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357Coastal and marine zones

3.14. Coastal and marine zones

1. The issue

Coastal zones are considered to be areaswhere land and sea influence, meet andinteract. The coastal band varies dependingon the nature of the environment, theinteractions of the marine and terrestrialcoastal processes and the managementneeds. Coastal zones occupy less than 15% ofthe Earth’s land surface, yet they accommo-date more than 60% of the world’s popula-tion. If this trend continues, by 2025 therecould be up to 75% of humanity residing incoastal areas (UNCED, 1992). Most of theworld coastal ecosystems potentially threat-ened by unsustainable development arelocated within northern temperate andnorthern equatorial zones with Europehaving 86% of its coasts at either high ormoderate risk (Bryant et al., 1995) (Figure3.14.1).

Coasts are not static. They can change shaperapidly, and coastal erosion, due to humanactivities or natural causes, is a commonphenomenon: in the EU 25% of the coast issubject to erosion, while 50% is stable and15% aggradating: for the remaining 10%,the evolution is unknown (Corine, 1998).Erosion also varies: 32% of the Portuguesecoasts is affected, but 75% of the SpanishAtlantic coasts are considered stable.

Improvements in economic conditions are apriority for coastal regions of Europe. They

are among the least economically developedregions of the EU (Table 3.14.1), and in1996 accounted for 19 of the EU’s 25 lessfavoured areas (compared with 23 in 1983).Coastal regions have received substantialassistance – mainly for infrastructure invest-ment – from the EU Structural and Cohe-sion funds: nearly 70% of the EU StructuralFunds for the period 1994-1999 were allo-cated to the EU’s coastal area (includingnearly all EU Mediterranean areas; all areason the Atlantic coast of Portugal, Spain andFrance, half of the UK coast, etc.).

For the purpose of this report a strip of 10 kmwide is generally considered, in connectionwith impact of human activities. The EUcoastal zones contain irreplaceable ecological,cultural and economic resources; mainte-

Area/Region Index

‘Blue Banana’ area (Milan to London) 120

North Sea riparian areas 100

Baltic riparian areas 88

Mediterranean riparian areas 82

Atlantic riparian areas 78

Isolated regions 67

Source: Conference ofPeripherals MaritimeRegions of Europe (CRPM),based on EUROSTAT data

Table 3.14.1GDP statistics per region showing economic

disparities between the North West and the otherriparian areas in Europe (EU GNP=100)

World coastalecosystems threatened

by development

Potential threat

high

moderate

low

1: 250 000 000

Figure 3.14.1

About 34% of the world’scoasts are at high potentialrisk of all kinds ofdegradation, and another17% are at moderate risk.

Source:World Resources Institute

Arctic Circle

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Environmental Issues358

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Zoom inon mountain

and coastal areas

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mountain zones

coastal zones

Map 3.14.1

What happens in thecoastal zone is important toall Europeans. Much of the

influences and pressures onthe coastal and marine

environments areconcentrated in this

sensitive area.

Source: EEA

nance of these resources depends on protec-tion of the fragile equilibrium among thedynamic systems (human and natural) of thecoastal zones (Map 3.14.1). More importantly,the whole of the EU marine resources de-pend on the quality of the coastal zones, arelationship recognised in the 5th Environ-

mental Action Programme. Coastal zones alsoface pressure from development, since theyare areas where people want to live and workand where recreational activities also featurein a major way. The EU has recognised theimportance of environmental resources incoastal areas and the need for protectivemeasures to ensure that they are not threat-ened by human activities, in particularurbanisation, transport, tourism, agriculture,industry, energy and fisheries. In 1992, theCouncil of Ministers called on the Commis-sion to develop an integrated strategy forcoastal zone management with a view toproviding a coherent environmental frame-work for sustainable forms of development.The impacts of different human activities oncoastal areas are summarised in Figure 3.14.2.

Key areas of action for Integrated CoastalZone Management (ICZM) are environmen-tal impact assessment, coastal land planning,habitat management and pollution control.The results of the EU ‘ICZM DemonstrationProgramme’ and the Water FrameworkDirective should provide concrete examplesof how to tackle coastal zone managementissues as they occur. However, although theEU could lead and co-ordinate the ap-proaches to ICZM, decisions on manage-ment and implementation should be madeat appropriate levels within Member States.

The challenge, then, is to ensure that eco-nomic development is sustainable in environ-Source: After Rigg et al., 1997; modified

Industry

Eros

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& F

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Driving Forces Fres

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rface

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a

Energy

Urbanisation

Tourism and Recreation

Transport

Shipping and Ports

Afforestation

Fisheries

Aquaculture

Coastal Defence

Agriculture

PhysicalChanges Pollution

Habitat loss/degradation

moderate to major impactminor or no impact

Figure 3.14.2 General situation of Impacts of the differentDriving Forces in coastal areas


mental terms, and does not compromise thequality and viability of the marine environ-ment and its ecosystems. The challenges arebeing addressed through the development ofintegrated management strategies in the maincoastal areas of the EU: around the Baltic Sea,the North Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and theMediterranean Sea.

2. The main drivers affecting coastal and marine areas

2.1. Population and urban developmentAbout one-third of the EU population isconcentrated near the coasts. Heavy popu-lated areas in the south are usually con-nected with regions with large cities (e.g.Athens, Rome, Genoa, Marseilles, Barcelona,Lisbon) while a more even, but denser,

distribution can be found in the north westof Europe; in the north the populationdecreases but again the majority of thepopulation is concentrated in the coastalareas (Map 3.14.2). Human activities areoften in competition for the use and controlof the coastal resources (for example,agriculture and urban areas in the NorthSea, agriculture and forests in the Mediterra-nean and the Baltic Sea; coastal wetlandsthreatened by other land uses in the Medi-terranean, the North Sea and Atlantic).

Urbanisation claims large expanses of coast-line, and while stabilising in northern Europeit continues to increase in the southerncountries (EEA, 1998) (Figure 3.14.3 and Box3.14.1). It has major impacts on land, air andwater quality (including the surroundingseas) (see Figure 3.14.2), and urban sprawl is

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ea

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Sea

C h a n n e l

WhiteSe

a

B a r e n t s

S e a

more than 500

Inhabitants per km²

Land cover area in coastal zone(one cell of the diagram = 500 km²)

Population densityand land coverin coastal areas

0 500 km

200 – 500

100 – 200

50 – 10025 – 505 – 25

less than 5

not classified

lagoons, estuaries

wetlands

forestsand semi-natural land

agricultural areas

industrial, commercialand transport units

urban fabric

Atlantic coast

North Seacoast

Baltic Seacoast

West MediterraneanSea coast

East MediterraneanSea coast

Map 3.14.2

Source: Land Use: CORINELand Cover; Populationdata: EEA, 1996 (modifiedfrom GISCO 1996);CORINAIR EmissionsInventory, 1990;– Blue Plan


a problem in all coastal regions (see Chapter3.12). In the Mediterranean, MAP/Blue Planalready reported 10 years ago that in 1985almost 90% of urbanised land in the Mediter-ranean was located in the coastal zones ofSpain, France, Greece, Italy and formerYugoslavia (Grenon & Batisse, 1989). InSouthern Mediterranean countries, fromMorocco to Syria, 55% of the total population(82% of the urban population in Tunesia) islocated in coastal areas which account for 6%of these countries’ area.

