319 NQU Mojt

A STUDY OF STUDENT P R E F E R E N C E FOR A L E C T U R E - T E S T

VERSUS A LECTURE-CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT

LEARNING APPROACH

DISSERTATION

P r e s e n t e d to the Graduate Counci l of the

Nor th Texas State Unive r s i ty in P a r t i a l

Fu l f i l lmen t of the R e q u i r e m e n t s

F o r the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

By

Rober t W. Rowland, B . S , , M.S .

Denton, T e x a s

August 1976

Rowland , R o b e r t W. , A Study of S tudent P r e f e r e n c e f o r a

L e c t u r e - T e s t V e r s u s a. L e c t u r e - C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t L e a r n i n g

A p p r o a c h , D o c t o r of E d u c a t i o n (Col lege T e a c h i n g ) , Augus t , 1976,

161 p p . , 8 t a b l e s , b i b l i o g r a p h y , 77 t i t l e s .

T h e p r o b l e m of t h i s s tudy was t o d e t e r m i n e the d i f f e r e n c e s

on s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h and t h o s e who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e wi th both l e a r n i n g s y s t e m s in an

i n t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o l o g y c o u r s e .

T h e p u r p o s e s w e r e (1) t o c o m p a r e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s of self concep t and r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c i e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who

s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t and t h o s e who s e l e c t a

l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h ; (2) t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t on a c a -

d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t of p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t v e r s u s a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h ; and (3) t o c o m p a r e

age , g r a d e point a v e r a g e , and p r e v i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e

b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who c h o o s e a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t and

t h o s e who c h o o s e a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e

wi th bo th a p p r o a c h e s of s t u d e n t s in an i n t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o l o g y c o u r s e

in a m e t r o p o l i t a n c o m m u n i t y c o l l e g e .

H y p o t h e s e s One and T w o p r e d i c t e d t ha t t h e r e would be a

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the m e a n s c o r e s on the T e n n e s s e e Self

Concep t Sca l e and t h e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l L o c u s of C o n t r o l S c a l e of

s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t and t h o s e

who p r e f e r t he l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h - A t t e s t i n d i c a t e d no

s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d in e i t h e r h y p o t h e s i s . T h e s e two

h y p o t h e s e s w e r e r e j e c t e d .

T o d e t e r m i n e a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t , an a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t

w a s c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e va l i d i t y of t h e i n s t r u m e n t w a s d e t e r m i n e d by

f ive j u d g e s . T h e r e l i a b i l i t y was d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h a t e s t - r e t e s t

p r o c e d u r e .

H y p o t h e s e s T h r e e , F o u r , F i v e , and Six sought t o c o m p a r e

the e f f e c t on a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t of p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l e c t u r e - t e s t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h r a t h e r t h a n a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h . An a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s on p r e f e r e n c e and l e a r n i n g m o d e . T h e

h y p o t h e s e s w e r e r e j e c t e d .

H y p o t h e s e s Seven , E igh t , and Nine sought t o d e t e r m i n e d i f -

f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of (1) c u m u l a t i v e m e a n g r a d e point a v e r a g e s

f o r p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s , (2) n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s

c o m p l e t e d at a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y l eve l , and y e a r s of a g e . A t t e s t

i n d i c a t e d no s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s on v a r i a b l e s

(1) and (2). H y p o t h e s e s Seven and E igh t w e r e r e j e c t e d . T h e t

t e s t on p r e f e r e n c e and y e a r s of age r e a c h e d s i g n i f i c a n c e at t h e p =

. 05 l e v e l ; t h u s H y p o t h e s i s Nine w a s a c c e p t e d .

B a s e d on t h e f i nd ings of t h i s s t udy it w a s conc luded t h a t t h e

T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e and the I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l L o c u s of

C o n t r o l S c a l e a r e i n e f f e c t i v e in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who

p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t and t h o s e who p r e f e r a

l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

It w a s a l s o conc luded t h a t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h is i n e f f e c t i v e in f a c i l i t a t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r

a c h i e v e m e n t ga ins t h a n is a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h r e g a r d l e s s

of p r e f e r e n c e ; and c u m u l a t i v e m e a n g r a d e poin t a v e r a g e and n u m b e r of

s e m e s t e r h o u r s at a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y l e v e l a r e i n e f f e c t i v e in d i s t i n -

gu i sh ing b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t or a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h . Age w a s found t o be the

only m e a s u r e d v a r i a b l e e f f e c t i v e f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h and t h o s e

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h .

It was r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h in c h a n g e s of

self c o n c e p t and r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c i e s d u r i n g a p r e f e r r e d and n o n -

p r e f e r r e d l e a r n i n g f o r m a t b e i n i t i a t e d and t h a t a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h

i s n e e d e d t o a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t s of p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S

P a g e

LIST O F T A B L E S V

C h a p t e r

I. P R O B L E M 1

I n t r o d u c t i o n S t a t e m e n t of t he P r o b l e m P u r p o s e s of t h e Study-B a c k g r o u n d and S i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e Study-H y p o t h e s e s S e l e c t i o n of t h e S a m p l e Def in i t ion of T e r m s L i m i t a t i o n s P r o c e d u r e f o r Co l l ec t i on of Data P r o c e d u r e f o r A n a l y s i s of Data D e s c r i p t i o n of t he I n s t r u m e n t s

II. SURVEY O F R E L A T E D L I T E R A T U R E 20

Con t ingency M a n a g e m e n t and A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t

Self Concep t and A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t L o c u s of C o n t r o l and A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t S y n t h e s i s of R e l a t e d L i t e r a t u r e

III. M E T H O D 47

D e s c r i p t i o n of M e a s u r i n g I n s t r u m e n t P r o c e d u r e in t he D e v e l o p m e n t of t he

A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t P r o c e d u r e f o r Co l l e c t i on of Da ta P r o c e d u r e f o r A n a l y s i s of D a t a

i n

P a g e

IV. R E S U L T S AND DISCUSSION 61

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 78

S u m m a r y T h e P r o b l e m T h e H y p o t h e s e s T h e Method S u m m a r y of F i n d i n g s C o n c l u s i o n s R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

A P P E N D I X 89

A. Sy l l abus B. C h a p t e r and Unit T e s t M a t e r i a l s , P h a s e III C. F i n a l A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t

B IBLIOGRAPHY 154

IV

LIST O F T A B L E S

T &blc P a g e

I. N u m b e r s , M e a n s , a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of C o m p o s i t e S c o r e s on t h e T e n n e s s e e Se l f C o n c e p t Sca l e b e t w e e n S t u d e n t s W h o S e l e c t e d t h e L e c t u r e -C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e L e c t u r e - T e s t L e a r n i n g A p p r o a c h .. 63

II . N u m b e r s , M e a n s , a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of I . E . S c a l e S c o r e s b e t w e e n S t u d e n t s W h o S e l e c t e d t h e L e c t u r e - C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t and t h e L e c t u r e - T e s t L e a r n i n g A p p r o a c h 64

III . N u m b e r s , M e a n s , and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of P r e -and P o s t - A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t S c o r e s b y L e a r n i n g M e t h o d R e c e i v e d 66

IV. N u m b e r s , M e a n s , and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t G a i n S c o r e s b e t w e e n L e a r n i n g A p p r o a c h a n d S e l e c t - R e c e i v i n g , S e l e c t - N o t R e c e i v i n g 68

V. A n a l y s i s of V a r i a n c e of A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t G a i n S c o r e s b e t w e e n L e a r n i n g A p p r o a c h a n d S e l e c t -R e c e i v i n g and S e l e c t - N o t R e c e i v i n g 69

VI. M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of C u m u l a t i v e M e a n G r a d e P o i n t A v e r a g e s f o r P o s t -S e c o n d a r y C o u r s e s b e t w e e n S t u d e n t s W h o S e l e c t t h e L e c t u r e - C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e L e c t u r e - T e s t L e a r n i n g A p p r o a c h 72

VI I . N u m b e r s , M e a n s , a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of C u m u l a t i v e N u m b e r of S e m e s t e r H o u r s C o m p l e t e d a t a P o s t - S e c o n d a r y L e v e l of S t u d e n t s W h o S e l e c t e d L e c t u r e - C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t a n d L e c t u r e - T e s t 75

T able P a g e

VIII. M e a n s and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s on Age of S tuden t s Who S e l e c t a L e c t u r e - C o n t i n g e n c y -M a n a g e m e n t and L e c t u r e - T e s t L e a r n i n g A p p r o a c h 76

VI

C H A P T E R I

P R O B L E M

I n t r o d u c t i o n

In r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e h a s b e e n m o u n t i n g e v i d e n c e in f a v o r

of t h e i n c r e a s e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s of b e h a v i o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n o v e r a

s t a n d a r d l e c t u r e m e t h o d (2, 11, 14, 22) . R e l a t i v e l y few a t t e m p t s ,

h o w e v e r , have b e e n m a d e t o apply b e h a v i o r a l p r i n c i p l e s t o a co l l ege

popu la t ion (10).

