2014 analog electronic circuits lab-manual

2014

Prof. Dr Tahir Izhar

University of Engineering & Technology

LAHORE

1/09/2014

Analog Electronic CircuitsLab-manual

Prof. Dr. Tahir Izhar-UET, Lahore

2 Electrical Engineering Department, UET, Lahore

Contents

Experiment-1: ..........................................................................................................................................4

Learning to use the multimeter for checking and indentifying the electronic components..........................4

Experiment-2: ..........................................................................................................................................7

To study the behavior of a BJT as an amplifier. .........................................................................................7

Experiment-3: ........................................................................................................................................11

To study the behavior of the change of BJT parameters on DC biasing of BJT amplifier circuits. ................11

Experiment-4: ........................................................................................................................................14

To study the Bias stabilization of BJT amplifier circuits. ...........................................................................14

Experiment-5: ........................................................................................................................................18

To study the amplifier parameters (voltage gain, current gain, input resistance output resistance) of BJTCE, CB and CC amplifiers.............................................................................................................18

Experiment-6: ........................................................................................................................................24

To study the frequency response of BJT CE, CB and CC amplifiers. ...........................................................24

Experiment-7: ........................................................................................................................................28

To study the operation of Direct Coupled two stage amplifier. ................................................................28

Experiment-8: ........................................................................................................................................31

To Study the Behavior of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) as a Switch. .................................................31

Experiment-9: ........................................................................................................................................35

To Study the Behavior of a MOSFET as a Switch. .....................................................................................35

Experiment-10: ......................................................................................................................................39

To study the operation and measure the parameters of a transistor Schmitt Trigger Circuit. ....................39

Experiment-11: ......................................................................................................................................42

To study the operation and measure the parameters of a IC Schmitt Trigger Circuit. ................................42

Experiment-12: ......................................................................................................................................45

To study the operation of transistor Multi-Vibrator Circuits. ...................................................................45

Bistable Multivibrator Circuit .................................................................................................................. 45

Bistable Multivibrator Waveform............................................................................................................ 46

Sequential Switching Bistable Multivibrator........................................................................................... 47

Basic Astable Multivibrator Circuit .......................................................................................................... 50

Astable Multivibrators Periodic Time ...................................................................................................... 52



Frequency of Oscillation ...........................................................................................................................52

Astable Multivibrator Waveforms ...........................................................................................................53

Monostable Multivibrator Circuit ............................................................................................................57

Monostable Multivibrator Waveforms....................................................................................................58

Experiment-13:.......................................................................................................................................63

To study the operation of Multi-Vibrator Circuits using ICs......................................................................63



Experiment-1:

Learning to use the multimeter for checking and indentifying theelectronic components.

Apparatus:Analog Multimeter,Digital Multimeter,Transistors 3 numbersresistors 3 numberscapacitors 3 numbers,and diodes 3 numbers.

Procedure:Resistor Check

1. Set the selector switch of the analog multi-meter at RX100 range.2. Short the leads and set the zero with zero-adjust knob.3. Connect the resistor across the lead and observe the movement4. Adjust the selector switch such that the pointer is near the half scale deflection5. Note the value and record

_______________6. Now calculate the value of the resistor from the color code and record

_______________7. Repeat procedure steps 3-6 for two other resistors.

Capacitor Check1. Set the selector switch of the analog multi-meter at RX100 range.2. Short the leads and set the zero with zero-adjust knob.3. Connect the Capacitor across the leads and observe the movement.4. Adjust the selector switch such that the pointer jumps near the half scale deflection.5. Interchange the leads and observe the deflection.6. Check all the three capacitors of different values and observe the difference of

deflection and record your observation.

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Diode Check1. Set the selector switch of the analog multi-meter at RX100 range.2. Short the leads and set the zero with zero-adjust knob.3. Connect the Diode across the lead.4. Observe the movement.5. Interchange the leads, and again observe the movement.6. Repeat the above procedure for other two diodes7. Identify the diode terminals and Sketch the diode and mark the observed terminals.

Transistor Check1. Set the selector switch of the analog multi-meter at RX100 range.2. Short the leads and set the zero with zero-adjust knob.3. Connect two leads of the transistor across the lead.4. By interchanging the leads find the base and the type of the transistor i.e. PNP or NPN.

(Hint: if black lead is connected to the base and the red to the collector or emitter ofNPN transistor, the meter will show deflection.)

5. Identify the collector terminal of the transistor by biasing the base from collector andcomparing the deflection.

(Hint: connect the collector and emitter across the meter and touch your finger acrossblack lead and base in case of NPN transistor and observe deflection. Repeat this afterinterchanging the leads. In case of larger deflection the black lead is connected to thecollector. In case of PNP transistor bias the base with red lead, in case of largerdeflection the red lead is connected to the collector.)

