3 factors affecting l2 learning.ppt
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Individual Differences in
Second Language Learning
Intelligence
Aptitude Learning styles
Personality
Motivation and Attitudes Identity and ethnic group affiliation
Learner beliefs
Age of acquisition
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The Good Language Learner
Are there personal characteristics that make
one learner more successful than another?
In your experience, as an English learner, whichcharacteristics seem to you most likely to be
associated with success in L2 acquisition?
(Please turn to p. 55 and do the questionnaire)
Then share your opinion with your group members.
Find three most important and three least important
learner characteristics.
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A good language learner:
a) is a willing and accurate guesser
b) tries to get a message across even if specific language knowledgeis lacking
c) is willing to make mistakes
d) constantly looks for patterns in the language
e) practices as often as possiblef) analyzes his or her own speech and the speech of others
g) attends to whether his or her performance meets the standards
he or she has learned
h) enjoys grammar exercisesi) begins learning in childhood
j) has an above-average IQ
k) has good academic skills
l) has a good self-image and lots of confidence 3
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Before looking atlearner characteristics
What problems can you see in the
following statements?
a) Extroverted learners learn a foreign language
more successfully than introverted learners.
b) Low motivation causes low achievement in
English language learning.
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Before looking atlearner characteristics
Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and
second language acquisition (SLA):
1) definition and measurement of variables
e.g., willing to make mistakes
2) definition and measurement of language proficiency
literacy/academic skills vs. conversational skills
3) correlation vs. causal relationship
4) socio-cultural factors
e.g., power relationship between L1 and L2,social/cultural identity
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Intelligence (I)
Intelligence has multiple types:
Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental abilities
that are measured by an IQ (intelligence quotient) test.
It usually measures only two types of intelligence:
verbal/linguisticand mathematical/logicalintelligence.
There are other types of intelligence such as spatial
intelligence, bodily-kinestheticintelligence, musicalintelligence, interpersonalintelligence, and
intrapersonalintelligence.
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Multiple Intelligences(Howard Gardner, 1993)
Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing, giving
presentations, solving word problems.
Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers, logic,
calculations; learning and understanding grammar rules.
Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using color, art,graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination,
athletic skill, body language, drama and theater.
Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing; producing
the intonation and rhythm of a language. Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people,
understanding them, using language to communicate.
Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, self-confidence,
using language to analyze yourself.
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Intelligence (II)
Research Findings:
1. Intelligence, especially measured by verbal IQ tests,
may be a strong factorwhen it comes to learning that
involves language analysisand rule learning.
2. On the other hand, intelligence may play a less
important rolein language learning that focuses more
on communicationand interaction.
3. It is important to keep in mind that intelligenceis
complexand that a person has many kinds of abilities
and strengths.
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Aptitude (I)
Aptitude refers to the ability to learn quickly (Carroll, 1991)
and isthought topredict success in learning.
It is hypothesized that a learner with high aptitude may
learn with greater ease and speed. (But other learnersmay also be successful if they persevere).
Language aptitude tests usually measure the ability to:
1) identify and memorize new sounds
2) understand the function of particular words in sentences
3) figure out grammatical rules from language samples
4) memorize new words
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Aptitude (II)
Research findings:
1) Early research revealed a substantial relationshipbetween
performance on language aptitude tests and performance in
foreign language learning that was based on grammar
translationor audiolingual methods.
2) However, performance on language aptitude tests seems
irrelevantto L2 learning with the adoption of a more
communicative approachto teaching.
3) Successful language learners may not be strong in all of the
components of aptitude. Learners strengths and weaknesses
in the different components may account for their ability to
succeed in different types of instructional programs.
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Learning Styles
Learning stylerefers to an individuals natural, habitual,
and preferredway of absorbing, processing, and
retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995).
Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:
1. Perceptual learning styles:
visual, aural/auditory, and haptic(kinesthetic &tactile)
2. Cognitive learning styles:
field-independentvs. field-dependent
(tendency to see the trees or the forest)
right-braindominance vs. left-braindominance
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Learning Styles
field-independent vs. field-dependent
Heres a puzzle for you. Look at the row of strange
shapes below. Can you find what the message is?
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Can you find the
hidden pictures?
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Learning Styles
field-independent:see things more analytically
field-dependent:see things more holistically
Research findings:
FIis related to classroom language learning that involvesanalysis, attention to details, and mastering of exercise, drills,
and other focused activities.
FDis related to the communicative aspects of language
learning that require social outreach, empathy, perception of
other people, and communicative skills.
FI/FDmay also prove to be a valuable tool for
differentiating childand adultlanguage acquisition due to
the fact that FI increases as a child matures to adulthood.