2.2. TourismCoastal-based tourism has been an importantpart of the economic development of manyof the poorer areas of Europe, especially inthe South. Over-all, the annual growth ratefor tourism in Europe is 3.7% per year,projected to continue through 2000. Never-theless, tourism in Europe has been losingmarket share to Eastern Asia and the Pacific,and an additional 10% loss in market shareis forecast for 2000, which could lead to a fallin the average growth rate (EUCC, 1997).

In the Baltic sea region tourism may bepotentially important to the economies ofthe Baltic Sea states, especially in places withtourist attractions (such as fishing village,architectural heritage and nature parks)(VASAB, 1994).

The Mediterranean region is the world’sleading leisure tourism destination, account-ing for 30% of international tourist arrivalsand for one fourth of the receipts frominternational tourism. The French, Spanish

and Italian coasts account for 90% of thetourists travelling to the Mediterranean,although the non-EU countries to the southand east are expecting to increase their sharein the next decade. The coastal regionreceived some 135 million tourists a year in1990, and an increase to 200-250 million isprojected for 2010 (Blue Plan, 1998). Tour-ism in coastal regions is estimated at aroundhalf of the total tourism to the countriesconcerned but by far the highest concentra-tions are found in coastal resorts.

International visits from within Europe(measured as nights) are widely perceived asthe dominant form of tourism in Mediterra-nean coastal regions and the major source ofenvironmental impact. On current estimates(Blue Plan, 1998), however, domestic tour-ism was already as large in volume in 1990and this is typically for overnight visits only.The environmental impact of residents’ dayvisits for all purposes is undoubtedly massivein the Region: although there is no adequatedata, it is likely that domestic tourism (asdefined by the World Tourism Organisation)is at least twice the volume of internationaltourism, certainly in the more economicallydeveloped countries that look South on theMediterranean.

For international holiday tourism in theRegion, package tours are the dominantform in 1999 covering around 84% ofvisitors to Malta, 78% to Cyprus, 67% forGreece and 48% for Spain (the coastalfigures are likely to be even higher). Follow-ing a spate of national and international

Over the past four decades, urban population ratein the Mediterranean countries grew on average by44% to 62%. Very fast-growing trends characterisesouthern Mediterranean countries which showsignificant annual growth rates, about a doubling ofurban population every 30 years.

The number of cities with more than 1 millioninhabitants tripled over the same period, from 10to 29; the number rose from 2 to 17 for thesouthern Mediterranean countries where Cairo –now the largest city in this area – experiences adensity of about 21 000 hab/km2. This strikinggrowth hides the fact that there is also, relativelyspeaking, a higher growth rate for smaller cities(with over 10 000 inhabitants) which numberedmore than 4 000 in 1995, most of them in coastalareas. This urban ‘booming’ is not comparable toEuropean countries: indeed, while it took onecentury in Europe to absorb urbanisation, similarphenomena occur only over 20 years in southernMediterranean countries.

The Mediterranean region in any case faces severeenvironmental pressures associated with a rapidincrease in population, projected to grow fromunder 400 million in 1990 to around 600 million in2025, with urban concentrations reaching 75-80%(over 400 million in 2025, up from 220 million in1985), and the coastal population rising from 140million in 1990 to over 200 million in 2025. Thedevelopment pressures are illustrated byprojections for an increase in the number of motorvehicles (rising from 60 million in 1980 to 175million in 2025) while the area of coastal landcovered by roads increases to 10 000 sq. kms

Control and management of the social, economic,spatial and environmental consequences of suchdevelopments raises serious concerns for the urbanquality of life which for hundreds of years has beencharacteristic of the Mediterranean region, as wellas the for the maintenance of high environmental,cultural and economic values of the coastal areas.

Source: Geopolis data base, 1998, quoted and analysedby Blue Plan, 1998; UN population forecast.

Box 3.14.1 Urbanisation around the Mediterranean Sea


Urbanisation, connectedmainly with agricultural andforest loses, continues togrow in the southernEuropean countries but thisprocess is slowing down inthe North.

Source: LACOAST Project,JRC, European Commission

amalgamations among tour operators inNorthern Europe in the last three years,fewer than 10 very large operators nowdominate the industry, perhaps accountingfor over two-thirds of the market.

Environmental and economic impactsinclude poor water quality – both salt andfreshwater – conversion of nature andagricultural land into tourism facilities,overconsumption of groundwater resourcesand discharges of untreated wastewater tothe sea/catchment area. Analysis of theimpacts of tourism on the coastal andmarine environments would be assisted bybetter information to support the framing,monitoring and implementation of sustain-able development policies in coastal areas.

2.3. AgricultureAgriculture is a significant, albeit declining,source of employment in EU coastal zones(the proportion of the workforce in agricul-ture (9%) is almost twice the EU average of5.5%).

Along the coasts of the North Sea, a generaldecline of the area of arable land undercultivation by at least 10-11% as a result ofset-aside is expected in agriculture by theend of the century, while a further 4 to 5%of arable land will be farmed less intensively,chiefly because of stricter environmentalcontrols (European Commission, 1994). Inthe Mediterranean basin, intensive agricul-ture and farming is limited by the topogra-phy of the terrain, being concentrated in thefew alluvial plains (Ebro, Rhone, Po andNile); countries on the northern and west-ern Euro-Mediterranean coasts are specia-lised in monocultures and achieve goodyields while in the south and east, demo-graphic pressure constantly increases andcultivated surfaces continue to expand at theexpense of forests and grazing land (EEA/UNEP-MAP, in press).

It is interesting to note that in northern EUcountries the loss of agricultural land isconnected with the increase of urbanisation,while in the south EU countries agricultureand urbanisation grow simultaneously at theexpense of semi-natural and natural areas.

Agri-environment schemes (see Chapter3.13) can help maintain farm employmentand income, while promoting farm diversifi-cation and sustainable land management. Incoastal regions these schemes can make useof land taken out of production for develop-ment of wildife habitats, such as coastal

grazing marsh and reed beds behind lowlying seawalls, or create new saltmarsh aspart of managed realignment of sea walls forconservation and flood defence objectives.

2.4. Fisheries and aquaculture, both in transition

2.4.1. FisheriesA decline of fisheries has been reported inalmost all regional seas (EEA, 1998). In April1997, following an expert group recommen-dation for a 40% reduction in fleet capacityto match the available fish resources, the EUdecided on a reduction of 30% for thosevessels targeting those stocks at risk ofdepletion and 20% for those pursuing stockswhich are over fished. Fleet technology inthe industrialised EU countries is very highand there has been a shift from labour-intensive to more capital-intensive vessels. Inrecent years pelagic fishing and processinghas increased (EEA, 1998).

Gear such as bottom trawls, pelagic trawlsand drift nets, although highly productive, isindiscriminate, and EU drift net fisheries fortuna and a number of other species will beprohibited from 1 January 2002.