At t h e s a m e t i m e , c o n s i d e r a b l e l i t e r a t u r e e x i s t s s u r r o u n d -

ing the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of p e r s o n a l i t y and e d u c a -

t ion . W i l s o n and T o s t i s t a t e in t h e i r book on i n d i v i d u a l i z e d i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l s y s t e m s t h a t " the e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m shou ld be a s r e s p o n s i v e

a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e n e e d s of e a c h ind iv idua l s t u d e n t " (25, p. x) .

S e l f - c o n c e p t , as an a s p e c t of p e r s o n a l i t y , h a s been found t o

be an i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e in e d u c a t i o n (1, 7, 16, 24) . S e v e r a l

s t u d i e s have s u g g e s t e d t h a t peop le wi th h igh se l f e s t e e m h a v e g r e a t e r

p o t e n t i a l f o r the f e e l i n g of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e i r own e n v i r o n m e n t (5, 27) .

One m e t h o d of a s s e s s i n g f e e l i n g s of a d e q u a c y in c o n t r o l l i n g t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t h a s b e e n deve loped by R o t t e r in h i s s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y

and h a s r e s u l t e d in t h e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l L o c u s of C o n t r o l S c a l e

( I . E . Sca l e ) (18).

R o t t e r in h i s s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y d e s c r i b e d t h e I . E . C o n -

cep t in l e a r n i n g t h e o r y t e r m s (18). T h e ex t en t to w h i c h r e i n f o r c e r s

a r e r e l a t e d t o p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r i s v i e w e d in t e r m s of locus of c o n -

t r o l (18). T h o s e who a r e i n t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d , in R o t t e r ' s t h e o r y ,

t e n d to b e l i e v e t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t is con t ingen t upon t h e i r own

b e h a v i o r (15). N u m e r o u s s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l

locus of c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e is r e l a t e d t o a c h i e v e m e n t (4, 18, 20, 21).

A c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h can be d r a w n f r o m s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e l i t e r a -

t u r e on the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l i t y and e d u c a t i o n and the

l i t e r a t u r e on l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s s u g g e s t s t h a t self concep t and

r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c i e s a r e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s in r e g a r d t o a c h i e v e -

m e n t . A knowledge of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a s p e c t s of p e r s o n a l i t y

and l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h m a y be i m p o r t a n t in p r e d i c t i n g a c a d e m i c s u c -

ce s s .

S t a t e m e n t of t h e P r o b l e m

T h e p r o b l e m of t h i s s tudy w a s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

on s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - t e s t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h o s e who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n -

a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e w i th both l e a r n i n g s y s t e m s .

P u r p o s e s of the Study

T h e s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e s of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e

1. T o c o m p a r e t h e se l f concep t of s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a

l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h wi th t h a t of

s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h ;

2. T o c o m p a r e t h e s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

i n t e r n a l - v e r s u s e x t e r n a l - r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c i e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who

s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h o s e

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c i n g both

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s ;

3. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t on a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e of a

p r e f e r r e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e wi th an a l t e r n a t i v e l e a r n -

ing app roach ;

4. T o d e t e r m i n e the e f f e c t on a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e of

r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n by one l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h w h e n a s t a t e d p r e f e r -

e n c e f o r a n o t h e r l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n m a d e ;

5. T o c o m p a r e co l l ege s t u d e n t s who c h o o s e t h e l e c t u r e -

c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a n d t h o s e who c h o o s e t h e

l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p o s u r e t o both l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s wi th

r e f e r e n c e to t h e v a r i a b l e s of a g e , c u m u l a t i v e g r a d e - p o i n t a v e r a g e ,

and p r e v i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e .

Background and Signif icance of Study

The advantages of a b e h a v i o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l app roach in

t each ing have been subs tan t i a ted th rough the f indings of Born , Stephen,

and Davis (2), McMichae l and Cory (14), M o r r i s and K i m b r e l (6),

and o t h e r s . It has gene ra l l y been found that s tudents exposed to the

behav io r a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l app roach s c o r e s ign i f ican t ly h igher on f i na l

examina t ions than do s tudents exposed to t r a d i t i o n a l t each ing t e c h -

niques . Though they r e p o r t an i n c r e a s e d work load in the b e h a v i o r -

ally taught c l a s s e s , s tudents gene ra l ly r e p o r t a f a v o r a b l e a t t i tude

toward the c o u r s e .

Though s tudents exposed to a b e h a v i o r a l app roach to t each ing

r e p o r t liking the approach and p e r f o r m be t t e r on f i na l examina t ions ,

s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s have r e p o r t e d tha t a high pe r cen t age of s tudents

do not comple te t h e i r a s s i g n m e n t s (11, 13, 22). Such s tudies have

used a r andom a s s i g n m e n t of s tudents into the sec t ions ut i l iz ing a

behav io ra l approach , and it is conceivable that s o m e s tudents a s s igned

to a b e h a v i o r a l app roach did not like the app roach and would not have

en t e r ed into it had another option been ava i l ab le .

The r e s e a r c h into self concept and academic p e r f o r m a n c e

sugges t s that s tudents wi th low self concepts tend to r e l y m o r e heavi ly

on the opinions of o t h e r s , con fo rm to g roup c r i t i c i s m , and do not

r ead i ly engage in independent work (9). Other r e s e a r c h e r s have

have found d i f f e r e n c e s in need ach ievement be tween t h o s e s tudents

who p r e f e r r e d an independent s tudy group and those who p r e f e r r e d a

r e g u l a r d i s c u s s i o n group (1). Wylie found that s tudents with low self

e s t e e m tend to use the de fense m e c h a n i s m of p ro j ec t ion m o r e often and

a r e l e s s a c c u r a t e in t h e i r pe rcep t ion of t h r e a t e n i n g s t i m u l i than a r e

s tudents with high self e s t e e m (26). Tha t self concept is a f f ec t ed by

f eedback has been suppor ted by Gre tz and Engle (8), who found tha t

in the beginning s t ages of educat ion s tuden t s ' self concept is m o r e

a f f ec t ed by evaluat ion feedback than it is in the l a t e r s t a g e s .

R o t t e r ' s I . E . Scale has been found to be an impor t an t too l in

educat ion by Cranda l l , Katkovsky, and P r e s t o n (4), Nowicki and

Roundt ree (15), and Rot te r (18, 21). Gene ra l ly it has found that

e x t e r n a l s wi thdraw f r o m cha l lenges (4), w h e r e a s i n t e r n a l s a r e highly

pe rcep t ive to cues which may b r ing r e i n f o r c e m e n t (12). S e v e r a l

s tud ies have sugges ted that s tudents with a high self concept s ee t h e m -

se lves as m o r e in con t ro l of t h e i r env i ronment than do s tudents with a

low self concept (5, 27).

N u m e r o u s s tud ies have been publ i shed which i n c o r p o r a t e

p r inc ip l e s of l ea rn ing in t each ing . T h e s e e f f o r t s have gene ra l l y

focused on a c o m p a r i s o n of the outcome between two methods of

i n s t ruc t ion . Li t t le a t tent ion has been paid to the s tudent h imse l f to

da te . In s e v e r a l s tud ies the i nves t iga to r s (2, 11, 14, 22) have

sought t o c o m p a r e a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a s a r e s u l t of b e h a v i o r a l

and o the r l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s ; h o w e v e r , l i t t l e m e n t i o n h a s been m a d e

of s t u d e n t s who did not a c h i e v e a s p r e d i c t e d . It m a y be t h a t e a c h

s tuden t h a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h by w h i c h he c a n f u n c -

t i on o p t i m a l l y . T o d e t e r m i n e what v a r i a b l e s c o n t r i b u t e t o a s t u d e n t ' s

cho i ce of l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h could l ead t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s t u d e n t

m o t i v a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l be an a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e

w h e t h e r se l f concep t and r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c i e s a r e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s

in the s u c c e s s of a l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t o d i s c o v e r t h e e f f e c t s of a

p r e f e r r e d and n o n - p r e f e r r e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h on a c a d e m i c p e r -

f o r m a n c e .

Al though a n u m b e r of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c o r p o r a t i n g v a r i o u s

c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h e s a r e r e p o r t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e ,

none of the s t u d i e s h a d a t t e m p t e d to p r e s e n t a un i f i ed a n a l y s i s of

s t uden t p r e f e r e n c e o r n o n - p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e s e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s .

T h e m a i n a s p e c t of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s t h e e x p o s u r e of e a c h s tuden t

t o both t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y

m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h u n d e r c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e

s t u d e n t s t h e n s e l e c t e d one of t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s . A c h i e v e m e n t

s c o r e s of s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e d the l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h of t h e i r c h o i c e

and s t u d e n t s who did not r e c e i v e t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h of t h e i r cho i ce

w e r e r e c o r d e d and a n a l y z e d . O t h e r m e a s u r e s , i nc lud ing s e l f - c o n c e p t

and r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c i e s w e r e t a k e n in an a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e

w h e t h e r a n y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t e d

p r o c e d u r e s and c o n c e p t s .

T h e s e a n d o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a

s t u d y w h i c h i s d e s i g n e d t o a s s i s t in d i s c o v e r y of t h e f o l l o w i n g .