6. Repeat the above procedure of tow more transistors.7. Sketch the transistors and mark the leads as indentified.



Conclusions:Write down the summary, general observation and conclusion about the resultsobtained in this experiment. (You can attach more sheets if required)

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Name_______________Regd. No.____________Instructor ____________Date________________



Experiment-2:

To study the behavior of a BJT as an amplifier.

Apparatus:Laptop computerBread Board,Oscilloscope,Regulated DC power Supply,Digital Multi-meter,Connecting leads.BJT and resistors

Procedure:1. Run PROTEUS “ISIS” on your laptop computer and draw the following circuit.

Figure-1 BJT Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

2. Simulate the circuit shown in Figure-1 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software and observethe DC voltages at collector of BJT.

3. Change RB so that the collector voltage is nearly half of VCC.4. Connect signal source at the input and oscilloscope at the output.5. Measure the peak value of the AC input with the help of oscilloscope and record.

--------------------



6. Measure the DC voltages at all the nodes with DC volt meter and record.

VB -------------------- VE -------------------- VC --------------------

7. Draw the input, output voltage observed by the oscilloscope in the following chart.

8. Increase the amplitude of the input signal gradually and observe the change in theoutput signal.

9. Record your observations in the following chart using multi colours.



10. Repeat procedure from step-3 to step-9 using actual components and realinstruments.



Conclusions:

Write down the summary, general observation and conclusion about the resultsobtained in this experiment. Compare your Practical results with the hand calculatedresults and simulated results. (You can attach more sheets if required)

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Experiment-3:

To study the behavior of the change of BJT parameters on DC biasingof BJT amplifier circuits.

Apparatus:Laptop computer,Breadboard,Regulated DC power Supply,Digital Multi-meter,Required components and connecting leads.

Procedure:1. Simulate the circuit shown in Figure-3 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

Figure-3: Fixed bias unstable amplifier circuit.

2. Simulate the circuit of Figure-3 and measure the output voltage VCE and record.

VCE = ------------------3. Replace transistor 2N3904 with 2N3055 in Figure-3 and simulate the circuit again

and measure the output voltage VCE and record.

VCE = ------------------4. Notice the big change in voltage. Why? (This is due to unstable Bias)



5. Connect the circuit of Figure-3 on bread board.

6. Connect the DC source at the supply terminals of the circuit and set the source to12V.

7. Measure the DC voltage at the output and record.

VCE = ------------------

8. Heat the transistor with the help of soldering iron and observe the change in outputvoltage. (considerable change is expected)

VCE = ------------------

9. Change the transistor and measure output voltage again and record. (considerablechange is expected)

VCE = ------------------



Conclusions:

Write down the summary, general observation and conclusion about the resultsobtained in this experiment. Compare your practical results with the hand calculatedresults and simulated results. (You can attach more sheets if required)

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Experiment-4:

To study the Bias stabilization of BJT amplifier circuits.

Apparatus:Breadboard,Regulated DC power Supply,Digital Multi-meter,Required components,Connecting leads.

Procedure:1. Connect the circuit of Figure-4 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

Figure-4: Potential divider biased amplifier circuit.


VCE = ------------------2. Replace transistor 2N3904 with 2N3055 in Figure-4 and simulate the circuit again

and measure the output voltage VCE and record.

VCE = ------------------



3. Notice the change in voltage. Why? (The change is negligible. This is due to highly stablepotential divider Bias)

4. Connect the circuit of Figure-4 on bread board.

5. Connect the DC source at the supply terminals of the circuit and set the source to 12V.

6. Measure the DC voltage at the output and record.

VCE = ------------------

7. Heat the transistor with the help of soldering iron and observe the change in outputvoltage. (negligible change is expected)

VCE = ------------------

8. Change the transistor and measure output voltage again and record. (negligible changeis expected)

VCE = ------------------


VCE = ------------------

Figure-5: Voltage feedback biased amplifier circuit.



10. Change the transistor of Figure-5 and measure the output voltage VCE and record.

VCE = ------------------11. Assemble the circuit of Figure-5 on breadboard and measure the output voltage VCE and

record.VCE = ------------------

12. Change the transistor in the circuit of Figure-5 and again measure the output voltage VCE

and record.VCE = ------------------

13. Compare feedback bias and potential divider bias. Which circuit is more stable? Giveyour comparison in the following section.



Conclusions:


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Name: _____________________Regd. No:__________________Instructor’s Initial: ___________Date: ______________________



Experiment-5:

To study the amplifier parameters (voltage gain, current gain, inputresistance output resistance) of BJT CE, CB and CC amplifiers.

Apparatus:Breadboard,Oscilloscope,Regulated DC power Supply,Required components,Connecting leads.

