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1 3. Transport of energy: radiation specific intensity, radiative flux optical depth absorption & emission equation of transfer, source function formal solution, limb darkening temperature distribution grey atmosphere, mean opacities

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Page 1: 3. Transport of energy: radiation - UH Institute for Astronomy€¦ ·  · 2016-02-183. Transport of energy: radiation specific intensity, ... absorption & emission equation of transfer,

1

3. Transport of energy: radiation

specific intensity, radiative flux

optical depth

absorption & emission

equation of transfer, source function

formal solution, limb darkening

temperature distribution

grey atmosphere, mean opacities

Page 2: 3. Transport of energy: radiation - UH Institute for Astronomy€¦ ·  · 2016-02-183. Transport of energy: radiation specific intensity, ... absorption & emission equation of transfer,

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No sinks and sources of energy in the atmosphere

à  all energy produced in stellar interior is transported through the atmosphere

à  at any given radius r in the atmosphere:

F is the energy flux per unit surface and per unit time. Dimensions: [erg/cm2/sec]

The energy transport is sustained by the temperature gradient.

The steepness of this gradient is dependent on the effectiveness of the energy transport through the different atmospheric layers.

24 ( ) .r F r const Lπ = =

Energy flux conservation

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Mechanisms of energy transport

a.  radiation: Frad (most important)

b.  convection: Fconv (important especially in cool stars)

c.  heat production: e.g. in the transition between solar cromosphere and corona

d.  radial flow of matter: corona and stellar wind

e.  sound waves: cromosphere and corona

Transport of energy

We will be mostly concerned with the first 2 mechanisms: F(r)=Frad(r) + Fconv(r). In the outer layers, we always have Frad >> Fconv

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The specific intensity

Measures of energy flow: Specific Intensity and Flux

The amount of energy dEν transported through a surface area dA is proportional to dt (length of time), dν (frequency width), dω (solid angle) and the projected unit surface area cos θ dA.

The proportionality factor is the specific Intensity Iν(cosθ)

Intensity depends on location in space, direction and frequency

d E º = I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ d A d ! d º d t ( [ I º ] : e r g c m ¡ 2 s r ¡ 1 H z ¡ 1 s ¡ 1 )

I = c 2 I º

( f r o m I d = I º d º a n d º = c / )

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Invariance of the specific intensity

The area element dA emits radiation towards dA’. In the absence of any matter between emitter and receiver (no absorption and emission on the light paths between the surface elements) the amount of energy emitted and received through each surface elements is:

d E º = I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ d A d ! d º d t d E 0 º = I 0 º ( c o s µ 0 ) c o s µ 0 d A 0 d ! 0 d º d t

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Invariance of the specific intensity

energy is conserved: d E º = d E 0 º and d ! = p r o j e c t e d a r e a

d i s t a n c e 2 = d A

0 c o s µ 0

r 2

d ! 0 = d A c o s µ r 2

I º = I 0 º

In TE: Iν = Bν"

Specific intensity is constant along rays - as long as there is no absorption and emission of matter between emitter and receiver

d E º = I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ d A d ! d º d t d E 0 º = I 0 º ( c o s µ 0 ) c o s µ 0 d A 0 d ! 0 d º d t and

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s o l i d a n g l e : d ! = d A

r 2

T o t a l s o l i d a n g l e = 4 ¼ r 2

r 2 = 4 ¼

d A = ( r d µ ) ( r s i n µ d Á )

! d ! = s i n µ d µ d Á

d e fi n e µ = c o s µ

d µ = ¡ s i n µ d µ

d ! = s i n µ d µ d Á = ¡ d µ d Á

Spherical coordinate system and solid angle dω

Page 8: 3. Transport of energy: radiation - UH Institute for Astronomy€¦ ·  · 2016-02-183. Transport of energy: radiation specific intensity, ... absorption & emission equation of transfer,

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Radiative flux

How much energy flows through surface element dA?

dEν ~ Iν cosθ dω

à integrate over the whole solid angle (Ω = 4π):

¼ F º =

Z 4 ¼

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ d ! =

Z 2 ¼ 0

Z ¼ 0

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ s i n µ d µ d Á

“astrophysical flux”

Fν is the monochromatic radiative flux. The factor π in the definition is historical.

Fν can also be interpreted as the net rate of energy flow through a surface element.

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Radiative flux

The monochromatic radiative flux at frequency ν gives the net rate of energy flow through a surface element.

dEν ~ Iν cosθ dω à integrate over the whole solid angle (Ω = 4π):

We distinguish between the outward direction (0 < θ < π/2) and the inward direction (π/2 < θ < π), so that the net flux is:"

¼ F º = ¼ F + º ¡ ¼ F ¡

º =

=

Z 2 ¼ 0

Z ¼ / 2 0

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ s i n µ d µ d Á +

Z 2 ¼ 0

Z ¼ ¼ / 2

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ s i n µ d µ d Á

¼ F º =

Z 4 ¼

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ d ! =

Z 2 ¼ 0

Z ¼ 0

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ s i n µ d µ d Á

Note: for π/2 < θ < π −> cosθ < 0 à second term negative !!