Urb

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Total ha186

5030 797

175 1

9124

3

6537 79 140

0-20 21-40 41-60 > 600

% of total gain for each category

Figure 3.14.3Urbanisation and sport and leisure facilitiesgains in EU coastal zones (1970s-1990s)


The main objective of the EU’s CommonFisheries Policy (CFP) is to control fishingpressure so that the fish stocks are exploitedsustainably and are able to replenish them-selves in the medium and long term.

A 1994 Council Regulation (No 1626/94)(amended in 1996 – No 1075/96 – and1998) for conservation of Mediterraneanfishery resources enhanced the protection ofresources and the environment by harmoni-sing different national rules of the fourinvolved EU countries, in accordance withavailable scientific studies. Mediterraneanfisheries are operated by both EU and non-EU countries, and cooperation is essential toensure conservation and management ofshared resources, since management offisheries focuses mainly on control of li-cences and subsidies to the sector, ratherthan quota control. In 1997 the EuropeanCommunity became a member of the Gen-eral Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean(GFCM).

2.4.2. AquacultureIntensive aquaculture results in the produc-tion of waste which can stimulate and distortproductivity and alter the abiotic and bioticcharacteristics of the water body (see Chap-ter 3.5). Aquaculture can result in geneticdisturbance of the natural ecosystem, thetransfer of diseases and parasites and con-tamination by chemicals. The effects varyaccording to a closed, or semi-closed, oropen area (see Figure 3.14.2).

In the Baltic region fish produced in hatche-ries account for more than 90% of thesalmon population. In the North Seaaquaculture is expected, generally, to stabi-lise rather than grow, primarily due toenvironmental restrictions and increasedproduction costs. Cultivation of mussels andoysters in the Channel and Wadden Sea,salmon in Norway and Scotland, along withoysters, scallops and mussels are theaquaculture products of the North Searegion. Aquaculture is significant on someAtlantic coasts particularly for local commu-nities in Ireland, Spain and France. Theregional aquaculture production in theMediterranean show a sharp increased byabout 185% in a decade (39 575 tonnes in1984 to 113 103 tonnes in 1994) (EEA/UNEP-MAP, in press).

2.5. Industry and energy, very present in coastal zonesThe dominant fuel used in EU countries isoil, almost all of which is transported across

the sea to be processed within the coastalzones. The North Sea area is still the primarysource of energy in the EU, but the extrac-tion of oil most probably will decline in theyears to come (European Commission,1994). The Mediterranean basin endowmentof oil and natural gas is leading to theestablishment of many refineries in theregion. The environmental consequences ofoil (extraction, transport, refinement, anduse) are well documented.

There are around 200 nuclear power plantsoperating throughout Europe, many ofwhich are located in coastal regions or alongimportant rivers due to the large volume ofcooling water needed. The nuclear industryposes a special set of threats to coastal andmarine ecosystems mainly due to the sheerscale of damage that could result from amajor nuclear accident, however unlikelythat may be. In the absence of major acci-dents, coastal and marine ecosystems are stillsubject to operational discharges of radioac-tive waste.

Industrial inputs to the Baltic Sea mainlycome from pulp and paper processing (thisarea is responsible for 25% of the world’spulp production), iron and steel industry,mining and fertiliser production(HELCOM, 1998). In the Atlantic coastmany manufacturing industries are indecline but a number of traditional indus-tries maintain their importance (EuropeanCommission, 1994). The development ofrenewable energy sources (especially windand, solar sources) is preferable to conti-nued investment in conventional energysupplies since there is a lower contributionto global warming and air pollution. Theuse of renewable energy sources in theNorth Sea area is expected to increaseespecially in coastal areas (EuropeanCommission, 1995). Renewable energysources have impacts on the landscape,particularly at the local level, althoughfields of modern wind turbines or solarpanels may be less undesirable than largepower plants with cooling towers and hugesteam clouds.

2.6. Transport growthMaritime transport of goods increased inthe EU by 35% between 1975 and 1985, buthas since levelled off (EUCC, 1997). It isconsidered to be one of the most environ-mentally friendly modes of transport, if allmeasures and legislation are enforced.However, it has environmental impacts inthe European coastal and marine environ-


Source: Port of Rotterdam –web site

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am, N

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Hamburg

, DE

1994199519961997

Figure 3.14.4Maritime freight in container traffic for main EU ports 1994-97

ment from spills of hazardous materials (oilspills being the best well known), and cancause significant environmental damagewith implications for economy (e.g. tou-rism, fisheries, agriculture), ecology andhealth (see Figure 3.14.2). Ports have a keyrole as interconnection points betweenseaborne and land-based transport modes.Freight passing through European ports hasincreased in the past five years and thistrend is probably going to continue as theenlargement of the EU generates newtransport flows (Figure 3.14.4). Large portssuch as Rotterdam – the world’s largest –Hamburg, London, Le Havre connect tosome of the busiest shipping routes in theworld. In the Mediterranean basin themajor transportation mode of commercebetween countries is through the sea,mostly by ferries. It is estimated that about220 000 vessels of more than 100 tonnescross the Mediterranean each year, which isestimated as 30% of the total merchantshipping in the world and 20% of oilshipping mainly coming from the Middle-East (MAP/REMPEC, 1996).

In the Baltic Sea the transport of goods,including oil, via the Baltic ports has grownsignificantly since 1990. The threats tomarine and coastal environment degrada-tion are increasing but the political will ofthe countries in the Baltic region to fight oilpollution is strong; they have agreed toimplement an integrated, no-special feesystem, for oil and wastes in their harbours

and making it mandatory to deliver oil at areception facility before departure.Ports, in conjunction with water-bornetransport, can make an important contribu-tion to environmentally sustainable trans-port, but this depends on measures to limitadverse environmental impacts, and inparticular a full assessment of the environ-mental impacts of all port-related develop-ments.

Railways, motorways and roads occupy longstretches of land and form barriers whichlead to the fragmentation and/or isolationof habitats. If located near the coast, theycan inhibit the natural processes of shoreformation and development, they can havean impact through airborne pollutants onthe surface water, and they can also causesignificant coastal erosion; one of the feed-back effects of erosion could be the destruc-tion of the infrastructure itself (example canbe found in the Black Sea coastline). Inaddition road runoff in the coastal zone andin catchment draining to estuaries causechronic pollution from contaminants such aspolyaromatic hydrocarbons. Road traffic incoastal zones is well developed but verydense, while railway use is in decline (EUCC,1997). In some countries the geomorpho-logy dictates the expansion of the road andrail network in the coastal zones (for exam-ple Italy has a long coastline with mountainsin the middle; in the Netherlands creation ofdams, are maintained for coastal protection)(Figure 3.14.5).


3. Environmental conditions in regional seas

The environmental problems faced by mari-time areas in the EU are summarized in Table3.14.2. This summary has been formulatedthrough an analysis of the INTERREG.II.Cprogrammes of the EU. The informationpresented represents the ‘perception’ which,those in charge of the maritime areas, have oftheir environment, as discussed and agreedupon through the policy process.