Procedure:Note: this is a long procedure and you may complete it in multiple sessions.

Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier (Simulation)

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure-6 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

Figure-6: Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

2. Connect the signal source at Vin and connect Ch-A of the oscilloscope at the Vout terminaland Ch-B of the oscilloscope at Vin terminal.

3. Draw the input, output voltage observed by the oscilloscope in the following chart.



4. Calculate the voltage gain from the recorded waveforms graphically.--------------------

5. Change VCC from 12V to 24V and measure the voltage gain. Is there a change? (Answerthe question in discussion and conclusion part of the experiment at the end.)

6. Remove capacitor C3 across R3 and measure the voltage gain. Is there a change?(Answer the question in discussion and conclusion part of the experiment at the end.)

7. Add a resistor R5 as shown in the following circuit.



Figure-7: Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit for input resistance measurement.

8. Measure the gain with and without resistor.9. Calculate the input resistance of the amplifier using potential divider rule.10. Remove the Capacitor C3 and calculate the input resistance of the amplifier again using the

above mentioned procedure. Note the change in input impedance and discuss it inconclusion part at the end.)

11. Connect a resistor at the output terminals as shown in following Figure and measure theoutput with and without resistor. Calculate the output resistance of the amplifier usingPotential divider rule.

12. Calculate the current gain using the values of gain, input and output resistances.

Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier (Practical on Breadboard)

13. Connect the circuit of Figure-6 on bread board and repeat the above simulation procedurestep-1 to step-6 on practical circuits.

14. Assemble the circuit of Figure-8 on bread board.

Figure-8: Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit for practical measurement of input resistance.

15. Set VR1 to zero, connect the oscilloscope across the output, and adjust the signal amplitudeso that the output is 2 volts peak to peak. Set the frequency of the signal to 1K Hz.



16. Increase VR1 gradually and make the output equal to 1Volt peak to peak (half of theprevious value). At this point VR1 is equal to the input resistance of the amplifier.

17. Turn of the power, disconnect VR1 and measure the value with the help of digital multi-meter. This is the input resistance.

-------------------18. To measure the output resistance, remove VR1 and connect the signal source directly

across the input. Set the amplitude so that the output is 2Volts peak-peak.19. Set VR1 to maximum value and connect is across the output.20. Gradually decrease VR1 to make the output equal to 1 volt peak to peak (half of the

previous value). At this point VR1 is equal to the output resistance of the amplifier.21. Turn of the power, disconnect VR1 and measure the value with the help of digital multi-

meter. This is the output resistance.-------------------

22. Calculate the current gain using the values of gain, input and output resistances.

Common-Base (CB) Amplifier23. The circuit of Figure-9 is Common-base amplifier. Notice that this is same potential divider

bias circuit. The input signal is connected at the emitter through C1 and base is bypassedusing C3.

Figure-9: Common Base (CB) Amplifier Circuit.

24. Simulate the circuit and practically assemble and test the circuit and measure the gain,input resistance and output resistance as you did for CE-amplifier.



Common-Collector (CC) Amplifier25. The circuit of Figure-10 is Common-collector amplifier.

Figure-10: Common Collector (CC) Amplifier Circuit.

26. Simulate the circuit of Figure 10 and practically assemble and test the circuit and measurethe gain, input resistance and output resistance as you did for CE and CB-amplifiers.



Conclusions:


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Experiment-6:

To study the frequency response of BJT CE, CB and CC amplifiers.


Procedure:

Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure-11 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

Figure-11: Common Emitter amplifier circuit to study the frequency response of the amplifier.

2. Set the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal to a middle range of 10K Hz.3. Set the output signal amplitude to 4 volts peak to peak by adjusting the amplitude of the

input signal source.4. Now gradually decrease the frequency so that the output amplitude becomes nearly 2.8

volts peak to peak. This is the lower cut off frequency of the amplifier.

Lower cut-ff Frequency:_______________



5. Now increase the frequency gradually until the output amplitude becomes nearly equalto 2.8 volts peak to peak. This frequency is the higher cut-off frequency of the amplifier.

Upper cut-ff Frequency:_______________Band Width:________________

6. Assemble the circuit on breadboard with real components and repeat step-2 to step-5.7. Measure and record lower cutoff, upper cut off and Bandwidth of the amplifier.

Lower cutoff Frequency:________________Upper cut-ff Frequency:_______________

Band Width:________________8. Compare the results of step 4, 5 and 7 and discuss it in the conclusion section at the

end.

Common-Emitter (CB) Amplifier9. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure-12 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

Figure-12: Common Base amplifier circuit to study the frequency response of the amplifier.