1. T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s e l f c o n c e p t a n d l o c u s of c o n t r o l

a s p r e d i c t o r s of s e l e c t i o n of a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h v e r s u s a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

2 . T h e e f f e c t on a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e of s e l e c t i n g a p r e -

f e r r e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a n a l t e r n a t e l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h .

3 . T h e e f f e c t on a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e of r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c -

t i o n by one l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h w h e n a s t a t e d p r e f e r e n c e f o r a n o t h e r

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n m a d e a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h b o t h l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h e s •

4 . A c o m p a r i s o n of t h e v a r i a b l e s of a g e , c u m u l a t i v e c o l l e g e

g r a d e po in t a v e r a g e , a n d p r e v i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e b e t w e e n

s t u d e n t s w h o c h o o s e a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h a n d s t u d e n t s w h o c h o o s e a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h b o t h l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s .

8

Hypotheses

Th i s inves t iga t ion was a c o m p a r i s o n of s e l ec t ed v a r i a b l e s ,

a c a d e m i c ach i evemen t , self concept , and r e i n f o r c e m e n t expen tanc ies ,

r e l a t i v e to s tudents who a r e taught by a method they p r e f e r and those

who a r e taught by a method they do not p r e f e r . All s tudents had

expe r i ence with both l ea rn ing a p p r o a c h e s . The two lea rn ing app roaches

w e r e eva lua ted . In one method, l e c tu re - con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t , the

s tudent was r e q u i r e d to pass a shor t examina t ion at a p r e - d e t e r m i n e d

level of m a s t e r y a f t e r each chap te r . F o u r s e p a r a t e examina t ions w e r e

avai lable f o r each chap te r . In the second learn ing approach , the

l e c t u r e - t e s t approach , the s tudents w e r e a s s igned c o u r s e m a t e r i a l

and one examina t ion over the a s s igned m a t e r i a l at a p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d

date .

B a s e d , in p a r t , on the d i s cus s ion above, the fol lowing hypothe-

s e s w e r e advanced .

I. Students who se l ec t the l e c t u r e - t e s t app roach wi l l have

a h igher to ta l self concept as m e a s u r e d by the T e n n e s s e e Self Concept

Scale (6) than wil l s tudents who se lec t a l e c tu r e - con t i ngency m a n a g e -

ment app roach .

II. Students who se lec t the l e c tu r e - con t ingency m a n a g e -

ment l ea rn ing app roach wil l be m o r e e x t e r n a l as m e a s u r e d by the

I . E . S c a l e (18) t h a n w i l l s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t

a p p r o a c h .

I I I . S t u d e n t s w h o f o l l o w t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t a p p r o a c h , r e g a r d l e s s of p r e f e r e n c e , w i l l a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n

g a i n s c o r e s t h a n w i l l s t u d e n t s w h o f o l l o w t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h .

IV. S t u d e n t s w h o fo l low t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h a t t h e y

p r e f e r w i l l a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n g a i n s c o r e s t h a n w i l l s t u d e n t s w h o a r e

t a u g h t t h e s a m e s u b j e c t m a t t e r b y a l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y do not p r e -

f e r .

V. W h e n s t u d e n t s f o l l o w t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y p r e f e r ,

t h o s e s t u d e n t s w h o p r e f e r t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h w i l l a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n g a i n s c o r e s t h a n w i l l s t u d e n t s

w h o p r e f e r t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

VI . W h e n s t u d e n t s f o l l o w t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y do no t

p r e f e r , t h o s e s t u d e n t s w h o f o l l o w t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h w i l l a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n g a i n s c o r e s t h a n w i l l

s t u d e n t s who f o l l o w t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

VII . T h e r e w i l l b e a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

w h o s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a n d

s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of c u m u -

l a t i v e m e a n g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e s f o r p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s .

10

VIII. T h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

and s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of

n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s c o m p l e t e d at a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y l eve l .

IX. T h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and

s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of age .

S e l e c t i o n of S a m p l e

T h e s a m p l e f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n s i s t e d of two s e c t i o n s of

c o m m u n i t y c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s who r e g i s t e r e d f o r H u m a n R e l a t i o n s , a

f r e s h m a n psycho logy c o u r s e at Mounta in View Co l l ege , D a l l a s , T e x a s .

T h e s a m p l e inc luded p r e d o m i n a n t l y adu l t , p a r t - t i m e , n ight s t u d e n t s .

T h e two s e c t i o n s w e r e r a n d o m l y d iv ided into two g r o u p s wi th in e a c h

s e c t i o n . D u r i n g t h e t e n t h i n s t r u c t i o n a l w e e k t h e s t u d e n t s w e r e a g a i n

r a n d o m l y d iv ided into two g r o u p s b a s e d on the l e a r n i n g m e t h o d

s e l e c t e d .

De f in i t i on of T e r m s

T h e fo l lowing t e r m s w i l l h a v e r e s t r i c t e d m e a n i n g .

Con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t : a g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e m a i n -

t e n a n c e or m o d i f i c a t i o n of m o t i v a t e d b e h a v i o r b a s e d on an

11

a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r . Only b e h a v i o r w h i c h m e e t s

p r e v i o u s l y de f ined c r i t e r i a w i l l be r e i n f o r c e d .

L e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h : a s y s -

t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h w h i c h i n s u r e s i n s t a n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h r o u g h i m m e d i -

acy of f e e d b a c k f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r -

f o r m a n c e is p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d at 90 p e r cen t a c h i e v e m e n t .

D o o m s d a y : a p r e - s p e c i f i e d da te in t i m e at wh ich a p r e -

d e t e r m i n e d a m o u n t of the c o u r s e r e q u i r e m e n t m u s t b e c o m p l e t e d in

o r d e r to e s c a p e c o n s e q u e n c e s . C o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h i s s tudy w i l l be

the l o w e r i n g of t h e s t u d e n t ' s g r a d e one l e v e l f o r tha t uni t .

E x t e r n a l locus of c o n t r o l : a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h o s e s u b j e c t s

who s c o r e in e x c e s s of the m e d i a n on the I. E . S c a l e .

H i g h self c o n c e p t : a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h o s e s t u d e n t s w h o s e

a g g r e g a t e s c o r e s on t h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e a r e in e x c e s s of

t h e m e d i a n a g g r e g a t e s c o r e f o r t h e s a m p l e .

I n t e r n a l l ocus of c o n t r o l : a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h o s e s u b j e c t s

who s c o r e l e s s t h a n t h e m e d i a n on the I . E . S c a l e .

L e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h : t h e a s s i g n m e n t of s e v e r a l c h a p t e r s

in a t e x t on wh ich p e r f o r m a n c e is e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h an a c h i e v e m e n t

t e s t at s o m e p r e - s p e c i f i e d da t e .

Low sel f c o n c e p t : a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h o s e s u b j e c t s w h o s e

a g g r e g a t e s c o r e s on t h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e a r e l e s s t h a n

the m e d i a n a g g r e g a t e s c o r e f o r t h e s a m p l e .

12

M y c o m un i t : an e l e c t r o n i c l e a r n i n g c o m p u t e r w h i c h a n a l y z e s

r e s p o n s e s b a s e d on the log ic p r e v i o u s l y p r o g r a m m e d into i t . T h e

m y c o m unit f l a s h e d e i t h e r g r e e n ( for c o r r e c t ) or r e d ( for i n c o r r e c t ) .

If t h e i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e is i n c o r r e c t , t he s t uden t m u s t m a k e a l t e r n a t i v e

r e s p o n s e s un t i l he m a k e s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e .

L i m i t a t i o n s

T h e fo l lowing l i m i t a t i o n s a r e a c k n o w l e d g e d .

1. T h e s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s s tudy w e r e l i m i t e d t o c o m m u n i t y

c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s in a m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a of t h e S o u t h w e s t .

2 . Al l s u b j e c t s w e r e p a r t - t i m e s t u d e n t s who m a i n t a i n e d

f u l l - t i m e e m p l o y m e n t .

3. T h e m o s t s a l i e n t l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s s tudy is t h e r e c o g n i -

t ion t ha t t he p r o c e s s of v e r b a l s e l e c t i o n i n t r o d u c e s a s y s t e m a t i c

s o u r c e of b i a s in P h a s e III. T h i s b i a s w a s p a r t i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d

t h r o u g h r a n d o m p l a c e m e n t into p r e f e r r e d and n o n - p r e f e r r e d g r o u p s .

P r o c e d u r e f o r C o l l e c t i o n of Da ta

T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was conduc t ed in t h r e e p h a s e s : t he f i r s t

two p h a s e s w e r e d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y to equa te t h e s u b j e c t s in t e r m s

of e x p e r i e n c e ; t h e t h i r d p h a s e w a s t he e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e d u r i n g

w h i c h da ta w e r e t a k e n . Dur ing P h a s e I t he s t u d e n t s of an i n t r o d u c t -

o r y p s y c h o l o g y c o u r s e w e r e r a n d o m l y d iv ided wi th in e a c h of two

13

s e c t i o n s in to two g r o u p s , A and B. T h e s t u d e n t s who w e r e a s s i g n e d

t o G r o u p A in bo th s e c t i o n s w e r e g iven a r e a d i n g a s s i g n m e n t and a

da t e , f i ve w e e k s l a t e r , f o r a m u l t i p l e cho ice e x a m i n a t i o n ove r t h e

m a t e r i a l .