“astrophysical flux”

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Total radiative flux

Integral over frequencies ν ◊"

"Z 1

0

¼ F º d º = F r a d

Frad is the total radiative flux.

It is the total net amount of energy going through the surface element per unit time and unit surface."

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Stellar luminosity

At the outer boundary of atmosphere (r = Ro) there is no incident radiation

à Integral interval over θ reduces from [0,π] to [0,π/2].

¼ F º ( R o ) = ¼ F + º ( R o ) =

Z 2 ¼ 0

Z ¼ / 2 0

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ s i n µ d µ d Á

This is the monochromatic energy that each surface element of the star radiates in all directions

If we multiply by the total stellar surface 4πR02

à monochromatic stellar luminosity at frequency ν

and integrating over ν"

◊ total stellar luminosity "

4 ¼ R 2 o · ¼ F º ( R o )

4 ¼ R 2 o · Z 1

0

¼ F + º ( R o ) d º = L ( L u m i n o s i t y )

= Lν

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Observed flux

What radiative flux is measured by an observer at distance d? à integrate specific intensity Iν towards observer over all surface elements note that only half sphere contributes

¼ F + º

E º =

Z 1 / 2 s p h e r e

d E = ¢ ! ¢ º ¢ t

Z 1 / 2 s p h e r e

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ d A

i n s p h e r i c a l s y m m e t r y : d A = R 2 o s i n µ d µ d Á

! E º = ¢ ! ¢ º ¢ t R 2 o

Z 2 ¼ o

Z ¼ / 2 0

I º ( c o s µ ) c o s µ s i n µ d µ d Á

à  because of spherical symmetry the integral of intensity towards the observer over the stellar surface is proportional to πFν

+, the flux emitted into all directions by one surface element !!

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Observed flux

Solid angle of telescope at distance d:

F o b s º = r a d i a t i v e e n e r g y

a r e a · f r e q u e n c y · t i m e =

R 2 o d 2

¼ F + º ( R o )

This, and not Iν, is the quantity generally measured for stars. For the Sun, whose disk is resolved, we can also measure Iν (the variation of Iν over the solar disk is called the limb darkening)

unlike Iν, Fν decreases with increasing distance

¢ ! = ¢ A / d 2

+

E º = ¢ ! ¢ º ¢ t R 2 o ¼ F + º ( R o )

flux received = flux emitted x (R/d)2

R 1

0 F o b s

º , ¯ d º = 1 . 3 6 K W / m 2

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Mean intensity, energy density & radiation pressure

Integrating over the solid angle and dividing by 4π:

J º = 1

4 ¼

Z 4 ¼

I º d ! mean intensity

energy density

radiation pressure (important in hot stars)

u º = r a d i a t i o n e n e r g y

v o l u m e =

1

c

Z 4 ¼

I º d ! = 4 ¼

c J º

p º = 1

c

Z 4 ¼

I º c o s 2 µ d !

p r e s s u r e = f o r c e

a r e a =

d m o m e n t u m ( = E / c )

d t

1

a r e a

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Moments of the specific intensity

0th moment

1st moment (Eddington flux)

2nd moment

J º = 1

4 ¼

Z I º d ! =

1

4 ¼

Z 2 ¼ 0

d Á

Z 1 ¡ 1

I º d µ = 1

2

Z 1 ¡ 1

I º d µ

H º = 1

4 ¼

Z I º c o s µ d ! =

1

2

Z 1 ¡ 1

I º µ d µ = F º 4

K º = 1

4 ¼

Z I º c o s 2 µ d ! =

1

2

Z 1 ¡ 1

I º µ 2 d µ =

c

4 ¼ p º

for azimuthal symmetry

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Convention: τν = 0 at the outer edge of the atmosphere, increasing inwards

Interactions between photons and matter absorption of radiation

Iν"

ds"

Iνo Iν(s) s Over a distance s:

I º ( s ) = I o º e ¡

s R 0

· º d s

¿ º : =

s Z 0

· º d s optical depth (dimensionless)

or: dτν = κν ds

loss of intensity in the beam (true absorption/scattering) microscopical view: κν=n σν"

d I º = ¡ · º I º d s

· º : a b s o r p t i o n c o e ± c i e n t

[ · º ] = c m ¡ 1

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optical depth

I º ( s ) = I o º e ¡ ¿ º

i f ¿ º = 1 ! I º = I o º e ' 0 . 3 7 I o º

The quantity τν = 1 has a geometrical interpretation in terms of mean free path of photons :!¯ s

photons travel on average for a length before absorption

¯ s

We can see through atmosphere until τν ~ 1

optically thick (thin) medium: τν > (<) 1

The optical thickness of a layer determines the fraction of the

intensity passing through the layer

¿ º = 1 =

¯ s Z o

· º d s

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photon mean free path

What is the average distance over which photons travel?