Important research has been made in allEuropean regional seas through the MASTProgramme from DGXII. During the MAST-III programme (1994-98) the regional seaswere covered by the following projects:

• the Canary Islands Azores GibraltarObservation (CANIGO) project with the

Duero

Tagus

Ebro

Guadiana

Garonne

R

hô

ne

Loire

Seine Meuse

Thames

Rhine

Elbe

Oder

Danube

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VistulaPripyat

Dnieper

Dnieper

Boh

Neman

Olt

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sa

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a nube

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Don

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lga Oka

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a

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ki

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perD

on

Vyatka

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aVychegda

Sukh

ona

Dvina

LakeVänern

LakeVättern

Po

Lake

Saimaa

Lake

Paijanne

Tiber

Büyük

Men

der

es Seyh

anKizilir

mak

LakeTuz

Nile

Jordan

Suez Canal

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0 500 km

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Barents Sea

Baltic Sea

Norwegian Sea

Mediterranean Sea

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not classified

Map 3.14.3

Source:Eurostat-GISCO

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Forest

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Urban

1-3031-100101-300301-600601-900

0ha

Note that geomorphologydictates the expansion of

the road and rail network inthe coastal zones (e.g. Italy,

Netherlands)

Source: LACOAST Project,JRC, European Commission

Figure 3.14.5 Changes in road and rail networks surface for someEU coastal zones (1970s - 1990s)


objective to understand the functioningof the marine system in that region ofthe Northeast Atlantic Ocean and itslinks with the Alboran Sea;

• the Ocean Margin EXchange (OMEX)project in the north east Atlantic, to gaina better understanding of the physical,chemical and biological processesoccurring at the ocean margins in orderto quantify fluxes of energy and matteracross this boundary;

• the Baltic Sea System Study (BASYS) inthe Baltic Sea with the aim to further theunderstanding of the susceptibility of theBaltic Sea to external forcing and toimprove the quantification of past andpresent fluxes;

• the Mediterranean Targeted Project II-Mass Transfer and Ecosystem Response(MTP II -MATER) with the aim to studyand to quantify the triggering andcontrolling mechanisms of mass andenergy transfer in contrasting trophicenvironments (from eutrophic tooligotrophic) of the Mediterranean Seaand to investigate the ecosystem re-sponse to such a transfer.

3.1. North SeaThe North Sea catchment area (850 000km2) with about 165 million inhabitants hasa high population density (194 persons perkm2, some 70% above the EU average).Around a quarter of the coastal areas of theNorth Sea are at risk from erosion (Corine,1998). Nutrient levels seem to be high insome areas of the North Sea (Fig 3.14.6).

Large areas of the North Sea have contami-nants (mainly coming from the rivers Elbe,Weser, Rhine, Meuse, Sheldt, Seine, Thamesand Humber) in concentrations that areclearly above the North Atlantic backgroundlevel (EEA, 1998). Synthetic organic com-pounds such as PCBs, DDT, PAHs, and TBT,are widespread, although higher concentra-tions are clearly identifiable in certain areas(EEA, 1998). Higher concentrations of PCBsare found in the southern part of the NorthSea and close to harbour and city areas, andTBT concentrations are higher in someestuaries, harbours, and shipping lanes.Despite actions to restrict or, in some cases,ban the use of PCBs, unacceptably highconcentrations are still found, which sug-

Source: INTERREG-II

Table 3.14.2Challenges and problems in the different EU maritime regions

Dichotomy of under-exploitationof abandoned areas and over-exploitation and risingpopulation of areas underdevelopment.

Risks linked to natural conditions(insufficient amount of drinkingwater, erosion, fires, flooding).

Maintain coastal ecosystemsthreatened by coastal erosion,regression of beaches andscarcity of water resources inhumid sourthern zones.

Seasonal pressure of tourism,especially in southern Brittany.

Qualitative degradation of riverand sea water (industrialdumping and abandonedmining sites).

Apparition of extreme situationsin agriculture: over-exploitationof certain zones, abandonmentof other zones.

Growing urban pressure,especially around ‘capitals’ andcoastal cities, and diffuse anduncontrolled urbanisation ininterior zones.

Atlantic North Sea Baltic WesternMediterranean

Strong consensus for integratedmanagement of coastal areas.

Improve quality and availabilityof operational information forspatial planning.

Encourage renewable forms ofenergy.

Coastal erosion.

Reduce level of marinepollution.

Concern to protect natural areasstill untouched by economicdevelopment.

Conscious of rich naturalheritage which is threatenedand is at risk (natural risks,agriculture, tourism, transport,urbanisation in coastal areas).

Prospects for fragile or low-density areas in all aspects.

Control of tourism development.

Manage and protect inland andmarine waters; specific problemsin semi-arid zones; regulatingdebit and quality of water,provision of water and riskslinked to natural conditions(erosion, desertification, salineintrusions in groundwater).

Increase in eutrophicationleading to the proliferation ofalgae.

Origin of major problems:nitrogen due to combustion offossil fuels, agriculture andlandfills; added phosphorus(agriculture and landfills).

Numerous of hot-spots (directindustrial discharges).

Global vulnerability of the BalticSea due to less saline water andits nature as a closed sea(narrow exchange corridors withthe North Sea).


gests that existing measures are only partiallyeffective. There is little evidence on theenvironmental effects of synthetic organiccompounds.

In recent years, algal blooms (for exampleChrysochromulina polylepsis, in 1988) haveoccurred in the North Sea (particularly insouth eastern parts such as the Jutlandcoastal watermass) due to the elevatednutrient concentration. A new toxic species,Chatonella sp., formed blooms the major ofwhich occurred in May 1998 (Figure 3.14.7)and caused fish kills in Norwegian salmonfarms. In such conditions oxygen depletion,caused by degration of algae, can damagemarine life.

109876543210

1 112 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12

Nitr

ate

conc

entr

atio

ns in

mm

ol/

m3

Month

Nitrate Arendal 1975-80Nitrate Arendal 1990-95

Source: ANON, 1997a

3.2. European Arctic Seas: Norwegian, Iceland, Greenland Barents and White SeasAreas surrounding the European Arctic seasare sparsely populated (about 2.2 millioninhabitants) and not very industrialised:some mining and metal industry in North-ern Norway and Russia, offshore petroleumindustry in expansion in the Norwegian andBarents Seas, and fisheries of major impor-tance for population in Iceland, FaroeIslands and Northern Norway.

The northern seas is the home area for someof the largest fish stocks in the world whichin turn support large stokes of seals,cetaceans and birds. However, most of themajor commercial fish stocks in the area arebelow safe biological limits. A further issueof concern is the damage by bottom trawlingon cold-water reef colonies in shelf and slopewaters in the Norwegian Sea (ANON,1997b).

The major source of pollutants andradionuclides in the Arctic is atmosphericlong range transport, Russian rivers, ice-driftand ocean currents (AMAP, 1997). Highlevels of persistent organic contaminants,with possible effects on the reproductionand on the immune system, are detected insome top predators such as polar bears,glaucous gull and harbour porpoise prob-ably coming from atmospheric deposition(AMAP, 1997). In spite of the presence ofnuclear power plants in Russia and of theconsiderable amount of nuclear waste(ANON, 1997b; Layton et al., 1997) theconcentration of radionuclides in themarine environment in the Arctic is gene-rally very low. The most immediate andpotentially largest threats relate to nuclearwastes from past Russian military activities.

