3. TV ScreenConsider your TV screen as a source of moving and changing pictures in whicheach frame is on for 1/30th of a second. In 1 second you have an opportunityto photograph 30 different pictures—in 1 minute up to 1800 different pictures.

Place your camera so that you can focus on the entire TV screen and set theshutter speed at 1/30th of a second (1/15th with a focal-plane shutter). If youare using film with an ISO speed of 160/23°, set the aperture at about f/2.8.

Sit close to your camera with your finger on the shutter release. Think ofthe Gestalt laws and watch the changing TV pictures until you see an image thathas a Gestalt design. Quickly take a photograph of it.

Expose a few rolls of film in this way and then study the results. It is anexcellent way to develop your perception and timing so that you can capturepictures that exist for only a fleeting second.

4. Chance Video GestaltsThe surrealist artists used techniques of free association and automatic writingto tap their unconscious from which creative ideas spring. Had they been livingduring our electronic age they might have used electronic writing.

Robert Heinecken used the unpredictable spontaneity of video imagerycombined with a photographic transparency taped to the screen to create newimages. The creative mind of man blends photography and videography into newgestalts. Try the Heinecken approach.

5. Chance Camera GestaltsImages can be superimposed in a camera with double exposures. Double-exposea roll of film one frame at a time, half of the roll by careful choice and the otherhalf by chance. Compare the images. If your camera does not allow double

Photograph by JoseHenrique Lorca.

Art is not an objectbut an experience.

Josef Albers

There is no “must”in art, because art isfree.

Wassily Kandinsky

exposures to be made, expose an entire roll of film, rewind it, and then exposeit again. (Take precautions to prevent the film leader from being completelyrewound into the cassette.) Make prints and study them.

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There is an oldstandard sayingabout the arts, “Youneed to learn all therules and then forgetthem.”

Joseph Campbell

There is nothing newin art except talent.

Anton Chekhov

To think is to differ.

Clarence Darrow

6. Chance Enlarger GestaltsImages can be superimposed by choice or chance in the darkroom to create otherimages. Superimpose any two negatives in a negative carrier and print them. Doit two different ways:

a) By choiceb) By chance

Try these variations:

a) Rotate one of the negatives 180 degrees and print the sandwich.Compare.

b) Instead of superimposing the negatives in the carrier, project and exposeeach separately on the same sheet of photographic paper.

c) Project and print one negative with the paper in a flat position and thenproject and print the second negative with the paper tilted.

d) Project and print one negative in focus and then the other slightly outof focus.

Photograph of Dr. Rudolf Arnheim (right) and author. Happy accident (chance).

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Chapter 2 Gestalt Grouping 3

7. Similarity: DissimilarityPhotograph two people in such a way as to accentuate their similarities. Thinkin terms of facial features and expressions, hands, gestures, gender, and so on.

8. Cropping and ClosureThe Gestalt laws can help you while you are framing a picture in a cameraviewfinder or cropping a picture that is being printed. Notice in the photographbelow how careful the photographer was in framing the scene. She wanted toshow the similarity of shapes between natural terrain and animals. Her tightframing of the upper section of the white and black horses does this dramatically.

Photograph by ScottCalder.

Courtesy Ilford, Inc.

Photograph by LisaJones.

She was also mindful of the white area on which her photograph was to bemounted so that the lower black area is closed by the white mountboard, andthe white area is closed by the dark area of the photograph itself.

Lisa Jones wrote of her photograph, “I like the look of fields that have hillsand slopes in them … I like the body shapes to animals and their textures. Thereare some field hill contours that feature animal shapes … And when there isharmony between the field forms and the animal shapes, then it really resoundsnicely.”

9. Treasure HuntTake another look at some of your contact prints and see if cropping can improvethe photograph. You might also look around and see if some photographs orparts of photographs might work well together in pairs. The same can be donewith film or video footage not used. Play around, you may discover treasures.

10. TypographySearch out different styles of typefaces used in advertisements, posters, film orvideo titles and identify the Gestalt laws that are operating. Try styling your owntype. Check your library for books on typography.

11. Gestalt Scrap BookStart a scrap book of various examples of the Gestalt laws that you can identifyin magazines. Cut out pictures and illustrations and paste them in your scrapbookwith proper identification. You may want to lay out your book in this sequence:

a) Figure–groundb) Proximityc) Similarityd) Continuitye) Closuref) Pragnanz

Start looking for stamps that have incorporated in their design some of the Gestaltlaws of perceptual organization. You will be surprised at how many you can findonce you begin looking for them. Do not limit yourself to any one country. Stopat a stamp collector’s store and look around. Start a collection.

