2. wireless transmission

1

© 2005 Burkhard Stiller and Jochen Schiller FU Berlin M2 – 2

2. Wireless Transmission

Frequencies and SignalsMultiplexing

Modulation and Spread Spectrum


Frequencies for Communication (1)

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency

MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency

HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light

VHF = Very High Frequency

Frequency and wave length:λ = c/f wave length λ, speed of light c ≅ 3x108 m/s, frequency f

1 Mm300 Hz

10 km30 kHz

100 m3 MHz

1 m300 MHz

10 mm30 GHz

100 µm3 THz

1 µm300 THz

visible lightVLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared UV

optical transmissioncoax cabletwisted pair

2


Frequencies for Mobile Communication (2)

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio– Simple, small antenna for cars– Deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication– Small antenna, focusing– Large bandwidth available

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum– Some systems planned up to EHF– Limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance

frequencies)• Weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.


Frequencies and Regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies and manages frequency bands worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences) E urope U S A Jap an

C ellu lar P hon es

G SM 450-457, 47 9-4 86/460 -467,489-4 96, 890-915/935-9 60, 1 710-1785/1805-1 880 U M TS (F DD ) 1920-1 980, 2110-2190 U M TS (T DD ) 1900-1 920, 2020-2025

AM P S , TD M A , C D M A 824-849, 869-894 TD M A , C DM A , G S M 1850-191 0, 1930-199 0

P D C 810-826, 940-956, 1429-146 5, 1477-151 3

C ordless P hon es

C T1 + 885 -887 , 930-9 32 C T2 8 64-8 68 D E C T 1 880-1900

P AC S 1850-1910, 1930-1990 P AC S -U B 191 0-1930

P H S 1895-191 8 JC T 254-380

W ire less L AN s

IE E E 802.11 2 400-2483 H IP ER L AN 2 5 150-5350, 5470-5 725

902-928 IE EE 802.11 2400-248 3 5150-535 0, 5725 -5825

IE EE 802.11 2471-249 7 5150-525 0

O th ers R F-C ontro l 2 7, 128 , 418 , 433 , 8 68

R F-C ontro l 315, 915

R F-C ontro l 426 , 868

3


Signals (1)

Physical representation of dataFunction of time and location

Signal parameters: – Parameters representing the value of data

Classification:– Continuous time/discrete time– Continuous values/discrete values– Analog signal = continuous time and continuous values– Digital signal = discrete time and discrete values

Signal parameters of periodic signals: – Period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, and phase shift ϕ– Sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2 π ft t + ϕt)


Different representations of signals: – Amplitude (amplitude domain)– Frequency spectrum (frequency domain)– Phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase ϕ in polar coordinates)

Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier transformationDigital signals need:– Infinite frequencies for perfect transmission – Modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)

Signals (2)

f [Hz]

A [V]

ϕ

I= M cos ϕ

Q = M sin ϕ

ϕ

A [V]

t[s]

4


Fourier Representation of Periodic Signals

)2cos()2sin(21)(

11nftbnftactg

nn

nn ππ ∑∑

∞

=

∞

=

++=

1

0

1

0t t

Ideal periodic signal Real composition(based on harmonics)


Antennas: Isotropic Radiator

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves:– Coupling of wires to space for radio transmission

Isotropic radiator: – Equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional)– Only a theoretical reference antenna

Real antennas always have directive effects:– Vertically and/or horizontally

Radiation pattern: – Measurement of radiation around an antenna

zy

x

z

y x Ideal isotropic radiator

5


Signal Propagation Ranges

Distance

Sender

Transmission

Detection

Interference

Transmission range:– Communication possible– Low error rate

Detection range:– Detection of the signal

possible– No communication

possible

Interference range:– Signal may not be

detected – Signal adds to the

background noise


Signal Propagation

Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)Receiving power proportional to 1/d² – d = distance between sender and receiver

Receiving power additionally influenced by:– Fading (frequency dependent)– Shadowing (Abschattung)– Reflection (Reflexion) at large obstacles– Refraction (Brechung) depending on the density of a medium– Scattering (Streuung) at small obstacles– Diffraction (Beugung) at edges

reflection scattering diffractionshadowing refraction

6


Real World Examples


Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to:– Reflection, scattering, and diffraction

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over timeInterference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shiftedDistorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