10. Repeat procedure from step-2 to step-8 for common base configuration.

Common-Emitter (CC) Amplifier




Figure-13: Common Collector circuit to study the frequency response of the amplifier

12. Repeat procedure from step-2 to step-8 for the circuit of common collectorconfiguration shown in Figure-13.



Conclusions:


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Experiment-7:

To study the operation of Direct Coupled two stage amplifier.


Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit of two stage as shown in Figure-14 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

2. Connect the DC voltmeter at each node and measure the DC voltages at each node.

VB1= _________ VC1= _________ VE1= _________ VC2= _________ VE2= _________

3. Perform the approximate DC analysis of the above circuit and calculate the nodevoltages.

VB1= _________ VC1= _________ VE1= _________ VC2= _________ VE2= _________



4. Connect the signal source at the input and oscilloscope at the outputs of stage-1 andstage-2.

5. Set the signal frequency to 1kHz and amplitude to 10mV.6. Observe the outputs and measure the voltage gains of stage-1, stage-2 and overall gain.

Avo1= _________ Avo2= _________ AvT= _________

7. Perform the approximate AC analysis of the above circuit and calculate the gains.

Avo1= _________ Avo2= _________ AvT= _________

8. Change the supply voltage from 24V to 12V and oberve the change in gains if any.9. Now assemble the circuit of Figure-14 on bread board and practically test the circuits

and measure DC and AC parameters.

VB1= _________ VC1= _________ VE1= _________ VC2= _________ VE2= _________

Avo1= _________ Avo2= _________ AvT= _________



Conclusions:

Write down the summary, general observation and conclusion about the resultsobtained in this experiment. Compare your results with the hand calculated, simulatedand practical results. (You can attach more sheets if required)

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Experiment-8:

To Study the Behavior of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) as a Switch.

Apparatus:Laptop computerBread Board,Oscilloscope,Regulated DC power Supply,Digital Multi-meter,Connecting leads.BJT and resistors

Procedure:11. Run PROTEUS “ISIS” on your laptop computer and draw the following circuit.

Figure-1: BJT as a switch.

12. Simulate the circuit shown in Figure-1 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software and observethe DC voltages at collector of BJT.

13. Connect Digital Clock signal source at the input and oscilloscope at the output.14. Set the clock frequency to 1kHz.15. Run the simulation.16. Draw the input, output voltage observed by the oscilloscope in the following chart.



17. Increase the frequency of the input signal to 100K Hz. and observe the change in theoutput signal.

18. Record your observations in the following chart using multi colours.

19. Measure td, tr, ts and tf from the input and output waveforms.



20. Improve the switch circuit as shown below using C1 and R3 and observe the changein rise and fall times.

Figure-2: Improved BJT switch circuit.




Conclusions:

Write down the summary, general observation and conclusion about the resultsobtained in this experiment.

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Experiment-9:

To Study the Behavior of a MOSFET as a Switch.

Apparatus:Laptop computer,Breadboard,Regulated DC power Supply,Digital Multi-meter,Required components and connecting leads.

Procedure:10. Simulate the circuit shown in Figure-3 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

Figure-3: Enhancement MOSFET as a switch.

1. Simulate the circuit shown in Figure-3 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software and observethe DC voltages at the drain terminal of MOSFET with switch on and off.

VDS(on)=_____________ VDS(off)=_____________

2. Compare your results with BJT switch and give your comments at the end.3. Connect Digital Clock signal source at the input and oscilloscope at the output as

shown in Figure-4.4.



Figure-4: Enhancement MOSFET as a switch with D-clock and Oscilloscope.

5. Set the clock frequency to 1 kHz.6. Run the simulation.7. Draw the input, output voltage observed by the oscilloscope in the following chart.

8. Increase the frequency of the input signal to 200K Hz. and observe the change in theoutput signal.

9. Record your observations in the following chart.



10. Measure td, tr, ts and tf from the input and output waveforms.


12. Compare Practical results with simulation and record your observations.



Conclusions:


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Experiment-10:

To study the operation and measure the parameters of a transistorSchmitt Trigger Circuit.

Apparatus:Breadboard,Regulated DC power Supply,Digital Multi-meter,Required components,Connecting leads.

Procedure:2. Connect the circuit of Figure-5 using PROTEUS “ISIS” software.

Figure-5: Schmitt Trigger circuit using BJTs .

3. Apply Variable DC voltage using a DC source and variable resistance at the input andconnect the DC voltmeter at the output.

4. Gradually vary the input voltage and observe the state change in the output.5. Measure LTP and UTP.

LTP=____________ LTP=____________



6. Connect sine-wave source at the input and oscilloscope at the output, Sketch thewaveforms and indentify LTP and UTP.

7. Calculate LTP and UTP using the given values.

LTP=____________ LTP=____________


9. Compare Practical results with simulation and record your observations at the end.10. Change RE from 2.2k to 1k and observe the change in practical results.



