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Chapter 7: International Organization: An Alternative Structure

“Friendly counsel cuts off many foes.”—William Shakespeare, Henry VI Part I

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An Overview of International Organizations

Function:

General or specialized

Geographical:

Global or regional

Intergovernmental (IGOs) or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

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The Origins of IGOsBelief in a community of humankindDevelopmental stages:

League of NationsUnited Nations

Big-power peacekeeping:UN Security Council

Pragmatic cooperation:Wide range of specialized agencies: Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (1815) is the oldest

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The Growth of IGOs

Rapid growth in the number of all types of IGOs during the 20th century

Qualitative growth as wellRoles of IGOs are expanding and taking on new global issues and functionsExample: International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMMARSAT)

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Theories of IGO GrowthFunctionalism:

“Bottom-up” evolutionary approach

Begins with limited, pragmatic cooperation on narrow, nonpolitical issues that leads to broader and higher levels of cooperation later on

Neofunctionalism:

“Top-down” approach

Need to establish independent and powerful IGOs to address current political issues

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Reasons for Growth

Increased international contact

Increased global interdependence

Expansion of transnational problems

Failure of state-centered system to provide security

Efforts of small states to gain strength through joint action

Successful role models

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Role of IGOs: Interactive Arena

Interactive arena where nations pursue self-interest

Disadvantages of using IGO as an interactive arena:

• IGO becomes focus of struggle and not forum for cooperation

• Reduced support for IGOs if they do not promote national interests and/or goals

Advantages of use of IGO as an interactive arena:

• Intergovernmentalism

• Using IGO makes it politically easier to take action

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Role of IGOs: Center of CooperationPromote and facilitate cooperation on specific issues, often nonpoliticalSeek to build trust and solve social and economic issues that transcend national bordersRegime theory: A complex of IGOs, NGOs, norms of behavior, processes, and treaties that govern national and international actors

Create settings for interaction and cooperationThe Regime for the Oceans and Seas

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Role of IGOs: Independent International Actor

Permanent administrative IGO staff increases its authority and role

Role of mediation and conciliation

Organizational independence

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Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued

Specialized supranational governance:

World Trade Organization

Regional government:

European Union

Task of overcoming nationalism and bringing heterogeneous peoples together easier than global government

Allows for greater cultural diversity and political experimentation than global government

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Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued

World government:Far-reaching alternative facing many criticisms concerning its adverse effects on national sovereignty, cultural diversity, and political experimentation,

Concern about the ability of world government to preserve and extend democracy in countries around the world.

Doubts about the problem-solving effectiveness and unprecedented concentration of power required to enforce international law and address world's daunting economic and social problems.

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Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued

Issues for structuring a world or regional governmentCentralized, federal or confederal government

Allocation of decision-making authority and power to different executive, legislative, and judicial institutions

Democratic opting-out rights to member nations

Uniform monetary policy, common currency, and consensus trade rules

Preserving individual human rights and liberties in each nation through constitutional and judicial protections

Admission criteria for new members

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Regional IGOs: Focus on the European Union

Expanding regional organization that has evolved through several stages and names

Moving toward fuller economic and political integration

But not without controversy—recent debate surrounding the EU constitution

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The Origins and Evolution of the European Union

Economic integration:

European Economic Community (EEC)

European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)

European Community (EC)

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The Origins and Evolution of the EU

Political Integration:Maastricht TreatyMonetary integration-the EUROCommon foreign and defense policyCoordination of policy on social issues such as crime, terrorism, and immigrationTreaty of Amsterdam and Treaty of Nice: further political and economic integrationExpanding membership

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The Government of the EU: A PrototypePolitical leadership:

Council of Ministers (Council of the European Union): Weighted votes, sets policy

Bureaucracy:European Commission: Implements policyPresident of the Commission

Oversight agenciesLegislature:

European ParliamentJudiciary:

Courts of Justice, First Instance, AuditorsEuropean Ombudsman

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The Future of the European Union

Duality about further integration; several determining and controversial factors

Ratification of EU constitution

Dutch and French rejection

Questions about further expansion, state sovereignty, jobs, agricultural trade subsidies by individual nations, Britain's refusal to adopt common currency (the Euro), and immigration

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Global IGOs: The United Nations

Best known and most influential IGO

Structure and rules are important for success and are consistently being challenged

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Membership Issues

Standards for admitting new members:The Palestinian question

Kosovo/Serbia dispute

Successor state status:USSR -> Russia

Withdrawal, suspension, or expulsion:Nationalist China (Taiwan), South Africa during apartheid

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Representative BodiesUsually some plenary representative body (UN General Assembly)Limited membership council (UN Security Council—only five permanent members)

Highly criticized:• Inaccurate reflection of power realities• Geographic and demographic imbalance• Inequitable and unlimited veto power• Transparency and accountability of decisions• Ineffective implementation of Security Council

resolutions

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Voting Formulas

Majority vote: 1 state, 1 vote.UN General Assembly

Weighted voting by population or wealth Negative voting:

Unanimity requirementVeto power:• UN Security Council

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IGO Leadership

Secretariat: Political and regional selection considerations

Role: Activism versus restraint

Cases of the UN secretary-generals:

Dag Hammarskjold (1953–1961)

Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992–1996)

Kofi Annan (1997–2006)

Ban Ki-moon (2007-Present)

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IGO Bureaucracy

Size

Restraints on selection of Secretariat staff

Dominant powers make appointments

Geographic and gender composition of staff

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UN Administration

Administrative reform:Staff and budget considerations and cutbacks

Issues of gender equality

Corruption (e.g., Iraq Oil for Food Program)

Putting charges of maladministration in perspective:

U.S. comparisons

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Financing the United Nations:The Elements of the UN Budget

Core budget

Peacekeeping budget

Voluntary contributions budget

Severe and controversial budget problems

Dependent on assessment with little power to raise support

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UN Budget Crunch

Growing cost of operationsSize of bureaucracyUnwillingness of member-countries to pay dues

U.S. debt cleared by Congress only recently

Criticism of assessment scheme: eight countries pay 76% of costs

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IGO Activities:Promoting International Peace and Security

Creating norms against violence

Providing a debate alternative

Diplomatic intervention

Inquiry, good offices, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication

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IGO Activities, continued

Sanctions:

Diplomatic and economic (e.g., Iran and Sudan)

Peacekeeping:

Expanding role: from neutral buffers to military intervention to nation-building efforts (e.g., Lebanon, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo)

Arms Control and Disarmament:

International Atomic Energy Agency—promotes and monitors the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons (e.g., North Korea)

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Social, Economic, Environmental, and Other Activities of IGOs

Economic development

Human rights

The environment

International law and norms

The quality of human existence

Independence

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Evaluating IGOs and Their Future

Standards:What are the ultimate goals?

Has progress been made?

What is possible?

Do any alternatives exist?