Multi-path Propagation

Signal at senderSignal at receiver

LOS pulsesMulti-pathpulses

7


Effects of Mobility

Channel characteristics change over time and location: – Signal paths change permanently– Different delay variations of different signal parts– Different phases of signal parts

Quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

Additional changes in:– Distance to sender– Obstacles further away

Slow changes in the average power received (long term fading)

Short term fading

Long termfading

t

Power


Multiplexing in 4 dimensions:– Space (si)– Time (t)– Frequency (f)– Code (c)

Goal:– Multiple use of a shared medium

Important: guard spaces needed!

s2

s3

s1

Multiplexing

f

t

c

k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1

f

t

c

f

t

c

Channels ki

8


Frequency Multiplexing

Separation of the entire spectrum into smaller frequency bandsA channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the full time

Advantages:– No dynamic coordination

necessary– Works also for analog signals

Drawbacks:– Waste of bandwidth

if the traffic is distributed unevenly

– Inflexible– Guard spaces

k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1

f

t

c


Time Multiplexing

A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time

Advantages:– Only one carrier in the

medium at any time– Throughput high even

for many users

Drawbacks:– Precise

synchronization necessary

– Common clock

f

t

c

k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1

9


f

Time and Frequency Multiplexing

Combination of both methodsA channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time– Example: GSM

Advantages:– Better protection against tapping– Protection against frequency

selective interference– Higher data rates compared

to code multiplex

But: – Precise

coordination required

t

c

k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1


Code Multiplexing

Each channel has a unique code

All channels use the same spectrum at the same timeAdvantages:– Bandwidth efficient– No coordination and synchronization necessary– Good protection against interference and

tapping

Drawbacks:– Lower user data rates– More complex signal regeneration

Implemented using spread spectrum technology

k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1

f

t

c

10


Modulation

Digital modulation:– Digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)– ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter– Differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

Analog modulation:– Shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier

Motivation for the necessity of analog modulation in wireless networks:– Smaller antennas (e.g., λ/4)– Frequency Division Multiplexing– Medium characteristics

Basic analog modulation schemes:– Amplitude Modulation (AM)– Frequency Modulation (FM)– Phase Modulation (PM)


Modulation and Demodulation

SynchronizationDecision

DigitalData

AnalogDemodulation

radiocarrier

AnalogBase-band

Signal

101101001 Radio Receiver

DigitalModulation

Digital Data

AnalogModulation

RadioCarrier

AnalogBase-band

Signal

101101001 Radio Transmitter

11


Digital Modulation

Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):– Very simple– Low bandwidth requirements– Very susceptible to interference

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):– Needs larger bandwidth

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):– More complex– Robust against interference

1 0 1

t

1 0 1

t

1 0 1

t


Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

Bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the carrier frequenciesSpecial pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts:

MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)

Bit-separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled Depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency, original or inverted is chosenThe frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the otherEquivalent to offset QPSKEven higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter:

GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM

12


Advanced Phase Shift Keying

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):– Bit value 0: sine wave (0° shift)– Bit value 1: inverted sine wave (180° shift)– Very simple PSK– Low spectral efficiency– Robust, e.g., used in satellite systems

QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):– 2 bits coded as one symbol– Symbol determines shift of sine wave– Needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK– More complex (regular synchronization, pilot signal)

Often also transmission of relative, not absolute phase shift: DQPSK - Differential QPSK (American IS-136, Japanese PHS)

11 10 00 01

Q

I01

Q

I

11

01

10

00

A

t

BPSK

QPSK


Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): – Combines amplitude and phase modulation

It is possible to code n bits using one symbol:– 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK– Bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable PSK

schemes

Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)

Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase, but different amplitude. 0000 and 1000 have different phase, but same amplitude.

used in standard 9600 bit/s modems

0000

00010011

1000

Q

I

0010

13


Hierarchical Modulation

DVB-T (Digital Video Broadcast Terrestrial) modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T streamHigh Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) streamMulti-carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriersQPSK (2 first bits), 16 QAM, 64 QAMExample: 64 QAM– Good reception: resolve the entire

64 QAM constellation– Poor reception, mobile reception:

resolve only QPSK portion– 6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most

significant determine QPSK– HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),

