2222 Sustaining Wild Species Sustaining Wild Species

Miller’s - Living in the EnvironmentMiller’s - Living in the Environment

1313thth Edition Edition

Factors Affecting BiodiversityFactors Affecting Biodiversity

Factors that increase Factors that increase biodiversitybiodiversity

1)1) Physically diverse habitatPhysically diverse habitat2)2) Moderate environmental Moderate environmental

disturbancedisturbance3)3) Small variation in Small variation in

environmental conditionsenvironmental conditions4)4) Middle stages of Middle stages of

successionsuccession5)5) EvolutionEvolution

Factors that decrease Factors that decrease biodiversitybiodiversity

1)1) Environmental stressEnvironmental stress2)2) Large environmental Large environmental

disturbancedisturbance3)3) Extreme environmental Extreme environmental

conditionsconditions4)4) Severe limitations of an Severe limitations of an

essential resourceessential resource5)5) Introduction of a non-Introduction of a non-

native speciesnative species6)6) Geographic isolationGeographic isolation

Human Impacts on BiodiversityHuman Impacts on Biodiversity

Fig. 22-2 p. 561

The State of US Species DiversityThe State of US Species Diversity

Strategies for Strategies for Protecting Protecting BiodiversityBiodiversity

Species Species approachapproach

Ecosystem Ecosystem approachapproach

Species ExtinctionSpecies Extinction

• Local extinctionLocal extinction– a species is a species is no longer found in an area no longer found in an area

it once inhabitedit once inhabited, but is still found , but is still found elsewhere in the worldelsewhere in the world

• Ecological extinctionEcological extinction– so few members of a species are left so few members of a species are left

that it that it can no longer play its ecological can no longer play its ecological rolesroles in the biological communities in the biological communities where it is foundwhere it is found

Species ExtinctionSpecies Extinction

• Biological extinctionBiological extinction– a species is a species is no longer found anywhere no longer found anywhere

on the earthon the earth..

Biological extinction is forever!Biological extinction is forever!

Passenger Passenger pigeonpigeon

Great aukGreat auk DodoDodo Dusky seaside Dusky seaside sparrowsparrow

AepyornisAepyornis(Madagascar)(Madagascar)

Animal species that have become prematurely extinct

‘‘Endangered’ and ‘Threatened’ SpeciesEndangered’ and ‘Threatened’ Species

• Endangered speciesEndangered species– species with species with so few individual survivorsso few individual survivors

that the species could that the species could soon become soon become extinctextinct over all or most of its natural over all or most of its natural range.range.

Florida manatee

Northern spotted owl (threatened)

Gray wolf Florida panther

Bannerman's turaco (Africa)© 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Endangered and Threatened SpeciesEndangered and Threatened Species

• Threatened (vulnerable) speciesThreatened (vulnerable) species– species that is species that is still abundantstill abundant in its in its

natural range but because of natural range but because of declining declining numbersnumbers is is likely to become likely to become endangeredendangered in the near future. in the near future.

Florida manatee

Northern spotted owl (threatened)

Gray wolf Florida panther

Bannerman's turaco (Africa)© 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Extinction RateExtinction Rate

Background (natural) rate of extinctionBackground (natural) rate of extinction– 0.0001% per year (1/10,000)0.0001% per year (1/10,000)

MassMassextinctionsextinctions

Adaptive radiationsAdaptive radiations- recovery after - recovery after mass extinctionsmass extinctions

Extinction RisksExtinction Risks

• Factors: population size, habitat, and Factors: population size, habitat, and genetics genetics

• Population viability analysisPopulation viability analysis

• Minimum viable populationMinimum viable population

• Minimum dynamic areaMinimum dynamic area

What are some characteristics What are some characteristics of extinction-prone species?of extinction-prone species?