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Learning Styles
right-brain vs. left-brain dominance
The right brainperceives and remembers visual, tactile,
and auditory images. It is more efficient in processing
holistic, integrative, and emotional information. The left brainis associated with logical, analytical thought,
with mathematicaland linearprocessing of information.
Though we all tend to have one hemisphere that is more
dominant, it is important to remember that the left and righthemispheres need to operate together as a team.
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Learning Styles
Research findings and implications:
1) Every person, student or teacher, has a learning style;
therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning method
that can suit the needs of all learners.
2) Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are
often described as opposites.
3) Learning styles are value-neutral; that is, no one style is
better than others.
4) Very little research has examined the interaction betweendifferent learning styles and success in L2 learning; however,
students should be encouraged to stretchtheir learning
stylesso that they will be more empoweredin a variety of
leaning situations.
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Personality
There are a number of personality characteristics
that may affect L2 learning, such as
Extroversion vs. introversion Inhibition vs. risk-taking
Anxiety
Self-esteem Empathy
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Extroversion vs. Introversion
Are you more extroverted or introverted?
It is often argued that an extroverted person is well
suited to language learning. However, research does
not always support this conclusion.
Some studies have found that learners success in
language learning is associated with extroversion
such as assertiveness and adventurousness, whileothers have found that many successful language
learners do not get high scores on measures of
extroversion.
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Inhibition vs. risk-taking
It has been suggested that inhibition discourages risk-taking, which is necessary for progress in languagelearning.
Inhibition is often considered to be a particular problemfor adolescents, who are more self-consciousthanyounger learners.
Inhibitionis a negativeforce, at least for second
language pronunciationperformance.
Be aware that inhibition may have more influence inlanguage performancethan in language learning.
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Anxiety (I)
Trait Anxietyvs. State Anxiety:
a) Trait anxiety: a more permanent predisposition to be
anxious
b) Stateanxiety: a type of anxiety experienced in relationto some particular event or act; temporaryand
context-specific
More recent research acknowledges that anxiety is more
likely to be dynamic and dependent on particularsituations and circumstances.
Anxiety can play an important role in L2 learning if it
interfereswith the learning process.
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Anxiety (II)
Debilitative(harmful)Anxietyvs. Facilitative (helpful)
Anxiety: Not all anxiety is bad and a certain amount of
tensioncan have a positive effect and facilitate learning.
A learners willingness to communicatehas also beenrelated to anxiety. It is often affected by the number of
people present, the topic of conversation, and the
formality of the circumstances.
Willingness to communicateor state anxietycan also beaffected by learners prior language learning & use
experience, self-confidence, and communicative
competence.
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Conclusions for Personality
In general, the research does notshow a single clearly-defined
relationship between personality traits and SLA.
1. The major difficulty is that of identificationandmeasurementof personality characteristics.
2. Personality variables may be a major factor onlyin theacquisition of conversational skills, notin the acquisition ofliteracy or academic skills.
3. Most research on personality traits has been carried out
within a quantitativeresearch paradigm (i.e., an approachthat relies on measuring learners scores on personalitysurveys and relating these to language test performance).More qualitativeresearch is needed to adequately capturethe depth and complexity of the relationship.
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Motivation & Attitudes
Questions:
1. Do positive attitudes and motivation produce
successful learning or does successful learningengender positive attitudes and motivation?
2. Are there other factors that affect both attitudes/
motivation and the success of learning?
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Motivation & Attitudes
Types of motivation(in terms of communicative needs):
PurposeSource Intrinsic (Internal) Extrinsic (External)
IntegrativeThe learner wishes tolearn L2 for personal
growth and cultural
enrichment.
Someone else (e.g., thelearners parents)wishes
the learner to know L2 for
an integrative reason.
Instrumental
The learner wishes to
achieve more
immediate or practical
goals using L2 (e.g., for
a career).
External power wants the
learner to learn L2 for a
practical purpose (e.g., a
corporation asks its staff to
get language training).
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Motivation & Attitudes
Research findings:
1) Both integrativeand instrumentaltypes of
motivation are related to success in L2 learning.
Most L2 learning situations involve a mixture ofeach type of motivation.
2) Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation,
especially for long-term retention. Intrinsically
motivated learners are striving for excellence,
autonomy, and self-actualization.
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Motivation & Attitudes
Drnyei (2001)a process-oriented model of
motivation that consists of 3 phases:
1)choice motivation: getting started and setting goals
2) executive motivation: carrying out the necessary
tasks to maintain motivation
3) motivation retrospection: appraisal of and reactionto learners performance
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Motivation in the Classroom
Motivating students into the lesson. The contentneeds
to be relevant to their age and level of ability, and the
learning goalsneed to be challenging yet manageable
and clear.