< ¿ º > =

1 Z 0

¿ º p ( ¿ º ) d ¿ º expectation value

probability of absorption in interval [τν,τν+dτν]

= probability of non-absorption between 0 and τν and absorption in dτν"

- p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t p h o t o n i s n o t a b s o r b e d : 1 ¡ p ( 0 , ¿ º ) = I ( ¿ º )

I o = e ¡ ¿ º

- p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t p h o t o n i s a b s o r b e d : p ( 0 , ¿ º ) = ¢ I ( ¿ )

I o =

I o ¡ I ( ¿ º ) I o

= 1 ¡ I ( ¿ º ) I o

t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y : e ¡ ¿ º d ¿ º

- p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t p h o t o n i s a b s o r b e d i n [ ¿ º , ¿ º + d ¿ º ] : p ( ¿ º , ¿ º + d ¿ º ) = d I º I ( ¿ º )

= d ¿ º

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photon mean free path

< ¿ º > =

1 Z 0

¿ º p ( ¿ º ) d ¿ º =

1 Z 0

¿ º e ¡ ¿ º d ¿ º = 1

mean free path corresponds to <τν>=1

i f · º ( s ) = c o n s t : ¢ ¿ º = · º ¢ s ! ¢ s = ¯ s = 1

· º (homogeneous

material)

Z x e ¡ x d x = ¡ ( 1 + x ) e ¡ x

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Principle of line formation

observer sees through the atmospheric layers up to τν ≈ 1

In the continuum κν is smaller than in the line à see deeper into the atmosphere

T(cont) > T(line)

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radiative acceleration

In the absorption process photons release momentum E/c to the atoms, and the corresponding force is:

The infinitesimal energy absorbed is:

The total energy absorbed is (assuming that κν does not depend on ω):

π Fν"

f o r c e = d f p h o t = m o m e n t u m ( = E / c ) d t

d E a b s º = d I º c o s µ d A d ! d t d º = · º I º c o s µ d A d ! d t d º d s

E a b s =

1 Z 0

· º

Z 4 ¼

I º c o s µ d ! d º d A d t d s = ¼

1 Z 0

· º F º d º d A d t d s

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radiative acceleration

d f p h o t = ¼

c

1 R 0

· º F º d º

d t d A d t d s = g r a d d m ( d m = ½ d A d s )

g r a d = ¼

c ½

1 Z 0

· º F º d º

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emission of radiation

ds"

dA"dω"

dV=dA ds"

energy added by emission processes within dV

d E e m º = ² º d V d ! d º d t

² º : e m i s s i o n c o e ± c i e n t

[ ² º ] = e r g c m ¡ 3 s r ¡ 1 H z ¡ 1 s ¡ 1

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The equation of radiative tranfer

If we combine absorption and emission together:

d E a b s º = d I a b s

º d A c o s µ d ! d º d t = ¡ · º I º d A c o s µ d ! d t d º d s

d E a b s º + d E e m

º = ( d I a b s º + d I e m º ) d A c o s µ d ! d º d t = ( ¡ · º I º + ² º ) d A c o s µ d ! d º d t d s

d E e m º = d I e m

º d A c o s µ d ! d º d t = ² º d A c o s µ d ! d º d t d s

d I º = d I a b s º + d I e m º = ( ¡ · º I º + ² º ) d s

d I º d s

= ¡ · º I º + ² º differential equation describing the flow of radiation through matter

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The equation of radiative tranfer Plane-parallel symmetry

d x = c o s µ d s = µ d s

d

d s = µ

d

d x

µ d I º ( µ , x ) d x

= ¡ · º I º ( µ , x ) + ² º

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The equation of radiative tranfer Spherical symmetry

angle θ between ray and radial direction is not constant

d

d s =

d r

d s

@

@ r + d µ

d s

@

@ µ

@

@ µ = @ µ

@ µ

@

@ µ = ¡ s i n µ

@

@ µ

= ) d d s

= µ @

@ r +

s i n 2 µ

r

@

@ µ = µ

@

@ r +

1 ¡ µ 2 r

@

@ µ

µ @ @ r I º ( µ , r ) + 1 ¡ µ 2

r @ @ µ I º ( µ , r ) = ¡ · º I º ( µ , r ) + ² º

¡ r d µ = s i n µ d s ( d µ < 0 ) ! d µ d s

= ¡ s i n µ

r

d r = d s c o s µ ! d r d s

= c o s µ ( a s i n p l a n e ¡ p a r a l l e l )

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The equation of radiative tranfer Optical depth and source function

In plane-parallel symmetry: optical depth increasing

towards interior:

µ d I º ( µ , x ) d x

= ¡ · º ( x ) I º ( µ , x ) + ² º ( x )

µ d I º ( µ , ¿ º ) d ¿ º

= I º ( µ , ¿ º ) ¡ S º ( ¿ º )

S º = ² º · º

Observed emerging intensity Iν(cos θ,τν= 0) depends on µ = cos θ , τν(Ri) and Sν "

"