3.3. North-East AtlanticThe North-East Atlantic region includessome densely populated coastal areas such asSouth Wales, the Basque country, and majorcities (Lisbon, Porto, Bilbao, Dublin, Glas-gow, Nantes and Bordeaux). Many rivercatchments such as the Mersey and the Oria,are heavily industrialised, while others suchas Loire and Shannon are largely rural andagricultural.

The NE Atlantic is not heavily affected byeutrophication, although sporadic toxicseaweed blooms can be observed (EEA, 1998).Contaminants of both heavy metals andorgano-chlorines are not found in concentra-tions dangerous either for the environment orfor human health (EEA, 1998).

Chatonella species were first seen in 1990 and probably introduced from ballast water.

Source: Data from Institute of Marine Research, Norway

60o

60o

10o

10o

more than 16

Density distributionof toxic Chantonellasp. algal cells duringa bloom in May 1998

0 250 km

8.0 - 16.0

4.0 - 8.0

2.0 - 4.0

1.0 - 2.0

0.5 - 1.0

less than 0.5

Number of cells per litre (in millions)

monitoring station

N o r t h

S e aD E N M A R K

N O R W A Y

S W E D E N

Figure 3.14.6Nitrate concentrations in the coastal water mass atArendal on the Norwegian Skagerrak coast (monthlymean values for the periods 1975-80 and 1990-95)

Figure 3.14.7 Distribution of the densities of algal cells during abloom in May 1998 of the toxic species Chatonella sp.


The NE Atlantic (and particularly the NorthSea) is also contaminated to varying degreesby radionuclides discharged in particularfrom nuclear fuel reprocessing plants in theUK (Sellafield) and France (The Hague)(Brown, et al., 1998). However, even in theperiods of peak discharges, doses of the mostexposed members of the public have re-mained well within the statutory limits andthere has never been any evidence of eco-logical damage. Moreover, taken collectively,annual discharges of the most significantnuclides from the point of view of publicexposure have been substantially reduced byup to two orders of magnitude since thepeaks of the mid-1970s in the case ofSellafield and by one order of magnitudesince the mid-1980s for Cap de la Hague.Packages of nuclear waste have not beendumped on the bed of the North-EastAtlantic since the early 1980s and varioussurveys carried out since then have notrevealed any evidence of significant leakagefrom the packages (EEA, 1998, p.214).

3.4. Baltic SeaThe Baltic Sea is the second largest brackishwater area in the world. The population inthe catchment area is about 85 million, nearly15 million of which living within 10 km fromthe coast (Sweitzer et al., 1996). The ‘Red Listof Marine and Coastal Biotopes and BiotopeComplexes of the Baltic Sea, Belt Sea and theKattegat’ presents the status of the marineand coastal biotopes with severe cause forconcern, as 83% of all biotopes of the BalticSea Area are rated as heavily endangered(15%) or endangered (68%) (HELCOMEnvironment Committee, 1998). Agricultureis well developed, except in the northernparts, and is responsible together with naturalleaching for most of the total nutrient loadentering the Baltic Sea (Elofsson, 1997).Excessive nutrients, the physical and chemicalnature of the Baltic Sea and its topographyare responsible for the eutrophication ob-served in this catchment area. The Baltic Seastates decided in 1988 to reduce nutrients,heavy metals and POPs by 50% by 1995compared with the mid 1980s, to decrease thepressure of eutrophication effects in thecoastal zones. Eutrophication affects almostall areas of the Baltic Sea and represents oneof the main issues of concern for the marineenvironment (Fig 3.14.8). The frequency andspatial coverage of phyto-plankton blooms,especially cyano-bacteria, has increased due tothe increase in nutrient concentrations, butalso to changes in the seasonal availability andrelative proportions of nutrients (HELCOM,1996).

The blooms of harmful algae have resultedin losses to the fish farming industry, deathof fishes and sea birds from poisoning, andalso some damage to human health. Periodsof oxygen depletion have increased, espe-cially in the south-western parts (HELCOM,1996). Contradictory trends of heavy metalsconcentration in sea water and biota havebeen observed (HELCOM, 1998), possiblydue to inadequacies in the load data.

Discharges of organo-halogen compoundsfrom pulp industry are reported to havebeen reduced by nearly 90% since 1987. Aclear long-term decrease in concentrationsof PCBs, DDT’s, HCH and HCB has beenobserved from the early 1970s to the early1990s, nevertheless, they are still severaltimes higher than in the open North Sea andthe Atlantic Ocean (HELCOM, 1996 and1998). Although organo-chlorine levels arestill very high in Baltic seals, measures takenby the Baltic Sea States have arrested adecline in seal populations and the totalnumber of grey seals has increased consider-ably in the northern parts of the Baltic Seasince the mid 1980s (HELCOM, 1998).

3.5. Mediterranean SeaThe population in the Mediterraneancatchment area is currently 129 millioninhabitants, with an increasing trend(UNEP-MAP/Blue Plan, 1998). The increas-ing pressure due to the resident populationis exacerbated by the seasonal variation dueto tourism (Map 3.14.4). These pressures

Figure 3.14.8Abundant bleu-green algae(cyano bacteria) in the Baltic Sea

Source: Finnish Institue ofMaritime Research, 1997


give rise to deterioration in the geomorpho-logical patterns of the coastal strip leading tochanges in natural processes, such as move-ment of dunes. Consequently, around one-fifth of the Mediterranean coast is estimatedto be subject to coastal erosion (CorineCoastal Erosion Atlas, 1998).

The overall environmental task and theneed to address tourism specifically is huge.It is estimated that the tideless Mediterra-nean, the principal natural resource forleisure tourism, was being treated as a sinkin the mid-1990s for some (Blue Plan,1998):

• 10 billion tonnes of industrial and urbanwaste (including sewage) dumpedannually – of which only a very smallproportion receives even primary treat-ment before discharge (90% of munici-pal wastes in the whole basin is stilluntreated).

• Over 70 rivers which drain into theMediterranean and, at the end of thiscentury, many are still virtually openpipelines for industrial, agricultural andhuman effluent.

• 1 million tonnes of crude oil dumped byall activities, and a major risk factor inthe Sea of Marmara for tankers enteringand leaving the Black Sea oil terminals.

• 60 000 tonnes of detergents, 100 tonnesof mercury.

• 3 600 tonnes of phosphates.• Sewage and agricultural run off leading

to eutrophication which routinelycreates red tides and algal blooms thatdisrupt the ecosystems of the area.

Concentrations of hydrocarbons in waterand on beaches have increased in recentyears. Values of 0-5 µg/l of hydrocarbons

have been measured in open waters and over10 µg/l near the shore, the latter causedmainly by point sources in the shore line andillegal discharges.

The presence of heavy metals does notappear to be a major environmental prob-lem for the Mediterranean Sea (EEA/UNEP-MAP, in press). The contribution fromindustry is small compared with otherindustrialised regions; other main sources ofheavy metals are natural geo-chemicaloccurrences, agriculture, and urban pollu-tion. The same conclusion is valid for PCBs –with the exception of ‘hot spot’ sediments –with the difference that most of these sub-stances are no longer used in the Mediterra-nean industry and agriculture.