CharacteristicCharacteristic ExamplesExamples

Low reproductive rateLow reproductive rate(K-strategist)(K-strategist)

Specialized nicheSpecialized niche

Narrow distributionNarrow distribution

Feeds at high trophic Feeds at high trophic levellevel

Fixed migratory patternsFixed migratory patterns

RareRare

Commercially valuableCommercially valuable

Large territoriesLarge territories

Blue whale, giant panda,Blue whale, giant panda,rhinocerosrhinoceros

Blue whale, giant panda,Blue whale, giant panda,Everglades kiteEverglades kite

Many island species,Many island species,elephant seal, desert pupfishelephant seal, desert pupfish

Bengal tiger, bald eagle,Bengal tiger, bald eagle,grizzly beargrizzly bear

Blue whale, whooping crane,Blue whale, whooping crane,sea turtlessea turtles

Many island species,Many island species,African violet, some orchidsAfrican violet, some orchids

Snow leopard, tiger, Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birdsrare plants and birds

California condor, grizzly California condor, grizzly bear, Florida pantherbear, Florida panther

Effects of Human Activities on Effects of Human Activities on Extinction RatesExtinction Rates

• Before humans, extinction rate was Before humans, extinction rate was one one species per million annuallyspecies per million annually

• Current rate of extinction is estimated at Current rate of extinction is estimated at 100 to 1000 times100 to 1000 times the rate before humans the rate before humans

• Speciation CrisisSpeciation Crisis - - limiting long-term limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity by reducing the recovery of biodiversity by reducing the rate of speciation for some types of rate of speciation for some types of species.species.

Why Should We Care About Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?Biodiversity?

Instrumental valueInstrumental value– their usefulness their usefulness to usto us

Intrinsic valueIntrinsic value– they exist, they exist, regard-less of regard-less of whether they whether they have any have any usefulness to ususefulness to us

Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity

1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)A.A. Economic GoodsEconomic Goods

Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful productsother useful products

90% of food crops were domesticated 90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plantsfrom wild plants

A majority of our medicines were derived A majority of our medicines were derived from plants.from plants.

Bioprospecting – evaluating species for Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potentialtheir economic potential

Pacific yewTaxus brevifolia Pacific Northwest

Ovarian cancer

taxol

CinchonaCinchona ledogeriana South America

Quinine for malaria treatment

Rosy periwinkleCathranthus roseus native to Madagascar

Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia

Neem tree

Azadirachta indica native to India

Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicide

Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity

1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)A.A. Economic GoodsEconomic Goods

Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful productsother useful products

90% of food crops were domesticated 90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plantsfrom wild plants

A majority of our medicines were derived A majority of our medicines were derived from plants.from plants.

Bioprospecting – evaluating species for Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potentialtheir economic potential

Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity

1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)B.B. Ecological ServicesEcological Services

Flow of materials, energy, and information Flow of materials, energy, and information from the biospherefrom the biosphere PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis PollinationPollination Soil formationSoil formation Nutrient recyclingNutrient recycling Pest controlPest control Climate regulationClimate regulation Flood controlFlood control Waste decompositionWaste decomposition

Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity

1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)C.C. InformationInformation

Genetic informationGenetic information Scientific informationScientific information Educational informationEducational information

Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity

1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)D.D. OptionsOptions

• People are willing to ‘pay’ for the People are willing to ‘pay’ for the option of using resources directlyoption of using resources directly

Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity

1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)E.E. RecreationRecreation

• We value recreational pleasure.We value recreational pleasure.• Eco-tourismEco-tourism

– Should not cause ecological damage.Should not cause ecological damage.– Should provide income to preserve wildlife.Should provide income to preserve wildlife.– Should provide funds for the purchase and Should provide funds for the purchase and

maintenance of wildlife preserves and maintenance of wildlife preserves and conservation programs.conservation programs.

Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity

2.2. Non-utilitarian (no use) ValuesNon-utilitarian (no use) Values• ExistenceExistence – value in knowing a thing – value in knowing a thing

existsexists• AestheticAesthetic – value in the beauty – value in the beauty • BequestBequest – willingness to pay to protect – willingness to pay to protect

natural capital for future generationsnatural capital for future generations

Intrinsic Value of BiodiversityIntrinsic Value of Biodiversity

• Each species has an Each species has an inherent valueinherent value and right to exist that is and right to exist that is unrelated to unrelated to their usefulnesstheir usefulness to humans to humans

• Biodiversity mattersBiodiversity matters and should not and should not be depleted or degraded by our be depleted or degraded by our activitiesactivities

Overfishing

Habitatloss

Habitatdegradation

Introducingnonnativespecies

Commercialhunting

andpoaching

Sale ofexotic pets

anddecorative

plants

Predatorand

pest control

Pollution

Climatechange

Basic CausesBasic Causes

• Population growthPopulation growth• Rising resource useRising resource use• No environmental No environmental

accountingaccounting• PovertyPoverty

HIPPOHIPPO

Major types of habitat disturbancesMajor types of habitat disturbances

• AgricultureAgriculture

• Commercial developmentCommercial development

• Water developmentWater development

• Outdoor recreationOutdoor recreation

• Livestock grazingLivestock grazing

• PollutionPollution

Habitat FragmentationHabitat Fragmentation

When a large continuous area of habitat isWhen a large continuous area of habitat is– reduced in areareduced in area– divided into a patchwork of isolated divided into a patchwork of isolated

areas or fragmentsareas or fragments

HABITAT FRAGMENTATIONHABITAT FRAGMENTATION

• Reduction in Reduction in ranges of four ranges of four wildlife wildlife species, species, mostly due to mostly due to habitat loss habitat loss and and overharvest.overharvest.

Range 100 years ago

Indian Tiger

Range today(about 2,300 left)

Range in 1700

Black Rhino

Range today(about 3,600 left)

Probable range 1600

African ElephantRange today

Range today(34,000–54,000 left)

Asian or Indian Elephant

Former range

Figure 22-15Figure 22-15Page 574Page 574Figure 22-15Figure 22-15Page 574Page 574

Florida scrub jay

Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Blacked-capped vireo Golden-cheekedwarbler

Cerulean warbler

California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrow Bachman’s warbler

Ten most threatened species of U.S. songbirds. Habitat loss and fragmentation most common threat.

Biome % of Area Disturbed

Temperate broadleaf forests

Temperate evergreen forests

Temperate grasslands

Mixed mountain systems

Tropical dry forests

Subtropical and temperate rain forests

Cold deserts and semideserts

Mixed island systems

Warm deserts and semideserts

Tropical humid forests

Tropical grasslands

Temperate boreal forests

Tundra

94%

94%

72%

71%

70%

67%

55%

53%

44%

37%

26%

18%

0.7%

Extinction Threats fromExtinction Threats from Non-native Species Non-native Species

• After habitat loss and degradation, After habitat loss and degradation, non-native speciesnon-native species are the biggest are the biggest cause of animal and plant extinctions.cause of animal and plant extinctions.

• Deliberately or accidentally introducedDeliberately or accidentally introduced

Type of Nonnative OrganismType of Nonnative Organism Annual Losses and DamagesAnnual Losses and DamagesCrop disease

Crop weeds

Rats

Feral cats and outdoor pet cats

Crop insects

Livestock diseases

Forest insects and diseases

Zebra mussels

Common pigeon

Formosan termite

Fishes

Asian clam

Feral pigs

Starlings

Fire ant

$23.5 billion

$23.4 billion

$19 billion

$17 billion

$14 billion

$9 billion

$4.8 billion

$3 billion

$1.1 billion

$1.1 billion

$1.1 billion

$1.1 billion

$0.8 billion

$0.8 billion

$0.6 billion

Figure 22-17 (1)Figure 22-17 (1)Page 576Page 576Figure 22-17 (1)Figure 22-17 (1)Page 576Page 576

Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee(“Killer bee”)

Nutria Salt cedar(Tamarisk)

Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar(Feral pig)

Deliberately Introduced Species

Figure 22-17 (2)Figure 22-17 (2)Page 576Page 576Figure 22-17 (2)Figure 22-17 (2)Page 576Page 576

Sea lamprey(attached to lake trout)

Argentina fire ant Eurasian muffleBrown tree snake Common pigeon(Rock dove)

Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-hornedbeetle

Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae

Accidentally Introduced Species

KudzuKudzu

VineVine

INVASIVE SPECIESINVASIVE SPECIES

• The The Argentina Argentina fire antfire ant was was introduced to introduced to Mobile, Mobile, Alabama in Alabama in 1932 from 1932 from South America.South America.– Most probably Most probably

from ships.from ships.– No natural No natural

predators.predators.

1918

2000

Expansion of the fire ant in southern states.

Characteristics ofSuccessful

Invader Species

• High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species)

• Pioneer species

• Long lived

• High dispersal rate

• Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil

• Generalists

• High genetic variability

Characteristics ofEcosystems Vulnerable

to Invader Species

• Similar climate to habitat of invader

• Absence of predators on invading species

• Early successional species

• Low diversity of native species

• Absence of fire

• Disturbed by human activities

Overfishing

Habitatloss

Habitatdegradation

Introducingnonnativespecies

Commercialhunting

andpoaching

Sale ofexotic pets

anddecorative

plants

Predatorand

pest control

Pollution

Climatechange

Basic CausesBasic Causes

• Population growthPopulation growth• Rising resource useRising resource use• No environmental No environmental

accountingaccounting• PovertyPoverty

HIPPOHIPPO

Extinction fromExtinction from hunting and poaching hunting and poaching

Ivory

International trade in wild International trade in wild plants and animalsplants and animals

• Live mountain gorilla ($150,000)Live mountain gorilla ($150,000)• Panda pelt ($100,000)Panda pelt ($100,000)• Chimpanzee ($50,000)Chimpanzee ($50,000)• Imperial Amazon Macaw ($30,000)Imperial Amazon Macaw ($30,000)• Rhino horn ($13,000 per pound)Rhino horn ($13,000 per pound)• As commercially valuable species As commercially valuable species

become endangered, the black become endangered, the black market demand soarsmarket demand soars

Other Extinction ThreatsOther Extinction Threats

• Predators and Pest ControlPredators and Pest Control– Gray WolfGray Wolf– Carolina parakeetCarolina parakeet– Prairie dogPrairie dog

• Market for Exotic Pets andMarket for Exotic Pets and Decorative PlantsDecorative Plants

• Climate ChangeClimate Change– Alters wildlife habitatsAlters wildlife habitats– Not enough time to adaptNot enough time to adapt

Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species

• Research ApproachResearch Approach–BioinformaticsBioinformatics

• Building computer databasesBuilding computer databases

• Developing computer tool to Developing computer tool to find, visualize and analyze find, visualize and analyze informationinformation

• Communicating informationCommunicating information

Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species• Legal ApproachLegal Approach

– International TreatiesInternational Treaties• Convention on International Trade in Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species (CITES)Endangered Species (CITES)– Forbids trade of 900 different live Forbids trade of 900 different live

specimens or wildlife productsspecimens or wildlife products– Restricts trade of 29,000 other Restricts trade of 29,000 other

threatened speciesthreatened species

• Convention on Biological Diversity Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)(CBD)

– Legally binds signatory governments to Legally binds signatory governments to reversing the global decline in reversing the global decline in biodiversitybiodiversity

Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species

• Legal ApproachLegal Approach–The Lacy Act of 1900The Lacy Act of 1900

• Prohibits movement of live or Prohibits movement of live or dead wild animals across state dead wild animals across state lines w/o a permitlines w/o a permit