LP uses remaining 4 bit

Q

I

00

10

000010 010101


Spread Spectrum Technology

Problem of radio transmission: – Frequency-dependent fading can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the

interference

Solution: – Spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special code

Protection against narrow-band interference

Side effects:– Coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination– Tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

Detection atReceiver

InterferenceSpread Signal

Signal

SpreadInterference

f f

Power Power

14


Spreading and Frequency Selective Fading

f

ChannelQuality

1 23

45 6

Narrow-band Signal Guard Space

22222

f

ChannelQuality

1

SpreadSpectrum

Narrow-band Channels

1. 6 signals in FDM2. Quality changes over time3. Spot view4. 1, 2, 5, 6 ok, 3, 4 not ok5. Apply SS onto 6 signals!

Spread Spectrum Channels

1. 6 signals utilize full f2. No f planning required3. Separation by codes per signals4. CDM, unique per signal5. “Extension” of f


DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) (1)

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence):– Many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal

Advantages:– Reduces frequency selective

fading – In cellular networks:

• Base stations can use the same frequency range

• Several base stations can detect and recover the signal

• Soft hand-over

Drawbacks:– Precise power control necessary– Spreading factor s = tb/tc -> s*w bandwidth requirements

User Data

Chipping Sequence

ResultingSignal

0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 11

XOR

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 0 01

=

tb

tc

tb: Bit Periodtc: Chip Period

15


DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) (2)

XUser Data

ChippingSequence Cs

Modulator

RadioCarrier fr

SpreadSpectrum

SignalTransmitSignal

Transmitter

Demodulator

ReceivedSignal

RadioCarrier fr

X

ChippingSequence Cs

Low-passFilteredSignal

Receiver

Integrator

Products

DecisionData

SampledSums

Correlator

Example:IEEE 802.11Chip: 10110111000(Barker Code)1 MHz user datagenerate 11 MHzsignal in 2.4 GHzfrequency


FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) (1)

Discrete changes of carrier frequency:– Available bandwidth of small channels separated as in FDM– Sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number (TDM)

Two versions:– Fast Hopping:

several frequencies per user bit– Slow Hopping:

several user bits per frequency

Advantages:– Frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period– Simple implementation– Uses only small portion of spectrum at any time (dwell time: Verweildauer)

Drawbacks:– Not as robust as DSSS– Simpler to detect (no knowledge of a chipping sequence as in DSSS required!)

16


FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) (2)

User Data

SlowHopping(3 bits/hop),e.g., GSM

FastHopping(3 hops/bit),e.g., Bluetooth,1600 f changes/sinto 79 carrier f

0 1

tb

0 1 1 tf

f1f2

f3

t

td

f

f1

f2

f3

t

td

tb: Bit Period td: Dwell Time


Cell Structure

Implements space division multiplex: – Base station covers a certain transmission area (cell)

Mobile stations communicate only via the base stationAdvantages of cell structures:– Higher capacity, higher number of users– Less transmission power needed– More robust, decentralized– Base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

Problems:– Fixed network needed for the base stations– Hand-over (changing from one cell to another) necessary– Interference with other cells

Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side (GSM):– Even less for higher frequencies

17


Frequency Planning (1)

Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations

Standard model using 7 frequencies:

Fixed frequency assignment:– Certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell– Problem: different traffic load in different cells

Dynamic frequency assignment:– Base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already used in

neighbor cells– More capacity in cells with more traffic– Assignment can also be based on interference measurements

f4f5f1f3 f2

f6f7

f3 f2f4

f5f1


Frequency Planning (2)

f1

f2

f3f2

f1

f1

f2

f3f2

f3

f1

f2f1

f3f3

f3f3

f3f4

f5

f1f3

f2

f6

f7

f3f2

f4

f5

f1f3

f5f6

f7f2

f2

f1f1 f1f2f3

f2f3

f2f3h1

h2h3g1

g2g3

h1h2h3g1

g2g3

g1g2g3

3 Cell Cluster

7 Cell Cluster

3 Cell Clusterwith 3 Sector Antennas

18


Cell Breathing

CDM (Code Division Multiplexing) systems: – Cell size depends on current load

• Low load: larger areas• High load: smaller areas

Reason: Additional traffic appears as noise to other users:– Increasing noise due to increasing number of participants– If the noise level is too high users, located at cell boundaries, drop out of cells

“Noisy area”

2. wireless transmission

Documents