The physics of Sν is crucial for radiative transfer "· º = d ¿ º

d s ¼ ¢ ¿ º

¢ s ¼ 1

¯ s

S º = ² º · º ¼ ² º · ¯ s

τ = 1 corresponds to free mean path of photons

source function Sν corresponds to intensity emitted over the free mean path of photons

source function

dim [Sν] = [Iν]

¡ · º d x = d ¿ º

¿ º = ¡ x Z

R o

· º d x

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The equation of radiative tranfer Source function: simple cases

a. LTE (thermal absorption/emission)

S º = ² º · º

= B º ( T ) Kirchhoff’s law photons are absorbed and re-emitted at the local temperature T

Knowledge of T stratification T=T(x) or T(τ) à solution of transfer equation Iν(µ,τν)

independent of radiation field

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The equation of radiative tranfer Source function: simple cases

b. coherent isotropic scattering (e.g. Thomson scattering)

the absorption process is characterized by the scattering coefficient σν, analogous to κν:"

d I º = ¡ ¾ º I º d s

ν = ν’"

and at each frequency ν: " d E e m º = d E a b s º

incident = scattered"

Z 4 ¼

² s c º d ! =

Z 4 ¼

¾ º I º d !

² s c º

Z 4 ¼

d ! = ¾ º

Z 4 ¼

I º d !

d E e m º =

Z 4 ¼

² s c º d !

d E a b s º =

Z 4 ¼

¾ º I º d !

² s c º ¾ º

= 1

4 ¼

Z 4 ¼

I º d !

S º = J º completely dependent on radiation field

not dependent on temperature T

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The equation of radiative tranfer Source function: simple cases

c. mixed case

S º = ² º + ² s c º · º + ¾ º

= · º

· º + ¾ º

² º · º

+ ¾ º

· º + ¾ º

² s c º ¾ º

S º = ² º + ² s c º · º + ¾ º

= · º

· º + ¾ º B º +

¾ º · º + ¾ º

J º

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Formal solution of the equation of radiative tranfer

we want to solve the equation of RT with a known source function and in plane-parallel geometry

multiply by e-τν/µ and integrate between τ1 (outside) and τ2 (> τ1, inside)"

d

d ¿ º ( I º e

¡ ¿ º / µ ) = ¡ S º e ¡ ¿ º / µ

µ

linear 1st order differential equation

µ d I º d ¿ º

= I º ¡ S º

h I º e

¡ ¿ º µ

i ¿ 2 ¿ 1

= ¡ ¿ 2 Z ¿ 1

S º e ¡ ¿ º

µ d t º µ

check, whether this really yields transfer equation above"

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Formal solution of the equation of radiative tranfer

intensity originating at τ2 decreased by exponential factor to τ1 contribution to the intensity by

emission along the path from τ2 to τ1 (at each point decreased by the exponential factor)

integral form of equation of radiation transfer

Formal solution! actual solution can be complex, since Sν can depend on Iν"

h I º e

¡ ¿ º µ

i ¿ 2 ¿ 1

= ¡ ¿ 2 Z ¿ 1

S º e ¡ ¿ º

µ d t º µ

I º ( ¿ 1 , µ ) = I º ( ¿ 2 , µ ) e ¡ ¿ 2 ¡ ¿ 1

µ +

¿ 2 Z ¿ 1

S º ( t ) e ¡ t ¡ ¿ 1

µ d t

µ

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Boundary conditions

a. incoming radiation: µ < 0 at τ2 = 0

usually we can neglect irradiation from outside: Iν(τ2 = 0, µ < 0) = 0

solution of RT equation requires boundary conditions, which are different for incoming and outgoing radiation

I i n º ( ¿ º , µ ) =

0 Z ¿ º

S º ( t ) e ¡ t ¡ ¿ º

µ d t

µ

I º ( ¿ 1 , µ ) = I º ( ¿ 2 , µ ) e ¡ ¿ 2 ¡ ¿ 1

µ +

¿ 2 Z ¿ 1

S º ( t ) e ¡ t ¡ ¿ 1

µ d t

µ

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Boundary conditions

b. outgoing radiation: µ > 0 at τ2 = τmax à ∞

We have either

or

I º ( ¿ m a x , µ ) = I + º ( µ ) finite slab or

shell

l i m ¿ ! 1

I º ( ¿ , µ ) e ¡ ¿ / µ = 0 semi-infinite

case (planar or spherical) Iν increases less rapidly than the exponential

I o u t º ( ¿ º , µ ) =

1 Z ¿ º

S º ( t ) e ¡ t ¡ ¿ º

µ d t

µ

I º ( ¿ º ) = I o u t º ( ¿ º ) + I i n º ( ¿ º )

and at a given position τν in the atmosphere:

I º ( ¿ 1 , µ ) = I º ( ¿ 2 , µ ) e ¡ ¿ 2 ¡ ¿ 1

µ +

¿ 2 Z ¿ 1

S º ( t ) e ¡ t ¡ ¿ 1

µ d t

µ

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Emergent intensity

from the latter à emergent intensity

τν = 0, µ > 0

I º ( 0 , µ ) =

1 Z 0

S º ( t ) e ¡ t µ d t

µ

intensity observed is a weighted average of the source function along the line of sight. The contribution to the emerging intensity comes mostly from each depths with τ/µ < 1."