–The Endangered Species Act The Endangered Species Act of 1973of 1973• Illegal for Americans to import or Illegal for Americans to import or

trade in any product made from trade in any product made from an endangered speciesan endangered species

Endangered Species ActEndangered Species Act

• National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)– Identify and listIdentify and list endangered ocean species endangered ocean species

• US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)– Identify and listIdentify and list all other endangered or all other endangered or

threatened speciesthreatened species

• Species cannot be Species cannot be huntedhunted, , killedkilled, , collectedcollected, or , or injuredinjured in the US in the US

• 1250 species listed today1250 species listed today• Designate and protect the Designate and protect the critical habitatcritical habitat

– Private lands subject to restrictionsPrivate lands subject to restrictions

• Prepare a Prepare a recovery planrecovery plan

Concentration of rare species

Low Moderate High

Top Six Hot Spots

1 Hawaii2 San Francisco Bay area3 Southern Appalachians4 Death Valley5 Southern California6 Florida Panhandle

4

5

2

6

3

1

Sanctuary Approach to Sanctuary Approach to Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species

• Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected AreasAreas

• Gene Bank, Botanical Gardens, and Gene Bank, Botanical Gardens, and FarmsFarms

• Zoos and AquariumsZoos and Aquariums– Captive breedingCaptive breeding– CloningCloning

• The U.S. has set aside The U.S. has set aside 544 544 federal refuges for federal refuges for wildlifewildlife, but many , but many refuges are suffering refuges are suffering from environmental from environmental degradation.degradation.

Pelican Island was the Pelican Island was the nation’s first wildlife refuge.nation’s first wildlife refuge.

• Gene banks, botanical gardens and using Gene banks, botanical gardens and using farmsfarms to raise threatened plant species to raise threatened plant species can help prevent extinction, but these can help prevent extinction, but these options lack funding and storage space.options lack funding and storage space.

• Zoos and aquariumsZoos and aquariums can help protect can help protect endangered animal species by preserving endangered animal species by preserving some individuals with the long-term goal some individuals with the long-term goal of reintroduction, but suffer from lack of of reintroduction, but suffer from lack of space and money.space and money.– captive breedingcaptive breeding– cloning cloning

RECONCILIATION ECOLOGYRECONCILIATION ECOLOGY

• Reconciliation ecology involves Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways finding ways to share places we to share places we dominate with other speciesdominate with other species..– Replacing monoculture grasses with Replacing monoculture grasses with

native species.native species.– Maintaining habitats for insect eating Maintaining habitats for insect eating

bats can keep down unwanted insects.bats can keep down unwanted insects.– Reduction and elimination of pesticides Reduction and elimination of pesticides

to protect non-target organisms (such to protect non-target organisms (such as vital insect pollinators).as vital insect pollinators).

Using Reconciliation Ecology Using Reconciliation Ecology to Protect Bluebirdsto Protect Bluebirds

• Putting up bluebird Putting up bluebird boxes with holes boxes with holes too small for too small for (nonnative) (nonnative) competitors in competitors in areas where trees areas where trees have been cut have been cut down have helped down have helped reestablish reestablish populations.populations.

• Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species.

• Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics.

• Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild.

• Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild.

• Spread the word. Talk to your friends and relatives about this problem and what they can do about it.

What Can You Do?

Protecting Species

Wildlife ManagementWildlife Management• Manipulating wildlife populations and their Manipulating wildlife populations and their

habitats habitats for their welfare and for human for their welfare and for human benefitbenefit..

– enacting hunting and fishing lawsenacting hunting and fishing laws– establishing harvest quotasestablishing harvest quotas– implementing population management implementing population management

programsprograms– improving wildlife habitatimproving wildlife habitat– using international treaties to protect using international treaties to protect

migrating game species such as waterfowl.migrating game species such as waterfowl.

North American-SouthAmerican flyways

European-Africanflyways

Asian flyways