T h e s t u d e n t s who w e r e a s s i g n e d to G r o u p B w e r e g iven a

r e a d i n g a s s i g n m e n t c o v e r i n g t h e f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s wi th a t e s t o v e r

e a c h c h a p t e r on t h e M y c o m m a c h i n e s wi th in f i v e w e e k s . T h e s t u d e n t s

w e r e t o ld t h a t a s c o r e of at l e a s t 90 p e r cen t w a s r e q u i r e d to p a s s any

c h a p t e r t e s t .

P h a s e II began at t h e end of t h e f i r s t f i v e w e e k s ; t h e s u b j e c t s

in G r o u p A t o o k a t e s t a f t e r e a c h of c h a p t e r s f i ve t h r o u g h e igh t , on t h e

M y c o m , w h e r e a s the s u b j e c t s in G r o u p B t o o k one t e s t ove r c h a p t e r s

f ive t h r o u g h e igh t . Dur ing t h e s econd p h a s e a l l s u b j e c t s w e r e g iven

the I. E . S c a l e (18), t h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e (6), and t h e

p r e - t e s t w h i c h w a s t o b e the f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n .

At t h e beg inn ing of the t h i r d p h a s e e a c h s u b j e c t w a s a s k e d t o

s e l e c t t h e e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e he p r e f e r r e d f o r t h e r e m a i n i n g s i x

w e e k s of t h e s e m e s t e r . A f t e r e a c h s tuden t s e l e c t e d an e v a l u a t i o n

p r o c e d u r e , he w a s r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d e i t h e r t o t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

he had s e l e c t e d o r to t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h he h a d not s e l e c t e d .

At t h e end of the s e m e s t e r a l l s u b j e c t s w e r e g iven a f i n a l

e x a m i n a t i o n as a p o s t - t e s t . T h e p r e - t e s t s c o r e w a s s u b t r a c t e d f r o m

14

the p o s t - t e s t s c o r e to y ie ld gain s c o r e s which w e r e a n a l y z e d f o r

a c h i e v e m e n t g a i n s . T h e I . E . Sca l e (18) and the T e n n e s s e e Self

Concep t S c a l e (6) s c o r e s w e r e a n a l y z e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a

r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e i n s t r u m e n t s and s e l e c t i o n of a l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h .

T h e da ta on age , n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s , and c u m u l a t i v e

g r a d e point a v e r a g e w e r e c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h a s e l f - r e p o r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e

and co l l ege r e c o r d s , A r e l e a s e f o r m f o r v i ewing co l l ege r e c o r d s

w a s s i gned by a l l s t u d e n t s ( see Appendix A).

P r o c e d u r e s f o r A n a l y s i s of Data

T h e s c o r e s f r o m t h e I. E , Sca l e (18) and t h e T e n n e s s e e

Self Concep t S c a l e (6) w e r e c a t e g o r i z e d into g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g to t h e

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e s u b j e c t c h o s e . T h e s c o r e s w e r e t h e n a n a l y z e d ,

u t i l i z i n g a j t t e s t p r o c e d u r e .

T h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t p r e - t e s t s c o r e s w e r e s u b t r a c t e d f r o m

the p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s t o y i e ld a gain s c o r e . T h e gain s c o r e s w e r e

a n a l y z e d u t i l i z ing a t w o - b y - t w o a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e , by s e l e c t e d

l e a r n i n g m o d e and by the l e a r n i n g m o d e r e c e i v e d . G r a d e point a v e r -

age , c u m u l a t i v e n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s c o m p l e t e d in c o l l e g e , and

age w e r e a n a l y z e d u t i l i z ing t t e s t s ,

15

D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e I n s t r u m e n t s

D a t a g a t h e r e d c a m e p r i m a r i l y f r o m an i n s t r u c t o r - d e v e l o p e d

a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t and t w o i n s t r u m e n t s , t h e I. E . S c a l e (18) and t h e

T e n n e s s e e Self C o n c e p t S c a l e (6). T h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t w a s c o m -

p o s e d of e i g h t y m u l t i p l e c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s ( s e e A p p e n d i x C) . V a l i d i t y

f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d by p r e s e n t i n g f i v e c o m m u n i t y c o l -

l e g e i n s t r u c t o r s w i t h a c o p y of B r e t h o w e r ' s t e x t B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s

in B u s i n e s s a n d I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m (3), a n d a

poo l of one h u n d r e d q u e s t i o n s c o v e r i n g c h a p t e r s 9, 10, 11, a n d 12.

T h e f i n a l a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t w a s c o m p o s e d of t h e f i r s t e i g h t y i t e m s

w h i c h t h r e e of t h e f i v e i n s t r u c t o r s h a d r a t e d n a p p l i e s . n R e l i a b i l i t y

w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h a c o e f f i c i e n t of s t a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h a

t e s t - r e t e s t p r o c e d u r e u t i l i z i n g an i n t r o d u c t o r y s o c i o l o g y c l a s s .

T h e I . E . S c a l e i s an i n s t r u m e n t f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t

of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l l o c u s of c o n t r o l w h i c h e v o l v e d f r o m R o t t e r ' s

s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y (18) . T h e I . E . S c a l e i s s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d a n d

t a k e s a b o u t f i f t e e n m i n u t e s . T h o u g h no u p p e r o r l o w e r a g e l i m i t s

h a v e b e e n d i s c e r n e d , t h e I. E . S c a l e h a s b e e n m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d

w i t h c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s (18).

T h e T e n n e s s e e Self C o n c e p t S c a l e (TSCS) w a s c o n s t r u c t e d

b y F i t t s (6) in 1955 f r o m a c l i n i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e (23) . T h e C o u n s e l -

ing F o r m of t h e T e n n e s s e e Self C o n c e p t S c a l e , w h i c h c o n s i s t s of one

16

h u n d r e d i t e m s , w a s u t i l i z e d . T h e i n s t r u m e n t s u t i l i z e d f o r t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e c h o s e n f o r t h e fo l lowing r e a s o n s : (1) T h e

n o r m a t i v e da ta on t h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e and t h e I. E .

S c a l e a r e i m p r e s s i v e when c o m p a r e d t o o the r i n s t r u m e n t s m e a s u r i n g

t h e s a m e c o n s t r u c t s . (2) T h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e ,

C o u n s e l i n g F o r m , w a s r a t e d f i r s t in a f i e l d of t h i r t y - o n e i n s t r u m e n t s

f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of s e l f - e s t e e m and o the r r e l a t e d c o n s t r u c t s

(17). T h e I . E . S c a l e a p p e a r s t o be the m o s t u s e d of t h e l o c u s - o f -

c o n t r o l s c a l e s m e n t i o n e d wi th in the l i t e r a t u r e . (3) T h e r e is no p u b -

l i s h e d or p r i n t e d a c h i e v e m e n t i n s t r u m e n t t o m e a s u r e a c a d e m i c p e r -

f o r m a n c e as de f ined in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . (4) Al l of t h e s c a l e s wh ich

w e r e c h o s e n or deve loped a r e p r a c t i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l t o a d m i n i s t e r ,

s c o r e , and i n t e r p r e t .

C H A P T E R BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Albot t , W i l l i a m L . and J a c k N. H a n e y , " S e l f - C o n c e p t , Choice of Study P l a n and P e r f o r m a n c e in an I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y C o u r s e , " J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 65 (Apr i l , 1972), 173-177.

2. B o r n , David G. , M. G. S t ephen , and M i c h a e l L. D a v i s , " E x a m i -na t ion P e r f o r m a n c e in L e c t u r e D i s c u s s i o n and P e r s o n a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n C o u r s e s , " J o u r n a l of App l i ed B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 5 (Spr ing , 1972), 3 3 - 4 3 .

3. B r e t h o w e r , D. W. , B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s in B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m , K a l a m a z o o , M i c h i g a n , B e h a v i o r d e l i a , Inc . , 1972.

4 . C r a n d a l l , V . V . , W. Ka tkovsky , and Anne P r e s t o n , " M o t i v a t i o n a l and Abi l i ty D e t e r m i n a n t s of Young C h i l d r e n ' s I n t e l l e c t u a l A c h i e v e m e n t B e h a v i o r , " Chi ld D e v e l o p m e n t , 33 ( S e p t e m b e r , 1962), 6 4 3 - 6 6 1 .

5. F i s h , B . and S. K a r a b e n i c k , " T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S e l f -E s t e e m and Locus of C o n t r o l , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 29 ( D e c e m b e r , 1971), 784.

6. F i t t s , W . H . , M a n u a l f o r the T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e , N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1965.

7. , T h e Self Concept and P e r f o r m a n c e , M o n o g r a p h 5, N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

8. F r e t z , B r u c e R. and David A. E n g l e , " C h a n g e s in Self Concep t as a F u n c t i o n of A c a d e m i c T e s t R e s u l t s , " J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 66 ( J a n u a r y , 1973), 2 2 7 - 2 2 9 .

9. J a n i s , I . , " P e r s o n a l i t y C o r r e l a t e s of S u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o P e r s u a -s i o n , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l i t y , 22 ( S e p t e m b e r , 1954), 504-518.