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Emergent intensity

suppose that Sν is linear in τν (Taylor expansion around τν = 0):

Eddington-Barbier relation"

emergent intensity I º ( 0 , µ ) =

1 Z 0

( S 0 º + S 1 º t ) e ¡ t µ d t

µ = S 0 º + S 1 º µ

I º ( 0 , µ ) = S º ( ¿ º = µ )

we see the source function at location τν = µ "

the emergent intensity corresponds to the source function at τν = 1 along the line of sight

S º ( ¿ º ) = S 0 º + S 1 º ¿ º Z

x e ¡ x d x = ¡ ( 1 + x ) e ¡ x

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Emergent intensity

µ = 1 (normal direction):

I º ( 0 , 1 ) = S º ( ¿ º = 1 )

µ = 0.5 (slanted direction):

I º ( 0 , 0 . 5 ) = S º ( ¿ º = 0 . 5 )

in both cases: ∆τ/µ ≈ 1

spectral lines: compared to continuum τν/µ = 1 is reached at higher layer in the atmosphere

à Sνline < Sν

cont

à a dip is created in the spectrum

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Line formation

simplify: µ = 1, τ1=0 (emergent intensity), τ2 = τ"

Sν independent of location

I º ( 0 ) = I º ( ¿ º ) e ¡ ¿ º + S º

¿ º Z 0

e ¡ t d t = I º ( ¿ º ) e ¡ ¿ º + S º ( 1 ¡ e ¡ ¿ º )

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Line formation

Optically thick object: I º ( 0 ) = I º ( ¿ º ) e ¡ ¿ º + S º ( 1 ¡ e ¡ ¿ º ) = S º

Optically thin object: I º ( 0 ) = I º ( ¿ º ) + [ S º ¡ I º ( ¿ º ) ] ¿ º

τ à ∞

exp(-τν) ≈ 1 - τν"

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independent of κν, no line (e.g. black body Bν)

Iν = τν Sν = κν ds Sν"

e.g. HII region, solar corona

enhanced κν"

I º ( 0 ) = I º ( ¿ º ) + [ S º ¡ I º ( ¿ º ) ] ¿ º

e.g. stellar absorption spectrum (temperature decreasing outwards)

e.g. stellar spectrum with temperature increasing outwards (e.g.

Sun in the UV)

From Rutten’s web notes

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Line formation example: solar corona

Iν = τν Sν"

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The diffusion approximation

At large optical depth in stellar atmosphere photons are local: Sν à Bν

Expand Sν (= Bν) as a power-series:

S º ( t ) = 1 X n = 0

d n B º d ¿ n º

( t ¡ ¿ º ) n / n !

In the diffusion approximation (τν >>1) we retain only first order terms:

B º ( t ) = B º ( ¿ º ) + d B º d ¿ º

( t ¡ ¿ º )

I o u t º ( ¿ º , µ ) =

1 Z ¿ º

[ B º ( ¿ º ) + d B º d ¿ º

( t ¡ ¿ º ) ] e ¡ ( t ¡ ¿ º ) / µ d t

µ

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The diffusion approximation

Substituting:

At τν = 0 we obtain the Eddington-Barbier relation for the observed emergent intensity.

It is given by the Planck-function and its gradient at τν = 0.

It depends linearly on µ = cos θ.

1 Z 0

u k e ¡ u d u = k !

I i n º ( ¿ º , µ ) = ¡ ¿ º / µ Z 0

[ B º ( ¿ º ) + d B º d ¿ º

µ u ] e ¡ u d u

I o u t º ( ¿ º , µ ) =

1 Z 0

[ B º ( ¿ º ) + d B º d ¿ º

µ u ] e ¡ u d u = B º ( ¿ º ) + µ d B º d ¿ º

I o u t º ( ¿ º , µ ) =

1 Z ¿ º

[ B º ( ¿ º ) + d B º d ¿ º

( t ¡ ¿ º ) ] e ¡ ( t ¡ ¿ º ) / µ d t

µ

t ! u = t ¡ ¿ º µ

! d t = µ d u

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Solar limb darkening

I º ( 0 , µ ) I º ( 0 , 1 )

= B º ( 0 ) + d B º

d ¿ º µ

B º ( 0 ) + d B º d ¿ º

from the intensity measurements à Bν(0), dBν/dτν"

B º ( t ) = B º ( 0 ) + d B º d ¿ º

t = a + b · t = 2 h º 3

c 2 1

e h º / k T ( t ) ¡ 1

T(t): empirical temperature stratification of solar photosphere

center-to-limb variation of intensity

diffusion approximation:

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Solar limb darkening

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Solar limb darkening: temperature stratification

I º ( 0 , µ ) =

1 Z 0

S º ( t ) e ¡ t µ d t

µ

exponential extinction varies as -τν /cosθ"

From Sν = a + bτν:"

I º ( 0 , µ ) = S º ( ¿ º = µ ) Sν!