Eutrophication, resulting in phytoplanktonblooms, mainly occurs locally and in placesin the Adriatic, the Gulf of Lion and thenorthern Aegean (EEA, 1998, p. 214).Microbial contamination is mainly related tourban waste water and represents a potentialrisk for human health especially through theconsumption of uncontrolled shellfish food.The situation has been mitigated by theinstallation of urban waste-water treatmentplants along EU Mediterranean countriesand the demand for good water quality fromthe tourism industry has pushed also othercountries to pay an increasing attention tothis problem; nevertheless, about 60% ofmunicipal sewage is still untreated (EEA/UNEP-MAP, in press).

Energy comes mainly from conventional oiland gas and, as this area exhibits highseismic activity (EEA/UNEP-MAP, in press),construction of nuclear plants in the Medi-terranean basin should be generallyavoided.

During the past five years 70 Institutions and 250scientists from 14 countries have cooperated toproduce important scientific results illustrating thechange in the functioning of the Mediterraneanecosystems:

• The temperature of deep waters in theWestern Mediterranean had increased by0.13oC over the past 40 years (3.2. 10-3o C/y).

• Evidence for climatic changes were alsodetected in the deep-water masses of theeastern Mediterranean basin.

• Increases in nutrient discharges (phosphateand nitrate) were documented from deepwater measurements.

• MTP results supports strongly the hypothesisof phosphorus limitation for phytoplanktongrowth in the northwestern Mediterranean.

• Lead concentrations in surface watersdecreased in the early 1990s following theapplication of European regulations relating toleaded gasoline.

• The southern Aegean Sea is one of the mostoligotrophic areas of the world. Importantchanges were also observed (nutrientenrichment connected water massesmovement from the Cretan Sea), having adirect effect on the biology of the region.

Source:Interdisciplinary Research in the Mediterranean Sea, 1997

Box 3.14.2 The changing marine environment of the Mediterranean:The Mediterranean Targeted project (MTP).


3.6. Black SeaThe catchment area of the Black Sea, which isover 2 million km2 – that is five times the sizeof the actual sea – covers (wholly or in part)22 countries in Europe and Asia Minor with175 million inhabitants. The largest volumeof river flow entering the Black Sea comesfrom the north-western part of the basin(important rivers being the Danube, Dneper,Dnester) and from the Caucasus, Turkey andthe Bulgarian and Romanian coasts. In thelast 30 years the Black Sea has increasinglyattracted the attention of scientists, govern-ments and the public at large as a regionsuffering ecological deterioration. As theresult of past geological events, its morphom-etry and specific water balance, nearly 87% ofthe Black Sea water volume is anoxic andcontains high levels of hydrogen sulphide(Fig 3.14.9). Between 1973 and 1990, asmineral and nutrient concentrations in-creased in flows from rivers including theDanube, Dneper, Dnester, 60 million tons ofbottom living animals (including 5 000 tonsof fish), were found dead in the Black Sea(GEF/BSEP, 1997). The recent eutrophica-tion caused by a heavy anthropogenic nutri-ent load has resulted in severe stress, even inthe oxygenated area (13% of the Black Sea’svolume) which consists mostly of shallowsurface water. Future projections indicate thatthe Black Sea will remain the worst affectedarea for eutrophication in Europe in 2010(European Commission, 1999).

Little is known about heavy metals in theBlack Sea (GEF/BSEP, 1997). Informationon pesticides is also scarce, although levelsup to 200-300ng/l total organo-chlorinepesticides have been reported in the river

Don and 5ng/l in the open Black Sea. ‘Hotspots’ of phenol in the water have beenreported in the Odessa area and in othernorthern coastal areas (GEF/BSEP, 1997).

Due to its connection with the Mediterra-nean, the Black Sea consists of two generalcategories of flora and fauna: Mediterraneanimmigrants and Caspian relics. ThirteenMediterranean and other exotic species havepenetrated either through ballast waters andas fouling organisms on ship hulls (Tiganus,1997). Another 13 species have been inten-tionally introduced. The most urgent and

Frequency of tourismin the Mediterranean

region duringsummer season

0 500 km

900 – 1100

600 – 900

300 – 600

150 – 300less than 150

Estimated number of tourist(thousands) for 1990's

Map 3.14.4

Source: Blue Plan

TyrrhenianSea

I o n i a nS e a

M e d i t er r a n e a n S e a

Adriat ic Sea

Aegean

Sea

B l a c k S e a

0˚ 10˚ 20˚ 30˚

30˚

40˚

40˚30˚20˚10˚0˚10˚

40˚

30˚

S P A I N

F R A N C E I T A L Y

M O R O C C O

A L G E R I A

TUNISIA

L I B I A E G Y P T

T U R K E Y

SYRIA

LEBANON

ISRAEL

CYPRUS

GREECE

ALBANIA

FEDERAL

REPUBLIC

of YUGOSLAVIA

BOSNIA-

HERZEGOVINA

CROATIASLOVENIA

Corsica

SardiniaMenorca

MallorcaIbiza

Sicily

Crete

Rhodes

Chios

Lesbos

Expansion of seasonalhypoxic and anoxiczones on the north-

-western shelf

hypoxis and anoxis zones

0 250 km

Figure 3.14.9

Source: from Zaitsev, 1992

Prut

Buh

Kuban

Kizi

lirm

ak

Danube

Prut

Buh

Kuban

Kizi

lirm

ak

Danube

B l a c k S e a

Sea of

Azov

Sea ofMarmara

B l a c k S e a

Sea of

Azov

Sea ofMarmara

30˚ 40˚

40˚

40˚ 30˚ 40˚

30˚ 40˚

40˚

40˚ 30˚ 40˚

1973

1990


most prominent example of the impact ofexotic species in the Black Sea environmentis that of Mnemiopsis leidyi (GESAMP, 1997).

4. What is the policy response for coastal and marine zones?

4.1. Marine – still a fragmented approach but with progressMany of the policy developments in recentdecades have been focused on the quality ofthe marine environment rather than on thefactors influencing coastal zones. Thetransboundary characteristics of most of theenvironmental problems and the need forregional strategies and international coope-ration have fostered the establishment ofRegional Conventions, which now cover allthe seas that are of direct concern to EUcountries. The purpose of these Conven-tions is to assess the quality of the marineenvironment and its trend, and to definestrategies for its protection, using appropri-ate scientific and management tools (Table3.14.3).

At the EU level, environmental legislationrelated to the marine and coastal environ-ment deals primarily with marine waterquality and inputs of contaminants, and to alesser degree with the protection of marineand coastal habitats. The objectives andresults of implementation of EU Legislationare summarised in Table 3.14.4. The imple-mentation of EU Directives varies betweenMember States.

The assessment approach for most of the EUDirectives, based on monitoring the chemicaldeterminants of water quality, requires themonitoring of a large and growing number ofcontaminants. This has placed an overwhel-ming and unnecessary (and expensive)burden on the regulatory authorities, whohave to monitor a large and growing numberof contaminants. At the same time effects ofnew contaminants are being missed, until theyhave a significant impact in the environment.

The Bathing Water Directive is arguably themost successfully implemented of all EUenvironmental legislation related to water

Table 3.14.3 Regional Conventions for European waters

Signatories states

Belgium, Denmark,the EuropeanUnion, Finland,France, Germany,Iceland, Ireland,Norway, theNetherlands,Portugal, Spain,Sweden, UK,Luxembourg andSwitzerland.