17

18

10. J o h n s t o n , J a m e s M. and J . S . Penny-packer , "A B e h a v i o r a l A p p r o a c h t o Co l l ege T e a c h i n g , " A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t , 26 ( M a r c h , 1971), 2 1 9 - 2 4 4 .

11. K e l l e r , F . S . , " G o o d - b y e T e a c h e r , " Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 1 (Spr ing , 1968), 7 9 - 8 9 .

12. L e f c o u r t , H e r b e r t , " E f f e c t s of Cue E x p l i c a t i o n upon P e r s o n s Ma in t a in ing E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l E x p e c t a n c i e s , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 58 ( M a r c h , 1967), 137-146 .

13. L loyd , K. E . and N . J . Knu tzen , "A Self P a c e d C o u r s e in t h e E x p e r i m e n t a l A n a l y s i s of B e h a v i o r , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s , 2 ( S u m m e r , 1969), 125-133 .

14. M c M i c h a e l , J . S . and J . R . C o r e y , " C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t in an I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y C o u r s e P r o d u c e s B e t t e r L e a r n -ing, " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s 2 (Spr ing , 1959), 9 6 - 1 0 6 .

15. Nowick i , S. and J . R o u n d t r e e , " C o r r e l a t e s of L o c u s of C o n t r o l in S e c o n d a r y Age S t u d e n t s , " D e v e l o p m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 4 (May, 1971), 4 7 7 - 4 7 8 .

16. P u r k e y , W . W . , Self Concep t and Schoo l A c h i e v e m e n t , E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , New J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Inc . , 1970.

17. R o b i n s o n , J . P . and P . R . S h a v e r , M e a s u r e s of S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g i c a l A t t i t u d e s , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n , I n s t i t u t e f o r S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , 1969.

18. R o t t e r , J u l i e n B. , " G e n e r a l i z e d E x p e c t a n c i e s f o r I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h , 80 (1966), N u m b e r 609.

19. , S o c i a l L e a r n i n g and C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , Eng lewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I nc . , 1954.

2 0. , S h e p h a r d L i v e r a n t , and Doug la s C r o w n e , " T h e G r o w t h and E x t i n c t i o n of E x p e c t a n c i e s in C h a n c e C o n t r o l l e d and Sk i l l ed T a s k s , " J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y , 52 ( Ju ly , 1961), 161-177 .

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21. R o t t e r , J u l i e n B. and Roy C. M u l b r y , " I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t and D e c i s i o n T i m e , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 52 ( O c t o b e r , 1961), 598 -604 .

22. S h e p p a r d , W. C. and H. G. M a c D e r m o t , " D e s i g n and E v a l u a t i o n of a P r o g r a m m e d C o u r s e in I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 3 (Spr ing , 1970), 5 -11 .

23. T h o m p s o n , W. , C o r r e l a t e s of Self C o n c e p t , N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s -s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

24. W i l l i a m s , R. L . and S. Co le , "Self Concep t and Schoo l A d j u s t -m e n t , " P e r s o n n e l and Guidance J o u r n a l , 1 ( J a n u a r y , 1968), 4 7 8 - 4 8 1 .

25 . W i l s o n , S . R . and D . T . T o s t i , L e a r n i n g Is Get t ing E a s i e r , San R a f a e l , C a l i f o r n i a , Ind iv idua l L e a r n i n g S y s t e m s , 1972.

26. Wyl i e , R . , "Self R a t i n g s , L e v e l of I d e a l Self R a t i n g s and D e f e n s i v e n e s s , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 16 ( F e b r u a r y , 1965), 135-140 .

27. Z i l l e r , R . C . , J . H a g e y , M. D. S m i t h , and B . H . Long , " S e l f -E s t e e m : A S o c i a l C o n s t r u c t , " J o u r n a l of C o n s u l t i n g and C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , 33 ( F e b r u a r y , 1969), 8 4 - 9 5 .

CHAPTER II

SURVEY OF R E L A T E D LITERATURE

The rev iew of r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e is p r e s e n t e d in t h r e e s e c -

t i o n s : (1) cont ingency m a n a g e m e n t and a c a d e m i c ach i evemen t ,

(2) s e l f - c o n c e p t and academic ach ievemen t , and (3) i n t e r n a l -

e x t e r n a l locus of con t ro l and academic ach ievemen t . Also included

is a syn thes i s of r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e .

Contingency Management and Academic Achievement

P r e s e n t e d in th i s sec t ion is a br ief h i s t o r y of the deve lop-

ment and use of some b e h a v i o r a l p r inc ip l e s of l ea rn ing in t each ing .

It cu lmina tes with examples of r e c e n t l y publ ished s tud ies i m p l e m e n t -

ing b e h a v i o r a l s y s t e m s in educat ion.

It is be l ieved that the f i r s t r e c o r d e d a t t empt to apply

behav io r a l p r inc ip l e s to teaching was r e c o r d e d by P la to in Meno (60).

P l a t o ' s use of s e v e r a l b e h a v i o r a l p r inc ip le s in t each ing is appa ren t

in what we now r e f e r to as p r o g r a m m i n g in the t each ing of g e o m e t r y

(31).

B e c a u s e of i ts e a r l y e m p h a s i s on s e l f - r e p o r t of consc ious

e x p e r i e n c e , psychology did not o f fe r many p r a c t i c a l solut ions f o r

20

21

educational problems (48). Though the research methods were

empirical, involving observation, experimentation, and measurement,

the self-report of atomistic elements of consciousness and related

unobservable manifestations hindered research on the development

of a technology of teaching (60),

In the early twentieth century John B. Watson began a cam-

paign for objective psychology (48). Watson began his career doing

research on animal subjects and in 1913 published his f irst article

which laid the foundation for behaviorism as it is today (60). Watson

felt that there is no dividing line between man and animal and that

man could study man, in much the same way as he studied animals,

by defining psychology as the "science of behavior" (65).

Pressy is credited with the f irst application of self-

instruction through a teaching machine (60). Pressy (40), and later

Curtis and Woods (8), investigated self-instruction with immediate

knowledge of examination results. Immediate knowledge of results

permits the subject to advance at his own speed. Though his results

were generally favorable, Pressy1 s advances did not gain the support

of the educational community because he failed to produce a defini-

tive theory (60). Years later, B. F. Skinner was to supply the basic

theory necessary to bring Pressy 's teaching machines into the main-

stream of education (31).

22

Much of t h e e a r l y i m p e t u s t o t h e b e h a v i o r a l m o v e m e n t , t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n of l e a r n i n g p r i n c i p l e s t o t e a c h i n g , w a s r e c o r d e d by B. F .

S k i n n e r (58). S k i n n e r ' s e a r l y w o r k w i th p r o g r a m m e d i n s t r u c t i o n

y i e l d e d m a n y a v e n u e s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and led t o t h e r e f i n e m e n t

of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of i m m e d i a t e f e e d b a c k and s tuden t p a c i n g (56).

S k i n n e r ' s p o s i t i o n , wh ich has been r e c o r d e d in s e v e r a l t e x t s and a r t i -

c l e s , is t h a t g e n e r a l l y e d u c a t i o n h a s not t a k e n a d v a n t a g e of t h e known

p r i n c i p l e s of l e a r n i n g (5 7, 59, 60). A c c o r d i n g t o S k i n n e r (55), t h e

s t uden t is not r e c e i v i n g a l l t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a v a i l a b l e wi th in a c l a s s -

r o o m . S k i n n e r sought t o point out t h a t m a t e r i a l c a n b e p r e s e n t e d in

s m a l l s t e p s and t h a t r e s p o n s e s c a n be i m m e d i a t e l y r e i n f o r c e d t h r o u g h

a knowledge of c o r r e c t b e h a v i o r s (55, 57, 60).

In r e c e n t y e a r s t h e body of l i t e r a t u r e showing the p o s s i b l e

a d v a n t a g e s of a s y s t e m a t i c b e h a v i o r a l a p p r o a c h t o i n s t r u c t i o n ove r t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s of i n s t r u c t i o n h a s g rown . R e s e a r c h e r s h a v e

g e n e r a l l y found t h a t w h e n s t u d e n t s a r e e x p o s e d t o a s y s t e m a t i c

b e h a v i o r a l a p p r o a c h , t h e y p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r ga in s c o r e s

on f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n s t h a n do s t u d e n t s e x p o s e d t o t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h i n g

t e c h n i q u e s (4, 24, 25, 32, 54).

A l though the r e p o r t e d r e s e a r c h on b e h a v i o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n

s u p p o r t s the h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

b e h a v i o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e of i n s t r u c t i o n , it is not

23

clear which components of the behavioral instruction are responsible

for student success. For example, is it the use of special student

proctors, frequent quizzes, instant feedback on quizzes, self-pacing,

special contingencies such as the Doomsday contingency (66), or is

it some combination of components which is responsible for the

apparent success of behavioral instruction? There is research evi-

dence for systems which employ students to proctor other students

(11, 17, 24, 25). However, other researchers have reported signifi-

cant differences in performance without the use of proctors (22, 34).