Conclusions:


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Experiment-11:

To study the operation and measure the parameters of a IC SchmittTrigger Circuit.


Procedure:


Figure-6: Op-Amp based Schmitt Trigger Circuit.

1. Connect sine-wave source at the input and oscilloscope at the output, Sketch thewaveforms and indentify LTP and UTP.



2. Calculate LTP and UTP using the given values in the circuit.

LTP=____________ LTP=____________

3. Make the circuit on bread board using actual components and real instruments.4. Sketch the waveforms and indentify and measure LTP and UTP.

5. Compare Practical results with simulation and record your observations at the end.6. Change R1 from 100k to 220k and observe the change in practical results and discuss

the effect of increasing feedback resistor in your conclusions at the end.7. Change from 10 k to 4.7K and observe the change in practical results and discuss the

effect of decreasing input resistor in your conclusions at the end.



Conclusions:


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Experiment-12:

To study the operation of transistor Multi-Vibrator Circuits.


Note: this is a long procedure and you may complete it in multiple sessions.

The Bi-stable Multi-Vibrator

Bistable Multivibrators have TWO stable states (hence the name: "Bi" meaning two) andmaintain a given output state indefinitely unless an external trigger is applied.

The bistable multivibrator can be switched over from one stable state to the other by theapplication of an external trigger pulse thus, it requires two external trigger pulses before itreturns back to its original state. As bistable multivibrators have two stable states they aremore commonly known as Latches and Flip-flops for use in sequential type circuits.

The discrete Bistable Multivibrator is a two state non-regenerative device constructed fromtwo cross-coupled transistor switches. In each of the two states, one of the transistors iscut-off while the other transistor is in saturation, this means that the bistable circuit iscapable of remaining indefinitely in either stable state.

To change the bistable over from one state to the other, the bistable circuit requires asuitable trigger pulse and to go through a full cycle, two triggering pulses, one for eachstage are required. Its more common name or term of "flip-flop" relates to the actualoperation of the device, as it "flips" into one logic state, remains there and then changes or"flops" back into its first original state. Consider the circuit below.

Bistable Multivibrator Circuit



The Bistable Multivibrator circuit above is stable in both states, either with one transistor"OFF" and the other "ON" or with the first transistor "ON" and the second "OFF". Letssuppose that the switch is in the left position, position "A". The base of transistor TR1 will begrounded and in its cut-off region producing an output at Q. That would mean thattransistor TR2 is "ON" as its base is connected to Vcc through the series combination ofresistors R1 and R2. As transistor TR2 is "ON" there will be zero output at Q, the opposite orinverse of Q.

If the switch is now move to the right, position "B", transistor TR2 will switch "OFF" andtransistor TR1 will switch "ON" through the combination of resistors R3 and R4 resulting inan output at Q and zero output at Q the reverse of above. Then we can say that one stablestate exists when transistor TR1 is "ON" and TR2 is "OFF", switch position "A", and anotherstable state exists when transistor TR1 is "OFF" and TR2 is "ON", switch position "B".

Then unlike the monostable multivibrator whose output is dependent upon the RC timeconstant of the feedback components used, the bistable multivibrators output is dependentupon the application of two individual trigger pulses, switch position "A" or position "B". SoBistable Multivibrators can produce a very short output pulse or a much longer rectangularshaped output whose leading edge rises in time with the externally applied trigger pulseand whose trailing edge is dependent upon a second trigger pulse as shown below.

Bistable Multivibrator Waveform



Manually switching between the two stable states may produce a bistable multivibratorcircuit but is not very practical. One way of toggling between the two states using just onesingle trigger pulse is shown below.

Sequential Switching Bistable Multivibrator

Switching between the two states is achieved by applying a single trigger pulse which inturnwill cause the "ON" transistor to turn "OFF" and the "OFF" transistor to turn "ON" on thenegative half of the trigger pulse. The circuit will switch sequentially by applying a pulse toeach base in turn and this is achieved from a single input trigger pulse using a biased diodes



as a steering circuit. Equally, we could remove the diodes, capacitors and feedback resistorsand apply individual negative trigger pulses directly to the transistor bases.

Bistable Multivibrators have many applications producing a set-reset, SR flip-flop circuit foruse in counting circuits, or as a one-bit memory storage device in a computer. Otherapplications of bistable flip-flops include frequency dividers because the output pulses havea frequency that are exactly one half ( ƒ/2 ) that of the trigger input pulse frequency due tothem changing state from a single input pulse. In other words the circuit producesFrequency Division as it now divides the input frequency by a factor of two (an octave).

Procedure:


Figure-7: Bi-stable circuit with triggering circuit.2. Apply digital clock at trigger input and connect the oscilloscope at the output.3. Observe and record the input and output waveforms.