Czech Republic,Denmark, Estonia,the EuropeanUnion, Finland,Germany, Latvia,Lithuania, Norway,Poland, Russia andSweden.

Albania, Algeria,Bosnia andHergegovina,Croatia, Cyprus,Egypt, theEuropean Union,France, Greece,Italy, Israel,Lebanon, Libya,Malta Morocco,Slovenia, Spain,Syria, Tunisia,Turkey

Bulgaria, Georgia,Romania, Russia,Turkey, Ukraine

Area covered

North-EastAtlantic

Baltic Sea andBaltic catchmentarea

MediterraneanSea

Black Sea

Objective

Prevention andelimination ofpollution of themarineenvironment inthe North-EastAtlantic, fromland-basedsources and bydumping fromships and aircraft.

Protection of themarineEnvironment

Protection of theMarineEnvironment andthe CoastalRegion

Protection ofBlack Sea againstpollution

Programmes

JAMP (JointAsessment andMonitoringProgramme)NutrientMonitoringProgramme

COMBINE(JointComprehensiveEnvironmentalActionProgramme ofthe Baltic Sea)

MAP,(MediterraneanAction Plan)

BSEP (BlackSeaEnvironmentProgramme)

Main problems

No obligatoryreporting

No obligatoryreporting

Different paceof the EU andnon-EUcountries

Lack ofresources

OSPARCOM1992

(Oslo ,1972 andParis ,1974)

HELCOMHelsinkiConvention 1974-1992

Barcelona, 1975-1995

BucharestConvention 1992


* will be incorporated in the proposed Water Quality Framework Directive (COM (97)49)

Directive

76/160/EEC, BathingWater

*76/464/EEC,Dangerous Substances

* 78/659/EEC Fishwater, amended by 90/656/ECC and 91/692/EEC

* 79/923/EEC, ShellfishWaters

* 80/68/EEC –Groundwateramended by 90/656/ECC and 91/692/EEC

82/176/EEC, TheMercury Discharges

Objective

Achieving/maintaining good bathingwater quality as defined by a set ofparametric values. Monitoring bathingwater quality. Publication of monitoringresults.

Dangerous substances to be eliminatedand the groups of dangerous substancesto be reduced from community waters.

Water Quality for fish.

Quality of shellfish waters.

Prevention of groundwater pollutioncaused by certain dangeroussubstances.

Main results of implementation

Due to increasing number of urban waste-water treatment plants, encouragingresults. Certain problems still remain withinland waters.

Proper implementation; however, scope ofwaters covered is rather limited.



Based on values Europe-wide.

Table 3.14.4EU Environmental Directives related to coastal zones and marine waters, and their objective

(see Figure 3.14.10). In 1997, more than90% of EU bathing waters complied with theDirective’s minimum quality requirements,leading to substantial environmental im-provements for bathers and other recrea-tional users in coastal areas. Measures toimprove the bathing water quality haveincluded increasing and improving ad-vanced sewage treatment and the applicationof cleaner technology in industry, as well as amajor control of deliberate and accidentaldisposal of waste and discharge of pollutants.

The proposed Water Framework Directive(see Chapter 3.5) is in line with the conceptof integrated coastal zone management(ICZM) as it considers the entire river basinas the unit for the management of water andis designed to protect and enhance thequality of aquatic ecosystems. More EUDirectives should follow this line of integra-tion in the future.

4.2. Coastal zone management – sustainability still some way offThe lack of an effective integrated catch-ment and coastal zone management (CZM)has been recognised to be responsible of thedegradation of coastal and marine environ-ment. This lack of co-ordination not onlyconcerns the horizontal relations betweensectors of activity, but also the intermeshingof the policies and actions carried out atvarious levels of territorial Authority (local,regional, national or European). The

integrated approach to CZM is still missingfrom most of the legislation at National levelwhere a sectoral approach still dominates.Key areas of action for ICZM are environ-mental impact assessment, coastal landplanning, habitat management and pollu-tion control. Public awareness and participa-tion are crosscutting themes in every coastalmanagement effort and need special empha-

Finland

BelgiumDenmark

FranceGermanyGreeceIrelandItalyNetherlandsPortugalSpainSwedenUnited Kingdom

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

X X X X

X X X X XX

00-2020-40

40-6060-7070-80

80-9090-99100

% of beaches in compliance

X No data recorded

The situation after the longimplementation period isstill improving, althoughresults do not showconsistency within theMember States.

Source: EuropeanCommission, DG XI

Figure 3.14.10Bathing Water Directive compliance in EU countriesduring 1991-97 (percentage of beaches complyingwith at least the mandatory values of the Directive


sis. Examples of good ICZM in the Nether-lands, Poland and the United States, areshown in Box 3.14.3.

The need for better management of coastalzones has stimulated a growth of interest inICZM at the EU level, especially in the lastdecade, and has led to political commit-ments and numerous measures, even thoughthe tentative to launch an EU frameworkdirective on ICZM was unsuccessful.

The current EU ‘Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement Demonstration Programme’ isa response to Council’s request in 1992 forthe overall Community strategy on inte-grated coastal zone management. It is a jointinitiative of DG XI, DGXIV and DGXVIconsisting in 35 projects, which, for thegeographical distribution and range ofproblems encountered, represent thediversity of the ecological, economic andsocial situations of the European coastalzones. The Programme aims to:

• provide concrete technical informa-tion about the factors and mechanisms,

The coastline of Cyprus is 784 km long. Sensitivecoastal areas include sand-dune systems, banks ofshingle, cliffs, and coastal wetlands, all of which aresubject to intense pressure. Coastal ecosystemsprovide habitats for flora and fauna such as theseagrass Posidonia oceanica beds and sea turtlenesting areas. Sea turtles have been protected byCyprus law since 1972. A turtle hatchery at Lara(beach area on the Akamas Peninsula), the only oneof its kind in the Mediterranean managed underdetailed regulations, has been in operation since1978. This project was set up by the Government,partly financed by the EC´s MEDSPA project. Thehatchery is a success and the Department ofFisheries releases into the sea approximately 6.000hatchlings a year. The Lara beach area is protectedby various specific measures for the period June toSeptember. Regular sightings of the rare Mediterra-nean monk seal (Monachus monachus) have beenreported in past years, but no breeding has takenplace and it is uncertain whether monk seals havedisappeared entirely from the Cyprus coastline.

As is the case with the rest of the East Mediterra-nean, the coastal areas of Cyprus are not rich inmarine life. The lack of marine life is mainly due tothe relative isolation of the Mediterranean Sea andits oligotrophic nature, rendering it more vul-nerable to small inputs of nutrients and pollution.

Monitoring for tar on beaches and dissolved hydro-carbons in the sea water is carried out through theMEDPOL Programme. No port reception facilitiesfor bilge or ballast waters exist in Cyprus, althoughregulations on their establishment and operationhave been recently prepared. An oil-pollution

combating unit is in place, a national oil spillContingency Plan has been implemented and sub-regional oil combating arrangements have beenestablished with Egypt and Israel, with EU support.