Tobias (63) reports that the amount of overt responding,

that is frequency of tests and instant feedback, influences student per-

formance. In a recent study of chronic psychotic students, Calhoun

(5) found that the application of immediate feedback increased aca-

demic performance. That students' academic performance improves

with the frequency of testing has been supported also by Dustin (10).

In many studies a student must master material at some level

prior to advancing to new materials. The student's grade is deter-

mined by the number of units he completes during some pre-specified

time. Keller (24) defined mastery as perfect performance on short

quizzes. Johnson and O'Neil (22) have found that performance levels

are directly related to the mastery-level criterion. They studied

different mastery criteria (high, medium, low, and none), finding that

24

s t u d e n t s wi thout m a s t e r y c r i t e r i a exhib i t t h e l o w e s t e x a m i n a t i o n

s c o r e s . S e m b s (51, 52) u t i l i z ed m a s t e r y at 90 p e r cen t on s h o r t

q u i z z e s , conc lud ing t h a t a h i g h - m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n i s s u p e r i o r t o a

l o w - m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n .

T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be s o m e ind i ca t i on t h a t t h e s e l f - p a c i n g

f e a t u r e of b e h a v i o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n r e s u l t s in a h igh p e r c e n t a g e of

i n c o m p l e t e s and t h e p o s t p o n e m e n t of w o r k un t i l t h e end of t h e s e m e s -

t e r . K e l l e r (24) r e p o r t e d t h a t 10 t o 20 p e r cen t of s t u d e n t s f a i l e d t o

c o m p l e t e a l l w o r k ; S h e p a r d and M c D e r m o t (54) no ted t h a t 70 p e r

cent of t h e popu la t i on of t h e b e h a v i o r a l c l a s s f a i l e d t o c o m p l e t e s o m e

p o r t i o n of t h e i r a s s i g n m e n t s . In the L loyd and K n u t z e n (28) s tudy ,

t h e r e s e a r c h e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t 25 p e r cen t of t h e s t u d e n t s c o m p l e t e d a l l

w o r k a s s i g n m e n t s . W h a l e y and Malo t t (66) no ted t h a t m a n y s t u d e n t s

put off c o m p l e t i n g a s s i g n m e n t s un t i l t he end of t h e s e m e s t e r . M i l l e r ,

W e a v e r , and Sembs (35) m o d i f i e d t h e s e l f - p a c i n g f e a t u r e s o t h a t

s t u d e n t s w e r e g iven t a r g e t da t e s f o r e a c h uni t . T h e r e s u l t s of t h e i r

s tudy i n d i c a t e t h a t s t u d e n t s p r o g r e s s m o r e r a p i d l y when t h e y a r e

g iven t a r g e t d a t e s . T h e r e s e a r c h e r s no ted t h a t about 30 p e r cen t of

the s t u d e n t s c o m p l e t e d t h e i r w o r k w i th f r e q u e n t b r e a k s and t h a t s o m e

s t u d e n t s f i n i s h e d t h e a s s i g n m e n t s by w o r k i n g at a h igh r a t e a t t h e end

of t h e s e m e s t e r . T h e y conc luded t h a t t h e t a r g e t - d a t e p r o c e d u r e

c o m b i n e s the b e s t f e a t u r e s of s e l f - p a c i n g and t e a c h e r p a c i n g .

25

Students in behavioral ly taught c l a s se s p e r f o r m at a higher

level on examinations and also r a t e the course more positively than

do students taught through t rad i t iona l techniques (36, 37, 62). Gen-

era l ly the students with contingency-management sections a lso repor t

working ha rde r than do students in t rad i t ional sect ions (4, 37, 54,

62 ) .

At this point the re is no c lear evidence which of the many

components repor ted in the above-noted behavioral instruct ion l i t e r a -

tu re contributes most significantly to success . A question r ecu r r i ng

in the l i t e ra tu re asks whether the method has the same effect on the

pe r fo rmance of all s tudents . In a study by Born, Gledhill, and

Daniels (3), the r e s e a r c h e r s found that the cont ingency-management

approach has its g rea tes t impact on average to poor s tudents . Taylor

(62) conf i rmed the e a r l i e r finding and in fe r r ed possible reasons for

the findings, including that although students rank the contingency-

management method very high in t e r m s of work achievement , the

work is objectively specif ied in t e r m s of m a s t e r y . A second factor

is that t he re appear to be " se l f -gene ra t ed" r e i n f o r c e r s , for example,

feelings of achievement . Thi rd , the contingency-management t ech -

nique tends to modify study behaviors in the direct ion of g rea t e r

achievement and mas t e ry .

26

Self Concept and Academic Achievement

The study of pe r sona l i t y t h e o r y developed s e p a r a t e l y f r o m

the m a i n s t r e a m of e x p e r i m e n t a l psychology (48). As a s y s t e m a t i c

body of knowledge, pe r sona l i t y t h e o r y a r o s e as a pa r t of the c l in ica l

t r ad i t i on beginning with the F r e n c h phys ic ians in the n ine teenth c e n -

t u r y . Cl in ica l p r a c t i t i o n e r s such as Charco t and Jane t w e r e i n t e r -

e s t ed in the s tudy and t r e a t m e n t of a b n o r m a l p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s such as h y s t e r i a (48).

F r e u d is c r ed i t ed with the f i r s t r e a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e s tudy

of pe r sona l i t y f r o m a psychologica l s tandpoint . F r e u d ' s w o r k

a t t r a c t e d many f o l l o w e r s , including such m e n as C a r l Jung and A l f r e d

Adle r , both of whom l a t e r b r o k e away f r o m F r e u d to develop t h e i r

own t h e o r i e s (18). F r e u d ' s p ioneer w o r k has had a s ign i f ican t

e f fec t on the c o u r s e of psychology, but his t h e o r i e s w e r e specu la t ive

and not sub jec t to l a b o r a t o r y con t ro l s (18). In n e a r l y a l l c a s e s , the

e a r l y p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r i s t s w e r e m e d i c a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s who developed

t h e o r i e s of pe r sona l i t y , with the p r a c t i c e of p sycho the rapy as a

m e a n s fo r t r e a t i n g m e n t a l d i s o r d e r s .

W a t s o n ' s movement t oward a psychology based on behavior

had a profound e f fec t on pe r sona l i t y t h e o r i e s (57). Watson fe l t tha t

psychology mus t l imi t i tself to phenomena which a r e objec t ive ly

o b s e r v a b l e , i ts goal being the p red ic t ion and con t ro l of behav io r (64).

27

W a t s o n f e l t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r p s y c h o l o g y is b e h a v i o r -

m u s c u l a r m o v e m e n t s or g l a n d u l a r s e c r e t i o n s (18).

In 1938, B . F . S k i n n e r p u b l i s h e d B e h a v i o r of O r g a n i s m s (56),

w h i c h b e g a n a c h a i n r e a c t i o n r e s u l t i n g in a new e r a in p sycho logy .

S k i n n e r dea l t only w i th o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r wi th e m p h a s i s on d e s c r i p -

t i on r a t h e r t h a n exp l ana t i on of b e h a v i o r (18). S k i n n e r ' s a t h e o r e t i -

c a l p o s i t i o n h a s e m p h a s i z e d tha t b e h a v i o r is l a w f u l and m u s t be

s t u d i e d f r o m the pos i t i on point of s c i e n c e (56, 5 9).

A b e h a v i o r a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y

s t a t e s , in g e n e r a l , t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s a r e l e a r n e d (30). P e r s o n -

a l i ty i s , by de f in i t i on , r e l a t e d to l e a r n i n g and e d u c a t i o n . S e v e r a l

e a r l y i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e b e c o m e i n t e r e s t e d in w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r

t ype of s t u d e n t , in t e r m s of p e r s o n a l i t y , c a n l e a r n m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y

when e x p o s e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r type of i n s t r u c t i o n (61, 68) .

One a s p e c t of p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h h a s r e c e i v e d s u b s t a n t i a l

a t t e n t i o n is self c o n c e p t . T h e c o n s t r u c t of se l f c o n c e p t h a s b e e n a

t o p i c of c o n c e r n t o s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s s i n c e t h e days of W i l l i a m J a m e s

(18). T h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e l i t e r a t u r e is r e p l e t e w i th t h o u s a n d s of

t h e o r e t i c a l a r t i c l e s and r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s r e l a t i n g t o se l f concep t (15).

B e c a u s e of t h e w o r k of s u c h peop le as C o m b s and Snygg, R o g e r s , and

o t h e r s , a t h e o r e t i c a l s c h o o l o r s y s t e m , known as se l f t h e o r y , h a s

evo lved (18).

28

Genera l ly self t h e o r y has come to have two mean ings in p s y -

chology today : (1) it is def ined as a p e r s o n ' s fee l ings and r e su l t i ng

a t t i tudes about h i m s e l f , and (2) it is r e g a r d e d as a g roup of p sycho-

logica l p r o c e s s e s which govern behavior and a d j u s t m e n t (18). F i t t s

notes that self concept is much m o r e f r e q u e n t l y used than self in the

l i t e r a t u r e su r round ing the cons t ruc t (15).