Varyingthe activities, tasks, and materials to increase
studentsinterest levels.
Using cooperativerather than competitive goals to
increase studentsself-confidence.
Cultural and age differenceswill determine the most
appropriate way for teachers to motivate students.
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Identity & Ethnic Affiliation
The social dynamicor power relationship
between L1 and L2:
Minority group members learning the language of
a majority groups may have different attitudes and
motivation from those of majority group members
learning a minority language.
Think of why an ESL learners and an EFL learnersattitude may differ in motivation and attitudes.
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An imbalanced power relationshipbetween L1 and L2
may limit the opportunities learners have to practice
and to continue to develop the L2.
Identities are not static and can change over time.Learners identities will impact on what they can do and
how they can participate in classrooms, which affects
how much they can learn.
The relationship between feelings of ethnic affiliationand L2 learners mastery of pronunciationcan be
complex. Learners may want to speak with a strong
foreign accent to maintain their L1 identity.
Identity & Ethnic Affiliation
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Learner Beliefs
What is your learner belief? How should language be
learned?
Virtually all learners, particularly older learners, have
strong beliefsabout how their language instructionshould be delivered.
Learner beliefs are usually based on previous
learning experiencesand the assumptionthat a
particular type of instruction is better than others.
Learner beliefs can be strong mediating factorsin
learners experience in the classroom.
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Learner Beliefs
Conclusions:
1) Learnerspreference for learning, whether due to
their learning styles or to their beliefs about how
language are learned, will influence the kinds ofstrategiesthey choose to learn new material.
2) Teachers can use this information to help learners
expand their repertoire of learning strategiesand
thus develop greaterflexibilityin their second
language learning.
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Age of Acquisition
The relationship between a learners ageand his/her
potential for success in second language learning is
complex orcontroversial.
The relationship needs to take into account1) the learners cognitive development
2)the learners motivation
3)the learners goal for learningL2 (i.e., in what aspects
of the L2 the learner has achieved)4) the contexts in which the learner learns L2 (including
quantity & quality of language input, learning
environment, learning time, and socio-cultural contexts)
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Age of Acquisition
Research findings:
1) L2 development in informallanguage learning
environments where the L2 is used primarily:
Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like fluency,but their parents and older learners (i.e., post-puberty
learners) are hard to achieve such high levels of mastery of
the spoken language, especially in pronunciation/accent.
Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress
toward mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make
use of the language on a daily basisin social, personal,
professional, or academic interaction.
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Age of Acquisition
Research findings:
2) L2 development in formallanguage learning conditions
(i.e., classrooms) where the L1 is used primarily :
In the early stagesof the L2 development, older learners(adolescents and adults) are more efficient than younger
learners (children).
Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school
level did not necessarily do better in the long run than those
who began in early adolescent.
It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-
like mastery of the spoken language, including pronunciation,
word choice, and some grammatical features.
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Age of Acquisition
Conclusions (I):
- At what age should L2 instruction begin?
Those who support critical period hypothesis(CPH):
Younger is better(particularly in the phonological
achievement)
Those who consider that the age factor cannot be separated
from factors such as motivation, social identity, and the
conditions for learning:
Older learners may well speak with an accentbecause theywant to keep their L1 identity, and the language inputfor
adults is differentfrom that for children because they rarely
get access to the same quantity and quality of language
input that children receive in play setting.
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Age of Acquisition
Conclusions (II):
When the goal is basic communicative abilityof the TL,
rather than native-like mastery, and when childrens native
language remains the primary language, it may be more
efficient to begin L2 or FL learning later (e.g., in early
adolescence at age 10, 11, or 12).
When learners receive only a few hours of instructionper
week, those who start later often catch up with those who
began earlier. One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2
speakers, no matter how young they were when they began
learning. Older learners may be able to make better use of
the limited leaning time.
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Age of Acquisition
Conclusions (III):
Ageis onlyoneof the characteristics which affects L2
learning.
The opportunities for learning(both inside and outside theclassroom), the motivationto learn, and individual
differences in intelligence, aptitude, personality, and
learning styleshave also been found to be important
determining factors that affect both rate of learningand
eventual successin learning the L2.
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Summary
1. The research on individual differences is complex and the
results of the research are not easy to interpret.
This is because of
a) the lack of clear definitionsandmethods for measuring
individual characteristicsb) The fact that the characteristics are not independent of one
another: learner variables interact in complex ways.
2. It remains difficult to predict how a particular individuals
characteristics will influence his or her success as a languagelearner.
3. Teachers should take learners individual differences into
account and to create a learning environment in which more
learners can be successful in learning an L2.