I º ( 0 , c o s µ ) = a º + b º c o s µ

R. Rutten, web notes

Unsoeld, 68

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Eddington approximation

In the diffusion approximation we had:

B º ( t ) = B º ( ¿ º ) + d B º d ¿ º

( t ¡ ¿ º )

0 < µ < 1

-1 < µ < 0

τ >> 1

I i n º ( ¿ º , µ ) = ¡ ¿ º / µ Z 0

[ B º ( ¿ º ) + d B º d ¿ º

µ u ] e ¡ u d u

I o u t º ( ¿ º , µ ) = B º ( ¿ º ) + µ d B º d ¿ º

I ¡ º ( ¿ º , µ ) = B º ( ¿ º ) + µ

d B º d ¿ º

we want to obtain an approximation for the radiation field – both inward and outward radiation - at large optical depth

à stellar interior, inner boundary of atmosphere

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Eddington approximation

J º = 1

2

Z 1 ¡ 1

I º d µ = B º ( ¿ º )

H º = F º 4

= 1

2

Z 1 ¡ 1

µ I º d µ = 1

3

d B º d ¿ º

K º = 1

2

Z 1 ¡ 1

µ 2 I º d µ = 1

3 B º ( ¿ º )

= ¡ 1

3

1

· º

d B º d x

= ¡ 1

3 · º

d B º d T

d T

d x

flux Fν ~ dT/dx diffusion: flux ~ gradient (e.g. heat conduction)

K º = 1 3 J º Eddington approximation

With this approximation for Iν we can calculate the angle averaged momenta of the intensity

à simple approximation for photon flux and a relationship between mean intensity Jν and Kν

à  very important for analytical estimates

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J º = 1

2

1 Z ¡ 1

I º d µ = 1

2

1 Z 0

I o u t º d µ + 1

2

0 Z ¡ 1

I i n º d µ

J º = 1

2

2 4

1 Z 0

1 Z ¿ º

S º ( t ) e ¡ ( t ¡ ¿ º ) / µ d t

µ d µ ¡

0 Z ¡ 1

¿ º Z 0

S º ( t ) e ¡ ( t ¡ ¿ º ) / µ d t

µ d µ

3 5

s u b s t i t u t e w = 1 µ ) d w

w = ¡ 1

µ d µ w = ¡ 1

µ ) d w

w = ¡ 1

µ d µ

µ < 0 µ > 0

After the previous approximations, we now want to calculate exact solutions for tha radiative momenta Jν, Hν, Kν. Those are important to calculate spectra and atmospheric structure Schwarzschild-Milne equations

I o u t º ( ¿ º , µ ) =

1 Z ¿ º

S º ( t ) e ¡ t ¡ ¿ º

µ d t

µ

I i n º ( ¿ º , µ ) =

0 Z ¿ º

S º ( t ) e ¡ t ¡ ¿ º

µ d t

µ

J º = 1

2

2 4 1 Z 1

1 Z ¿ º

S º ( t ) e ¡ ( t ¡ ¿ º ) w d t

d w

w +

1 Z 1

¿ º Z 0

S º ( t ) e ¡ ( ¿ º ¡ t ) w d t

d w

w

3 5

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Schwarzschild-Milne equations

J º = 1

2

2 4 1 Z ¿ º

S º ( t )

1 Z 1

e ¡ ( t ¡ ¿ º ) w d w

w d t +

¿ º Z 0

S º ( t )

1 Z 1

e ¡ ( ¿ º ¡ t ) w d w

w d t

3 5

> 0 > 0

J º = 1

2

1 Z 0

S º ( t )

1 Z 1

e ¡ w | t ¡ ¿ º | d w

w d t =

1

2

1 Z 0

S º ( t ) E 1 ( | t ¡ ¿ º | ) d t

Schwarzschild’s equation

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Schwarzschild-Milne equations

w h e r e

E 1 ( t ) =

1 Z 1

e ¡ t x d x

x =

1 Z t

e ¡ x

x d x

i s t h e fi r s t e x p o n e n t i a l i n t e g r a l ( s i n g u l a r i t y a t t = 0 )

E x p o n e n t i a l i n t e g r a l s

E n ( t ) = t n ¡ 1 1 Z t

x ¡ n e ¡ x d x

E n ( 0 ) = 1 / ( n ¡ 1 ) , E n ( t ! 1 ) = e ¡ t / t ! 0

d E n d t

= ¡ E n ¡ 1 ,

Z E n ( t ) = ¡ E n + 1 ( t )

E 1 ( 0 ) = 1 E 2 ( 0 ) = 1 E 3 ( 0 ) = 1 / 2 E n ( 1 ) = 0

Gray, 92

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Schwarzschild-Milne equations

Introducing the Λ operator:

J º ( ¿ º ) = ¤ ¿ º [ S º ( t ) ]

Similarly for the other 2 moments of Intensity:

¤ ¿ º [ f ( t ) ] = 1

2

1 Z 0

f ( t ) E 1 ( | t ¡ ¿ º | ) d t

Milne’s equations

Jν, Hν and Kν are all depth-weighted means of Sν"

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Schwarzschild-Milne equations

the 3 moments of Intensity:

Jν, Hν and Kν are all depth-weighted means of Sν"

◊ the strongest contribution comes from the depth, where the argument of the exponential integrals is zero, i.e. t=τν"

Gray, 92

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The temperature-optical depth relation Radiative equilibrium

The condition of radiative equilibrium (expressing conservation of energy) requires that the flux at any given depth remains constant:

4 ¼ r 2 F ( r ) = 4 ¼ r 2 · 4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = c o n s t = L

In plane-parallel geometry r ≈ R = const 4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = c o n s t

and in analogy to the black body radiation, from the Stefan-Boltzmann law we define the effective temperature:

4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ®

F ( r ) = ¼ F =

1 Z 0

Z 4 ¼

I º c o s µ d ! d º = ¼

1 Z 0

F º d º = 4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º

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The effective temperature

The effective temperature is defined by:

It characterizes the total radiative flux transported through the atmosphere.

It can be regarded as an average of the temperature over depth in the atmosphere.

A blackbody radiating the same amount of total energy would have a temperature T = Teff.

4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ®

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Radiative equilibrium

Let us now combine the condition of radiative equilibrium with the equation of radiative transfer in plane-parallel geometry:

µ d I º d x

= ¡ ( · º + ¾ º ) ( I º ¡ S º )

1

2

1 Z ¡ 1

µ d I º d x

d µ = ¡ 1

2

1 Z ¡ 1

( · º + ¾ º ) ( I º ¡ S º ) d µ

Hν"

d

d x

2 4 1

2

1 Z ¡ 1

µ I º d µ

3 5 = ¡ ( · º + ¾ º ) ( J º ¡ S º )

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Radiative equilibrium

Integrate over frequency:

d

d x

1 Z 0

H º d º = ¡ 1 Z 0

( · º + ¾ º ) ( J º ¡ S º ) d º

const

1 Z 0

( · º + ¾ º ) ( J º ¡ S º ) d º = 0 s u b s t i t u t e S º = · º

· º + ¾ º B º +

¾ º

· º + ¾ º J º

1 Z 0

· º [ J º ¡ B º ( T ) ] d º = 0

4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ® in addition:

0 @

1 Z 0

· º J º d º = a b s o r b e d e n e r g y

1 A

0 @

1 Z 0

· º B º d º = e m i t t e d e n e r g y

1 A

T(x) or T(τ)

at each depth:

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Radiative equilibrium

1 Z 0

· º [ J º ¡ B º ( T ) ] d º = 0 4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ®

T(x) or T(τ)

The temperature T(r) at every depth has to assume the value for which the left integral over all frequencies becomes zero. à This determines the local temperature.

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59

Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere: the major parameters are Teff and g

T(x), κν(x), Bν[T(x)],P(x), ρ(x) Jν(x), Hν(x)

R 1 0 · º ( J º ¡ B º ) d º = 0 ?

4 ¼ R 1 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ® ?

∆T(x), ∆κν(x), ∆Bν[T(x)], ∆ρ(x)

equation of transfer

a. hydrostatic equilibrium

b. equation of radiation transfer

d P d x

= ¡ g ½ ( x )

µ d I º d x

= ¡ ( · º + ¾ º ) ( I º ¡ S º )

c. radiative equilibrium 1 Z 0

· º [ J º ¡ B º ( T ) ] d º = 0

d. flux conservation

4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ®

e. equation of state P = ½ k T

µ m H

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60

Grey atmosphere - an approximation for the temperature structure

We derive a simple analytical approximation for the temperature structure. We assume that we can approximate the radiative equilibrium integral by using a frequency-averaged absorption coefficient, which we can put in front of the integral. 1 Z 0

· º [ J º ¡ B º ( T ) ] d º = 0 ¯ ·

1 Z 0

[ J º ¡ B º ( T ) ] d º = 0

W i t h : J =

1 Z 0

J º d º H =

1 Z 0

H º d º K =

1 Z 0

K º d º B =

1 Z 0

B º d º = ¾ T 4

¼

J = B 4 ¼ H = ¾ T 4 e ®

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Grey atmosphere

We then assume LTE: S = B.

From

and a similar expression for frequency-integrated quantities

and with the approximations S = B, B = J:

J º ( ¿ º ) = ¤ ¿ º [ S º ( t ) ] = 1

2

1 Z 0

S º ( t ) E 1 ( | t ¡ ¿ º | ) d t

Milne’s equation

!!! this is an integral equation for J(τ) !!!"