Self concept has been used in d i v e r s e ways by many i n v e s t i -

ga tors (53, 70). Wylie has rev iewed the v a r i a b l e of self concept and

sugges t s that it has been r e l a t e d to a l m o s t eve ry o ther psycho log ica l

v a r i a b l e at one t i m e or another (70). In sp i te of the a t tent ion paid to

the cons t ruc t of self concept , t h e r e a r e no widely accep ted s t a n d a r d

t h e o r e t i c a l or ope ra t iona l defini t ions (42).

Wylie (65) found that s tudents with low self e s t e e m tend to

use the de fense m e c h a n i s m of p ro j ec t i on m o r e often and a r e l e s s

a c c u r a t e in t h e i r pe rcep t ion of t h r e a t e n i n g s t i m u l i than a r e s tudents

with high self e s t e e m . Students with low self e s t e e m have been found

to cheat s ign i f ican t ly m o r e often than do s tudents without fee l ings of

inadequacy and unwor th iness (20). J an i s has pointed out tha t people

with low self concept tend to r e l y m o r e heavi ly on the opinions of

o t h e r s , c o n f o r m to g roup c r i t i c i s m , and do not r e a d i l y engage in

independent w o r k n e c e s s a r y for c r ea t iv i t y (21). Other r e s e a r c h e r s

have cons i s t en t ly found self concept to be an impor t an t v a r i a b l e in

29

academic ach ievemen t (1, 14, 41, 67). Jones and Gr i eneck (23),

and l a t e r Albott and Haney (1), have r e p o r t e d that non- in te l l ec t ive

m e a s u r e s a r e v iable p r e d i c t o r s of a c a d e m i c ach ievement in both high

school and col lege . They went on to r e p o r t tha t the m o s t power fu l of

the p r e d i c t o r s is the s tuden t ' s self concept of his abi l i ty .

Thus , the l i t e r a t u r e suppor t s the conclus ion tha t pe r sona l i t y ,

or m o r e p r e c i s e l y self concept , is r e l a t e d to academic s c h o l a r s h i p

(41). P u r k e y s u m s up the c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h , s ta t ing , " the overwhelm-

ing body of c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s e a r c h points cons i s t en t ly to the r e l a t i o n -

sh ip between self e s t e e m and academic ach ievemen t and sugges t s that

the self concept can no longer be ignored by p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s "

(41, pp. v -v i ) . Although self concept has been found to be an

impor t an t v a r i a b l e in a c a d e m i c ach i evemen t , r e s u l t s have not been

cons i s t en t with r e g a r d to the r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween self concept and

methods of i n s t ruc t i on . T e s t i n g the a s s u m p t i o n that a t each ing

method is e f fec t ive f o r only c e r t a i n s tuden t s , Koenig and McKeachie

(29) des igned a s tudy such that e ach student r e c e i v e d both individual

s tudy and r e g u l a r d i s cus s ion c l a s s e s . S e v e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y m e a s u r e s

w e r e taken throughout the t e r m . The r e s u l t s indicated tha t t h e r e is

no d i f f e r ence in r e g a r d to m a l e s but that women with h igh ach ievemen t

p r e f e r the independent s tudy s e s s i o n s to l e c t u r e s , w h e r e a s women

with m e d i u m ach ievement p r e f e r the l ec tu re p r o c e d u r e s . The au tho r s

30

concluded that h igh -ach i evemen t women may find innovations cha l l eng-

ing, w h e r e a s m i d d l e - a c h i e v e m e n t women have a high f e a r of f a i l u r e

and thus avoid t h r ea t en ing s i tua t ions . The au thors conducted a s econd

study (29) which suppor ted the f indings in t he i r o r ig ina l s tudy and

concluded tha t s tudents with c e r t a i n types of p e r s o n a l i t y should not be

excluded f r o m independent s tudy. Albott and Heney (1) in a l a t e r

s tudy gene ra l ly suppor ted the conc lus ions .

S e v e r a l s tudies of the e f f ec t s of a c a d e m i c expe r i ence on p e r -

sonal i ty sugges ted tha t s tuden t s ' self concepts a r e a f f ec t ed by the f e e d -

back they r e c e i v e f r o m t h e i r a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e (3, 9). In a

study des igned to manipu la te f eedback as wel l as c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s u b -

j e c t s , F r e t z and Engle (16) r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s which c l e a r l y suppor t the

e a r l i e r s tud ies f o r beginning s tuden t s , but the r e s u l t s a r e not so

c l e a r f o r advanced s tuden ts .

Locus of Cont ro l and Academic Achievement

S e v e r a l inves t iga t ions sugges t ed that people with high self

e s t e e m have g r e a t e r po ten t ia l fo r cont ro l ing t h e i r own env i ronment

(7, 12, 49, 50, 71). One method of a s s e s s i n g fee l ings of adequacy

in cont ro l ing the env i ronment was developed by Ro t t e r in his s o c i a l

l ea rn ing t h e o r y (44) and has r e s u l t e d in the I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l Locus

of Con t ro l Sca le s (43). Ro t t e r d e s c r i b e d the I - E concept in

l ea rn ing t h e o r y t e r m s (43). A r e i n f o r c e r ac t s to s t r e n g t h e n an

31

expec tancy that s i m i l a r behavior wi l l p roduce r e w a r d s at s o m e f u t u r e

t i m e (43). F a i l u r e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t to occur s e r v e s to ext inguish

the expec tancy . Thus it fol lows that r e i n f o r c e m e n t which is not

s een by the sub jec t as contingent upon the s u b j e c t ' s own behav io r wi l l

not i n c r e a s e an expectancy to the extent tha t it would if it is contingent

(43).

R e i n f o r c e m e n t which is not contingent upon a p e r s o n ' s behav-

ior wil l not i n c r e a s e an expec tancy to the extent that r e i n f o r c e m e n t

tha t is contingent on a p e r s o n ' s behav ior wil l (43). To the extent

that r e i n f o r c e r s a r e r e l a t e d to one ' s own behav io r , p e r s o n a l behavior

is viewed in t e r m s of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l locus of con t ro l (43). In

R o t t e r ' s t h e o r y , those who a r e ex t e rna l ly o r ien ted tend to bel ieve tha t

r e i n f o r c e m e n t is independent of t h e i r behav ior , tha t it is con t ro l l ed by

luck, chance , f a t e , or power fu l o thers (43). In c o n t r a s t to the

ex te rna l ly o r i en ted p e r s o n , the in t e rna l ly o r i en ted p e r s o n p e r c e i v e s

tha t r e i n f o r c e m e n t is contingent upon his own behavior (43).

P h a r e s (39) has r e p o r t e d tha t belief in i n t e r n a l or e x t e r n a l

con t ro l may a f fec t p e r f o r m a n c e on some t a s k s . P h a r e s fe l t tha t

individuals u t i l ize pas t p e r f o r m a n c e as a b a s i s f o r f u t u r e expec ta t ions

of p e r f o r m a n c e . In chance s i tua t ions , t h e r e is l i t t le gene ra l i za t ion

for f u tu r e p e r f o r m a n c e . P h a r e s i n s t ruc t ed half of his sub jec t s that

the t a s k s w e r e so diff icul t tha t s u c c e s s on t h e m was a m a t t e r of luck.

32

The other half of the sub jec t s w e r e told s u c c e s s was dependent upon

the s u b j e c t ' s ski l l . P h a r e s found that expec tanc ies fol lowing s u c c e s s

and f a i l u r e w e r e s igni f icant ly g r e a t e r f o r t h o s e sub j ec t s who be l ieved

that s u c c e s s was based on t h e i r sk i l l than f o r t hose sub jec t s who

bel ieved s u c c e s s was based on luck.

L i v e r a n t and Scodel (27) r e p o r t e d tha t in ro l l ing dice,

e x t e r n a l l y - o r i e n t e d p e r s o n s gene ra l ly r e s p o n d to prev ious ou tcomes ,

ignor ing object ive p robab i l i t i e s . I n t e r n a l l y - o r i e n t e d sub j ec t s tend

to be caut ious and plan se lec t ion of p robab i l i t i e s . The au thors con-

cluded that the i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l v a r i a b l e does a f fec t the m a n n e r in

which object ive s i tua t ions a r e c a t ego r i zed .

Le fcou r t (26) found that individuals who main ta in e x t e r n a l

cont ingencies tend to wi thdraw f r o m chal lenges and avoid involvement ,

w h e r e a s t h o s e who main ta in i n t e r n a l cont ingencies a r e ac t ive ly

involved in s i tua t ions . In te rna l ly d e t e r m i n e d individuals , being

highly pe rcep t ive to cues which may br ing r e i n f o r c e m e n t , bel ieve

tha t they d e t e r m i n e t h e i r behav ior .

P e r c e i v e d con t ro l of r e i n f o r c e m e n t s as a m a j o r va r i ab le in

de t e rmin ing the e f f ec t i venes s of to ta l or p a r t i a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t in

l ea rn ing s i tua t ions has been suppor ted by J a m e s and Ro t t e r (20).