4. Assemble the circuit of Figure-7 on breadboard.5. Connect the function generator at the trigger input and oscilloscope at the output.6. Observe and record the waveforms.

7. Compare the results obtained from simulation and practical implementation of the Bi-stable circuit and discuss your observations at the end of the report.



Astable Multi-Vibrator

Regenerative switching circuits such as Astable Multivibrators are the most commonly usedtype of relaxation oscillator as they produce a constant square wave output waveform aswell as their simplicity, reliability and ease of construction. Unlike the MonostableMultivibrator or the Bistable Multivibrator we looked at in the previous tutorials thatrequire an "external" trigger pulse for their operation, the Astable Multivibrator switchescontinuously between its two unstable states without the need for any external triggering.

The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled transistor switching circuit thathas NO stable output states as it changes from one state to the other all the time. Theastable circuit consists of two switching transistors, a cross-coupled feedback network, andtwo time delay capacitors which allows oscillation between the two states with no externaltrigger signal to produce the change in state.

Astable multivibrators are therefore also known as Free-running Multivibrator as they donot require any additional inputs or external assistance to osillate. Astables produce acontinuous square wave from its output or outputs, (two outputs no inputs) which can thenbe used to flash lights or produce a sound in a loudspeaker.

The basic transistor circuit for an Astable Multivibrator produces a square wave outputfrom a pair of grounded emitter cross-coupled transistors. Both transistors either NPN orPNP, in the multivibrator are biased for linear operation and are operated as CommonEmitter Amplifiers with 100% positive feedback. This configuration satisfies the condition foroscillation when: ( βA = 1∠ 0o ). This results in one stage conducting "fully-ON" (Saturation)while the other is switched "fully-OFF" (cut-off) giving a very high level of mutualamplification between the two transistors. Conduction is transferred from one stage to theother by the discharging action of a capacitor through a resistor as shown below.

Basic Astable Multivibrator Circuit



Assume that transistor, TR1 has just switched "OFF" and its collector voltage is risingtowards Vcc, meanwhile transistor TR2 has just turned "ON". Plate "A" of capacitor C1 is alsorising towards the +6 volts supply rail of Vcc as it is connected to the collector of TR1. Theother side of capacitor, C1, plate "B", is connected to the base terminal of transistor TR2 andis at 0.6v because transistor TR2 is conducting therefore, capacitor C1 has a potentialdifference of 5.4 volts across it, 6.0 - 0.6v, (its high value of charge).

The instant that transistor, TR1 switches "ON", plate "A" of the capacitor immediately fallsto 0.6 volts. This fall of voltage on plate "A" causes an equal and instantaneous fall involtage on plate "B" therefore plate "B" of the capacitor C1 is pulled down to -5.4v (areverse charge) and this negative voltage turns transistor TR2 hard "OFF". One unstablestate.

Capacitor C1 now begins to charge in the opposite direction via resistor R3 which is alsoconnected to the +6 volts supply rail, Vcc, thus the case of transistor TR2 is moving upwardsin a positive direction towards Vcc with a time constant equal to the C1 x R3 combination.However, it never reaches the value of Vcc because as soon as it gets to 0.6 volts positive,transistor TR2 turns fully "ON" into saturation starting the whole process over again but nowwith capacitor C2 taking the base of transistor TR1 to -5.4v while charging up via resistor R2and entering the second unstable state. This process will repeat itself over and over again aslong as the supply voltage is present.

The amplitude of the output waveform is approximately the same as the supply voltage, Vccwith the time period of each switching state determined by the time constant of the RCnetworks connected across the base terminals of the transistors. As the transistors areswitching both "ON" and "OFF", the output at either collector will be a square wave withslightly rounded corners because of the current which charges the capacitors. This could becorrected by using more components as we will discuss later.



If the two time constants produced by C2 x R2 and C1 x R3 in the base circuits are the same,the mark-to-space ratio ( t1/t2 ) will be equal to one-to-one making the output waveformsymmetrical in shape. By varying the capacitors, C1, C2 or the resistors, R2, R3 the mark-to-space ratio and therefore the frequency can be altered.

We saw in the RC Discharging tutorial that the time taken for the voltage across a capacitorto fall to half the supply voltage, 0.5Vcc is equal to 0.69 time constants of the capacitor andresistor combination. Then taking one side of the astable multivibrator, the length of timethat transistor TR2 is "OFF" will be equal to 0.69T or 0.69 times the time constant of C1 x R3.Likewise, the length of time that transistor TR1 is "OFF" will be equal to 0.69T or 0.69 timesthe time constant of C2 x R2 and this is defined as.

Astable Multivibrators Periodic Time

Where, R is in Ω's and C in Farads.