12. TangramsA tangram is a seven-piece Chinese puzzle similar to our jigsaw puzzle in thatthe object of the game is to fit pieces together. It is quite different from a jigsawpuzzle, however, since it contains only seven geometric pieces that can be fittedtogether in different ways to form a variety of greater shapes. It is a good exampleof gestalt because the figures that result from the various possible combinationsof the same seven pieces are different from the sum of the pieces or parts.

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Everything that isvisible hidessomething else that isvisible.

René Magritte

I have always beenimpressed with theplastic quality ofAmerican Indian art… Their vision hasthe basic universalityof all real art.

Jackson Pollock

Trifles makeperfection, andperfection is no trifle.

Michelangelo

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Chapter 2 Gestalt Grouping 5

The seven pieces that make up a tangram can be traced and cut from thesquare shown: The object of the game is to group these seven pieces to formfigures other than squares, such as a cat. The task is difficult because there aremany different ways in which the seven pieces can be positioned and you mustgroup them to make a whole figure. Note that even when the seven parts areclearly shown, the initial tendency is not to see seven individual parts but to seethe totality of these parts grouped into the form of a cat.

Paul Rand in his book Paul Rand—A Designer’s Art, writes about theimportance of tangram exercises:

Many design problems can be posed with these games in mind; the mainprinciple to be learned is that of economy of means—making the most ofthe least. Further, the game helps to sharpen the powers of observationthrough the discovery of resemblances between geometric and natural forms.It helps the student to abstract—to see a triangle, for example, as a face, atree, an eye, or a nose, depending on the context in which the pieces arearranged. Such observation is essential in the study of visual symbols.1

Here are some forms for you to try. (The answers are given in the answers sectionon this website.)

If you are interested in more information on tangrams, books on the subjectare available in some museum bookstores and from Dover Publications, 31 East2nd Street, Mineola, NY 11501.

13. Symbolic AssociationTwo elderly women dressed in similar dark clothes and walking side-by-side passbeneath two statues of Greek goddesses positioned side-by-side atop the remainsof an old building. Proximity and similarity invite the viewer to make aconnection. For example, one might see the two elderly women as elderly Greekgoddesses or as Greek goddesses that once were.

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Find a location that has an interesting background and patiently wait for ananimal or person with a cell phone, iPod, boom box, or the like to enter thespace so that the animal or person and background connect in some way.

“Athens, 1953” byHenri Cartier-Bresson.

Magnum Photos

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Chapter 2 Gestalt Grouping 7

14. Don’t Be a SquareTry solving this visual–tactile problem if you have not seen it before. If you haveseen it, try it on friends and observe how they attempt to solve it.

Given the array of nine dots shown below, connect them all with only fourstraight lines. You are not allowed to lift the pencil from the paper. Try solvingthe 16-dot problem using the same technique. (The answers are given in theanswers section on this website.)

15. Closure Challenge

9 Dots: Connect the dots with only four straight lines. 16 Dots: Connect the dotswith only six straight lines.

What do you see, if anything, when you look at this “picture”? Most people seeonly disconnected black shapes. Since one does not know what to look for, thedifficulty is compounded. Given a hint that the picture is of a farm animal, somepeople will form closure. Some, however, require additional information to formclosure; the animal is a cow. Some may not be able to form closure, becomefrustrated and give up. The ability of the human eye/brain to “connect the dots”and form closure on such scant information is amazing—truly amazing. (If youhave not formed closure on the fragmented picture, refer to the answers sectionon this website for the answer.)

It takes formidableenergy and disciplineto evoke thesubjective from theliteral, to convert thespecific into theuniversal.

Barbara Morgan

Think outside thebox.

16. Cambridge Word GestaltThe letters are not in the proper sequence but you will be surprised at your abilityto read the words, to form a gestalt with the scrambled letters.

Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaerin waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng istaht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be ataotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs isbecuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but thewrod as a wlohe.

These jumbled words are relatively easy to read in context but difficult totype out without making mistakes and reverting to the correct spelling of theword. Give it a try. It is hard to override what one knows well, what is habit.(Note that the first and last letter of every word are as they should be.)

17. Fruit and Vegetable GestaltIntroduce yourself to Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1530–1593), a master at transforms.

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The Arcimboldo Effect,Abbeville Press, NewYork, 1987.

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Chapter 2 Gestalt Grouping 9

18. Roman Mosaic Gestalt

NOTE

1. Paul Rand, Paul Rand—A Designer’s Art, New Haven, CT: YaleUniversity Press, 1985, p. 192.

“Two GirlsExercising” by BratParren. A 2000-year-old mosaic in theRoman Villa delCasale, Sicily.(Photographicexamples of gestalt canalso be seen in theportraits of ChuckClose. Google >Image > ChuckClose.)