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62

The exact solution of the Hopf integral equation

Milne’s equation J(τ) = Λτ[J(t)] à exact solution (see Mihalas, “Stellar Atmospheres”)

J(τ) = const. [ τ + q(τ)], with q(τ) monotonic

Radiative equilibrium - grey approximation

1 p 3

= 0 . 5 7 7 = q ( 0 ) · q ( ¿ ) · q ( 1 ) = 0 . 7 1 0

J(τ) = B(τ) = σ/π T4(τ) = const. [ τ + q(τ)] with boundary conditions à T4(τ) = ¾ T4

eff [τ + q(τ)]

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A simple approximation for T(τ)

0th moment of equation of transfer (integrate both sides in dµ from -1 to 1)

µ d I

d x = ¡ ¯ · ( I ¡ B ) d H

d ¯ ¿ = J ¡ B = 0 ( J = B ) H = c o n s t =

¾ T 4 e ®

4 ¼

1st moment of equation of transfer (integrate both sides in µdµ from -1 to 1)

d K

d ¯ ¿ = H =

¾ T 4 e ®

4 ¼ K ( ¿ ) = H ¯ ¿ + c o n s t a n t

From Eddington’s approximation at large depth: K = 1/3 J

µ

2 dI

dx

= (µI µB)

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64

Grey atmosphere – temperature distribution

T 4 ( ¿ ) = 3 ¼ H

¾ ( ¿ + c ) H =

¾

4 ¼ T 4 e ®

T 4 ( ¿ ) = 3

4 T 4 e ® ( ¿ + c ) T4 is linear in τ"

Estimation of c

1 Z

0

t s E n ( t ) d t = s !

s + n

1/3 1/2

H º ( ¿ = 0 ) = 1

2 3 H

2 4 1 Z 0

t E 2 ( t ) d t + c

1 Z 0

E 2 ( t ) d t

3 5

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Grey atmosphere – Hopf function

T 4 ( ¿ ) = 3

4 T 4 e ® ( ¿ +

2

3 )

based on approximation K/J = 1/3 T = Teff at τ = 2/3, T(0) = 0.84 Teff

Remember: More in general J is obtained from

T 4 ( ¿ ) = 3

4 T 4 e ® [ ¿ + q ( ¿ ) ] q ( ¿ ) : H o p f f u n c t i o n

Once Hopf function is specified à solution of the grey atmosphere (temperature distribution)

1 p 3

= 0 . 5 7 7 = q ( 0 ) · q ( ¿ ) · q ( 1 ) = 0 . 7 1 0

H ( 0 ) = H = 1

2 H ( 1 +

3

2 c ) ! c =

2

3

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Mean opacities: flux-weighted

1st possibility: Flux-weighted mean

allows the preservation of the K-integral (radiation pressure)

Problem: Hν not known a priory (requires iteration of model atmospheres)

¯ · =

1 R 0

· º H º d º

H

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69

Mean opacities: Rosseland

2nd possibility: Rosseland mean

to obtain correct integrated energy flux and use local T

d K º d x

! 1

3

d B º d x

= 1

3

d B º d T

d T

d x

K º ! 1

3 J º , J º ! B º a s ¿ ! 1

1

¯ · R o s s =

1 R 0

1 · º

d B º ( T ) d T

d º

1 R 0

d B º ( T ) d T

d º

large weight for low-opacity (more transparent to radiation) regions

1

¯ · =

1 R 0

1 · º

d K º d x

d º

d K d x

dKºdx = ¡·ºHº

1R0

1·ºdKºdx dº = ¡

1R0Hºdº

1 Z 0

1

· º

d K º d x

d º = ¡ H ) ( g r e y ) ) 1

¯ ·

d K

d x = ¡ H

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70

Mean opacities: Rosseland

at large τ the T structure is accurately given by

T 4 = 3

4 T 4 e ® [ ¿ R o s s + q ( ¿ R o s s ) ] Rosseland opacities used

in stellar interiors

For stellar atmospheres Rosseland opacities allow us to obtain initial approximate values for the Temperature stratification (used for further iterations).

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grey: q(τ) = exact grey: q(τ) = 2/3

non-grey numerical

T4 vs. τ

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72

T vs. log(τ)

non-grey numerical

grey: q(τ) = exact grey: q(τ) = 2/3

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Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere: the major parameters are Teff and g

T(x), κν(x), Bν[T(x)],P(x), ρ(x) Jν(x), Hν(x)

R 1 0 · º ( J º ¡ B º ) d º = 0 ?

4 ¼ R 1 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ® ?

∆T(x), ∆κν(x), ∆Bν[T(x)], ∆ρ(x)

equation of transfer

a. hydrostatic equilibrium

b. equation of radiation transfer

d P d x

= ¡ g ½ ( x )

µ d I º d x

= ¡ ( · º + ¾ º ) ( I º ¡ S º )

c. radiative equilibrium 1 Z 0

· º [ J º ¡ B º ( T ) ] d º = 0

d. flux conservation

4 ¼

1 Z 0

H º d º = ¾ T 4 e ®

e. equation of state P = ½ k T

µ m H