By altering the time constant of just one RC network the mark-to-space ratio and frequencyof the output waveform can be changed but normally by changing both RC time constantstogether at the same time, the output frequency will be altered keeping the mark-to-spaceratios the same at one-to-one.

If the value of the capacitor C1 equals the value of the capacitor, C2, C1 = C2 and also thevalue of the base resistor R2 equals the value of the base resistor, R3, R2 = R3 then the totallength of time of the Multivibrators cycle is given below for a symmetrical outputwaveform.

Frequency of Oscillation

Where, R is in Ω's, C is in Farads, T is in seconds and ƒ is in Hertz.

and this is known as the "Pulse Repetition Frequency". So Astable Multivibrators canproduce TWO very short square wave output waveforms from each transistor or a muchlonger rectangular shaped output either symmetrical or non-symmetrical depending uponthe time constant of the RC network as shown below.



Astable Multivibrator Waveforms

Example:

An Astable Multivibrators circuit is required to produce a series of pulses at a frequency of500Hz with a mark-to-space ratio of 1:5. If R2 = R3 = 100kΩ's, calculate the values of thecapacitors, C1 and C2 required.

and by rearranging the formula above for the periodic time, the values of the capacitorsrequired to give a mark-to-space ratio of 1:5 are given as:



The values of 4.83nF and 24.1nF respectively, are calculated values, so we would need tochoose the nearest preferred values of C1 and C2 allowing for the tolerance. In fact due tothe wide range of tolerances associated with the humble capacitor the actual outputfrequency may differ by as much as ±20%, (400 to 600Hz in our example).

If we require the output waveform to be non-symmetrical for use in timing or gating circuitsetc, we can manually calculate the values of R and C for the individual components requiredas we did in the example above.

Procedure:


Figure-8: Astable circuit.



2. Connect the oscilloscope at the output.3. Observe and record the input and output waveforms.

4. Measure the times t1, t2 and T and compare it with the calculated values using therelations given above in the example.

5. Assemble the circuit using breadboard.6. Connect the oscilloscope at the output.7. Observe and record the output waveforms and measure times t1, t2, T and the

frequency.



8. Compare the results obtained from simulation and practical implementation of theastable circuit and discuss your observations at the end of the report.

Mono-stable or One-shot Multi-Vibrator

Multivibrators are Sequential regenerative circuits either synchronous or asynchronous thatare used extensively in timing applications. Multivibrators produce an output wave shape ofa symmetrical or asymmetrical square wave and are the most commonly used of all thesquare wave generators. Multivibrators belong to a family of oscillators commonly called"Relaxation Oscillators".

Generally speaking, discrete multivibrators consist of a two transistor cross coupledswitching circuit designed so that one or more of its outputs are fed back as an input to theother transistor with a resistor and capacitor ( RC ) network connected across them toproduce the feedback tank circuit.

Multivibrators have two different electrical states, an output "HIGH" state and an output"LOW" state giving them either a stable or quasi-stable state depending upon the type ofmultivibrator. One such type of a two state pulse generator configuration are calledMonostable Multivibrators.

MOSFET Monostable

Monostable Multivibrators have only ONE stable state (hence their name: "Mono"), andproduce a single output pulse when it is triggered externally. Monostable multivibratorsonly return back to their first original and stable state after a period of time determined bythe time constant of the RC coupled circuit.

Consider the MOSFET circuit on the left. The resistor R and capacitor C form an RC timingcircuit. The N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET is switched "ON" due to the voltageacross the capacitor with the drain connected LED also "ON". When the switch is closed thecapacitor discharges and the gate of the MOSFET is shorted to ground. The MOSFET and



therefore the LED are both switched "OFF". While the switch is closed the circuit will be"OFF" and in its "unstable state".

When the switch is opened, the fully discharged capacitor starts to charge up through theresistor, R at a rate determined by the RC time constant of the resistor-capacitor network.Once the capacitors charging voltage reaches the lower threshold voltage level of theMOSFETs gate, the MOSFET switches "ON" and illuminates the LED returning the circuitback to its stable state. Then the application of the switch causes the circuit to enter itsunstable state, while the time constant of the RC network returns it back to its stable stateafter a preset timing period thereby producing a very simple "one-shot" or MonostableMultivibrator MOSFET circuit.

Monostable Multivibrators or "One-Shot Multivibrators" as they are also called, are used togenerate a single output pulse of a specified width, either "HIGH" or "LOW" when a suitableexternal trigger signal or pulse T is applied. This trigger signal initiates a timing cycle whichcauses the output of the monostable to change its state at the start of the timing cycle andwill remain in this second state.