Under the Fisheries Regulations, standards havebeen adopted for substances in effluent and theenvironmental quality of recipient sea waters. Thereare also prohibitions on the disposal of lubricatingand other oils and in the use of organotin-basedanti-fouling paints in the marine environment. Itshould be mentioned that the greatest part of themarine waters of Cyprus is of very high quality andsea pollution problems are highly localised.

Tourism industry represents 18% of the CyprusGDP. Up to 80% of foreign tourists visit the coast ofCyprus. Hence the pressure in coastal areas ofCyprus is growing and the fragile ecosystems aresubjected to increasing misuse and over-exploitation. Tourist infrastructure development,urban expansion, industrial and port development,and road infrastructure development add to thepressures. Direct threats to the systems includelocalised domestic pollution, agricultural inputs,and, to a lesser degree, industrial and oil pollution.Excessive strip development along coastal areashas raised concerns that the carrying capacity ofseveral coastal areas may already have beenexceeded.

In addition, several other specific problems are alsoimpinging on the well-being of species andecosystems. These are: petroleum pollution anddevelopment of artificial beaches (breakwaters);aquaculture. In order to minimise local effects,aquaculture is now carried out ‘offshore’.

Box 3.14.3 Marine and coastal environment in Cyprus: reasons for concern

which either encourage or discouragesustainable management of coastal zonesand,

• stimulate a broad debate and exchangeof information among the various actorsinvolved in the planning and implemen-tation of coastal zone management,including those at the local, regional,national and European levels.

The results of the ‘The Integrated CoastalZone Management Demonstration Pro-gramme’ and the initiative of the FrameworkDirective for Water should provide concreteexamples on how to tackle the coastal zonemanagement issues as they occur in theMember States. However, although the EUmight have a role in leading and co-ordinating the approaches to ICZM, deci-sions on management and implementationshould be made locally, regionally or nation-ally (see Box 3.14.4 & 3.14.5). Only bymaximising experiences and expertise at thelocal level and allocating budgets to projectswhich promote environmentally, economi-cally and socially sustainable managementcan ICZM achieve the desired results.


The natural environmentThe Wadden Sea is an area very special and rich inwildlife shared between the Netherlands, Germanyand Denmark. The landscape is characterised by ashifting pattern of submerged and exposed tidalflats, sandy beaches and dunes, low-lying saltmarshes, sand and sediment, fresh and salt water,nutrient-poor saline soils in the islands, but alsowoods and grassland area. These varied conditionsmake the Wadden Sea an ideal habitat for flora andfauna: it is the most important area for waterfowl inNorth West Europe and the habitat for the largestpopulation of common seals in the North Sea.

Human intervention ...Many features of the landscape have been createdover time by human intervention: for centuriespeople living along the coasts have practised small-scale land reclamation; a fair amount of land aroundthe Wadden Sea has been recovered in the pastwith consequent reduction of salt marshes; theconstruction of dikes and embankments has createdsharp divisions between areas of salt and freshwaters. These fixed constructions hamper thenatural adaptability of the system to sea level riseand bottom subsidence and have reduced naturalsalt-fresh transitions.

... and activitiesFishery has always been an important activity: bluemussels are fished from the channels and the tidalflats, and used mainly as ‘seed material’ for musselculture. Mainly in the Netherlands cockles aredredged from the flats. The deeper channels aretrawled for shrimps. In years with low shellfishstocks food shortage for birds has occurred. Thereare strong indications that shellfish fisheries havebeen an important factor in the decline of maturemussel beds.

Beneath the bed of the Wadden Sea natural gasand oil are extracted and exploration licences for

new gas fields are being negotiated. Due to theunique natural environment, hundreds of thousandsof tourists visit the area, representing the majoreconomic resource, but also a potential disturbanceto wildlife and environment. In addition to maritimeand air traffic, military activities take place in thearea. Finally, the Wadden Sea receives thepollutants loads of several major rivers, includingthe Elbe and the Rhine.

‘Management plan for the Wadden Sea’The Dutch, Danish and German governments arekeen to preserve the natural environment of theWadden Sea, but unwilling to exclude people fromthe area. Already since 1978 a political cooperationframework between the three states is in operation.This has resulted in 1997 in the adoption of theWadden Sea Plan (WSP) in which the accumulatedagreements of the previous two decades have beenintegrated according to a catalogue of commonTargets. The Targets aim at the conservation,restoration and development of all the out standingecological features, through active intervention andthrough the regulation of those activities which canrepresent threats to the environment. Two examples:The Target ‘to increase the area of wild mussel beds’has guided blue mussel fisheries in such a way that inprinciple no fisheries will take place on the tidal flats,providing chances for wild mussel beds to recoverand guaranteeing food supply for birds. Also areashave been designated where mussel fishery isexcluded. The Target ‘to increase the naturalness ofsalt marshes’ stimulates the reduction of artificialdrainage and intensive grazing.

The Wadden Sea Plan invites all stakeholders toparticipate in discussing the way in which the Targetscan be implemented. The open-end nature of theTargets leave sufficient room for such a dialogue.The results will be used in the process of evaluatingthe Plan in the period up till 2001, the year in whichthe next intergovernmental conference is due.

Box 3.14.5 Management plan for the Wadden Sea: how to preserve a unique environment withoutexcluding people from the area

Box 3.14.4 Examples of Coastal Zone Management

In the Netherlands the concept of restoringresilience of the coastal zone was launched in 1996during public forums of major actors/stakeholdersfrom the governmental, business, academic andnature conservation communities. Increasingnatural resilience by restoring the strength of thebuffer capabilities of the coastal areas is seen as aresponse to the increasing pressure of urbanisedpopulation and as an anticipation to the impacts ofclimate change, such as accelerated sea-level rise.The essence of this concept is to provide morespace for dynamic coastal development in thedifferent coastal compartments (dunes, coastal sea,urban waterland etc.) through drastically revisingthe water and sediment regimes and integratingthe different functional uses of the coastal zone,land in water and water in land.

In Poland, by the 1991 Coastal Act, a coastal beltwas established, consisting of a technical belt and aprotective belt. Since 1996 effective mechanismsand co-ordinating activities were functioning.Especially in Poland, with its rapidly increasingeconomic development, the key issue in ICZMplans is the balance between natural dynamics and

the pressure from economic and urban develop-ment. Finding this balance requires strong verticaland horizontal integration: co-operation betweenall responsible actors at different levels of govern-ment and different sectors of the economy and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs). Since March1997 three Regional ICZM consultative bodies havebeen installed in which representatives of all levelsof government, science, industry, NGOs and land-owners participate. They stimulate co-ordination ofactivities in the coastal zone by initiating prepara-tion of ICZM plans within the coastal ‘voivodships’(‘provinces’).

The United States recognised the desirability ofdiversity. The US Coastal Zone Management Act1972 sets out the basic objectives of ICZM, andrequires American States to draw up coastalmanagement programmes that will meet thoseobjectives. However, it leaves each State free tochoose its own methods, and consequently eachhas devised its own system. There is no necessityfor each coastal State to have an identical system ofICZM, provided that the methods they adopt workand are capable of operating in harmony for thebenefit of the coastal zone as a whole.


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