The timing cycle of the monostable is determined by the time constant of the timingcapacitor, CT and the resistor, RT until it resets or returns itself back to its original (stable)state. The monostable multivibrator will then remain in this original stable state indefinitelyuntil another input pulse or trigger signal is received. Then, Monostable Multivibratorshave only ONE stable state and go through a full cycle in response to a single triggeringinput pulse.

Monostable Multivibrator Circuit



The basic collector-coupled Monostable Multivibrator circuit and its associated waveformsare shown above. When power is firstly applied, the base of transistor TR2 is connected toVcc via the biasing resistor, RT thereby turning the transistor "fully-ON" and into saturationand at the same time turning TR1 "OFF" in the process. This then represents the circuits"Stable State" with zero output. The current flowing into the saturated base terminal of TR2will therefore be equal to Ib = (Vcc - 0.7)/RT.

If a negative trigger pulse is now applied at the input, the fast decaying edge of the pulsewill pass straight through capacitor, C1 to the base of transistor, TR1 via the blocking diodeturning it "ON". The collector of TR1 which was previously at Vcc drops quickly to belowzero volts effectively giving capacitor CT a reverse charge of -0.7v across its plates. Thisaction results in transistor TR2 now having a minus base voltage at point X holding thetransistor fully "OFF". This then represents the circuits second state, the "Unstable State"with an output voltage equal to Vcc.

Timing capacitor, CT begins to discharge this -0.7v through the timing resistor RT, attemptingto charge up to the supply voltage Vcc. This negative voltage at the base of transistor TR2begins to decrease gradually at a rate determined by the time constant of the RT CT

combination. As the base voltage of TR2 increases back up to Vcc, the transistor begins toconduct and doing so turns "OFF" again transistor TR1 which results in the monostablemultivibrator automatically returning back to its original stable state awaiting a secondnegative trigger pulse to restart the process once again.

Monostable Multivibrators can produce a very short pulse or a much longer rectangularshaped waveform whose leading edge rises in time with the externally applied trigger pulseand whose trailing edge is dependent upon the RC time constant of the feedbackcomponents used. This RC time constant may be varied with time to produce a series ofpulses which have a controlled fixed time delay in relation to the original trigger pulse asshown below.

Monostable Multivibrator Waveforms



The time constant of Monostable Multivibrators can be changed by varying the values ofthe capacitor, CT the resistor, RT or both. Monostable multivibrators are generally used toincrease the width of a pulse or to produce a time delay within a circuit as the frequency ofthe output signal is always the same as that for the trigger pulse input, the only difference isthe pulse width.



Procedure:


Figure-9: Mono-stable circuit.

2. Apply digital clock at trigger input and connect the oscilloscope at the output.3. Observe and record the input and output waveforms.

4. Assemble the circuit of Figure-9 on breadboard.



5. Connect the function generator at the trigger input and oscilloscope at the output.6. Observe and record the waveforms.

7. Compare the results obtained from simulation and practical implementation of the Bi-stable circuit and discuss your observations at the end of the report.



Conclusions:

Write down the summary, general observation and conclusion about the resultsobtained in this experiment. Add more pages if required.

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Experiment-13:

To study the operation of Multi-Vibrator Circuits using ICs.


Note: this is a long procedure and you may complete it in multiple sessions.

The Mono-stable Multi-Vibrator using ICs.Procedure:


Figure-10: Mono-stable circuit using LM324 IC.

2. Observe the output through animated LED.3. Operate the switch on and off.4. Observe the output of the op-amp.



(the LED turns on and after a delay turns off again)5. Assemble the circuit using bread board and measure the time with the help of stop-

watch.6. Change R5 to 1M ohms and measure the time again.7. Change C1 to 47uf and measure the time again.8. Describe the operation of the circuit giving the function of each component in the above

circuit.

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Figure-11: Mono-stable circuit using 555 IC.

10. Observe the output through animated LED.11. Operate the switch on and off.12. Observe the output of the 555 IC.

(the LED turns on and after a delay turns off again)13. Assemble the circuit using bread board and measure the time with the help of stop-

watch.14. Change R2 to 100k ohms and measure the time again.15. Change C1 to 47uf and measure the time again.16. Describe the operation of the circuit giving the function of each component in the above

circuit.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------




Figure-12: Mono-stable circuit using 4538 IC.

18. Observe the output through animated LEDs.19. Operate the switch on and off.20. Observe the outputs of the 4538 timer IC.

(the LEDs turn on and after a delay turn off again)21. Assemble the circuit using bread board and measure the time with the help of stop-

watch.22. Change R1 to 1M ohms and measure the time again.23. Change C1 to 100 uf and measure the time again.24. Describe the operation of the circuit giving the function of each component in the above

circuit.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------



Conclusions:

Write down the summary, general observation and conclusion about the resultsobtained in this experiment. Add more pages if required.

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2014 analog electronic circuits lab-manual

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