The r e s e a r c h e r s concluded that

33

In m o s t c a s e s of 100% or n e a r 100% r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h e i nd iv idua l who r e g a r d s t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t as d e p e n d -ent upon s o m e kind of e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l would a s s u m e e a r l y in t h e ex t inc t ion t r i a l s e i t h e r t h a t luck had t u r n e d a g a i n s t h i m or t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r w a s no l o n g e r r e w a r d -ing the s a m e b e h a v i o r . On t h e o the r hand , a s u b j e c t who r e g a r d e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t as a f u n c t i o n of h i s own s k i l l would e x t i n g u i s h m o r e s lowly u n d e r 100% r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h a n u n d e r p a r t i a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t b e c a u s e it would t a k e h i m l o n g e r t o a c c e p t t h e f a c t t ha t h i s p r e s u m a b l y s t a b l e s k i l l s had d i m i n i s h e d . He is not a n t i c i p a t i n g e x t e r n a l c h a n g e s in t h e s i t u a t i o n w h i c h w i l l a ccoun t f o r f a i l u r e (20, p. 163).

T h e f i nd ings of J a m e s and R o t t e r (20) w e r e l a t e r s u b s t a n -

t i a t e d by Ho lden and R o t t e r (19), who u t i l i z ed a n o n v e r b a l m e a s u r e of

ex t inc t ion . R o t t e r , L i v e r a n t , and C r o w n e (45) conc luded tha t

w h e r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s due t o c h a n c e , t h e o c c u r r e n c e of r e i n f o r c e -

m e n t l e ads to l e s s l e a r n i n g b e c a u s e p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e is a l e s s

s t a b l e p r e d i c t o r of f u t u r e o c c u r r e n c e of t h e e v e n t .

T h e concep t of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l h a s b e e n r e l a t e d

t o a c h i e v e m e n t by s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s . In an e a r l y s tudy it w a s

found tha t adu l t s who exhib i t h igh n e e d f o r a c h i e v e m e n t h a v e s o m e

e x p e c t a t i o n s in t h e i r ab i l i t y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o u t c o m e of t h e i r e f f o r t s

(33, pp. 331 -332) . Y e a r s l a t e r , C r a n d a l l , Ka tkovsky , and C r a n d a l l

(6) conduc t ed s i m i l a r r e s e a r c h , wh ich s u p p o r t e d M c C l e l l a n d ' s r e s u l t s ,

w i t h c h i l d r e n . T h e r e s e a r c h e r s found tha t f o r g i r l s a r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n a s e n s e of p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and a c t u a l s u c c e s s e x i s t s ,

34

w h e r e a s f o r boys self r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r f a i l u r e was r e l a t e d t o t h e i r

d e g r e e of i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l .

C r a n d a l l , Ka tkovsky , and P r e s t o n (7) r e p o r t e d t h a t in

p r i m a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l is a s s o c i a t e d wi th t h e t i m e

b o y s spend in i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s and the d e g r e e t o wh ich t h e y s t r i v e

f o r s u c c e s s in t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s du r ing t h e i r f r e e t i m e , w h e r e a s t h e

s a m e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not s i g n i f i c a n t f o r g i r l s .

T h a t locus of c o n t r o l i s h igh ly r e l a t e d t o a c h i e v e m e n t f o r

m a l e s h a s b e e n s u p p o r t e d by Nowick i and R o u n d t r e e (38). T h e

r e s e a r c h e r s conc luded t h a t a p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n m a l e s and f e m a l e s m a y be t h a t c u l t u r a l r e w a r d s f o r a c a d e m i c

a c h i e v e m e n t r e i n f o r c e m a l e s , w h e r e a s r e w a r d s f o r i n v o l v e m e n t in

e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s r e i n f o r c e f e m a l e s .

R o t t e r and M u l b r y (27) i n v e s t i g a t e d w h e t h e r i n t e r n a l l y -

and e x t e r n a l l y - o r i e n t e d s u b j e c t s d i f f e r on the v a l u e g iven t o t h e s a m e

r e i n f o r c e r depend ing on w h e t h e r i t i s p e r c e i v e d as con t ingen t on s k i l l

or on c h a n c e . T h e r e s u l t s c o n f i r m e d t h e i r h y p o t h e s i s s i n c e

i n t e r n a l l y - o r i e n t e d s u b j e c t s t a k e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o n g e r w i th s k i l l

i n s t r u c t i o n s and ex t e rna l ly -*o r i en t ed s u b j e c t s t a k e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o n g e r

wi th c h a n c e i n s t r u c t i o n s .

It would a p p e a r t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s tha t t h e i n t e r n a l l y -

o r i e n t e d i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e i v e s wha t h a p p e n s t o h i m as r e l a t e d t o h i s

35

own b e h a v i o r and tha t he p l a c e s m o r e v a l u e on r e w a r d s b a s e d on s k i l l

t h a n upon c h a n c e have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a c h i e v e m e n t . T h u s R o t t e r

and M u l b r y conc luded ,

If it is t r u e tha t g r o u p s who l e a r n t o expec t c h a n c e or f a t e o r p o w e r f u l o t h e r s t o c o n t r o l t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t e n d a l s o t o p l a c e v a l u e on r e i n f o r c e m e n t s wh ich t h e y s e e a s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e i r ou t s ide i n f l u e n c e s t h a n t h o s e which t h e y p e r c e i v e as a f u n c t i o n of t h e i r own s k i l l , it would i m p l y t h a t t h e y would be l e s s m o t i v a t e d t o w a r d s an i n c r e a s e in s k i l l or a c h i e v e m e n t (47, p. 603) .

It a p p e a r s t h a t c o n t r o l o r i e n t a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o a c h i e v e m e n t

in c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y m a l e s , but l e s s so in a d u l t s . R o t t e r (43)

l i s t s two l i m i t a t i o n s : (1) Among c o l l e g e - a g e d m a l e s t h e r e a r e m a n y

e x t e r n a l l y - o r i e n t e d i n d i v i d u a l s , m a n y of w h o m a r e d e f e n s i v e a s a

s h i e l d a g a i n s t f a i l u r e . Many of t h e s e e x t e r n a l s s t r i v e in h igh ly

s t r u c t u r e d s i t u a t i o n s but a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h t h e e x p r e s -

s ion of e x t e r n a l a t t i t u d e s . (2) " . . . i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l a t t i -

t u d e s a r e obv ious ly not g e n e r a l i z e d a c r o s s the b o a r d , and in the h igh ly

s t r u c t u r e d a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t s i t u a t i o n is p r o b a b l y m o r e s p e c i f i -

c i ty d e t e r m i n i n g r e s p o n s e t h a n in o t h e r k inds of s i t u a t i o n s " (43,

p. 31). R o t t e r in a r e c e n t a r t i c l e (45) s u g g e s t e d t h a t w h e n ab i l i t y

i s c o n t r o l l e d , a c h i e v e m e n t can be p r e d i c t e d in t h e e a r l y g r a d e s a s a

f u n c t i o n of d e g r e e of i n t e r n a l v e r s u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . As t h e s t uden t

e n t e r s c o l l e g e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n g r a d e s and locus of c o n t r o l

i s not a p p a r e n t . What does d i f f e r e n t i a t e one s tuden t f r o m a n o t h e r ,

36

with the s a m e abi l i ty , at the col lege level is leve l of mot iva t ion or

value p laced on a c a d e m i c ach ievement r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . F u r t h e r ,

s o m e s tudents may v e r b a l l y r e l y on e x t e r n a l locus of con t ro l m e a s u r e s

as a defense or r a t iona l i za t ion f o r expected f a i l u r e s , al though in a

compet i t ive s i tua t ion they may be expected to act f r o m an i n t e rna l

locus of con t ro l . T h e s e sub jec t s Ro t t e r labe ls "de fens ive e x t e r n a l s . "

Synthes is of Re la ted L i t e r a t u r e

Much of the e a r l y impe tus to the appl ica t ion of l ea rn ing p r i n -

ciples to t each ing was r e c o r d e d by B. F . Skinner (56). S k i n n e r ' s

ea r ly w ork with p r o g r a m m e d ins t ruc t ion yielded many avenues f o r

f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and r e f i n e m e n t leading to the p r inc ip le s of i m m e d i -

ate f eedback and student pacing (56, 5?, 59). S e v e r a l a t t empt s t o

analyze some of the components and advantages of p r o g r a m m e d

ins t ruc t ion within col lege t each ing have been r e c o r d e d (4, 24, 25, 32,

54). Although the i nco rpo ra t i on of s o m e of the p r inc ip l e s of l ea rn ing

into t each ing have been s u c c e s s f u l , r e l a t i ve ly few a t t empts have been

m a d e to analyze the components which make up b e h a v i o r a l i n s t r u c -

t ion . P o s s i b l y the r e a s o n fo r the r e l u c t a n c e of t each ing p e r s o n n e l

to apply a b e h a v i o r a l technology to t each ing is that it i s not we l l

unders tood which student wi l l benef i t f r o m it.

One app roach to the inves t iga t ion of p e r s o n a l i t y s t a t e s that

p e r s o n a l i t y is l e a rned (30). Thus , p e r s o n a l i t y i s , by defini t ion,

37

r e l a t e d t o l e a r n i n g and educa t i on . S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s have sought

t o r e l a t e a s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l i t y type t o s u c c e s s in a s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l a p p r o a c h (61, 68).

One i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of p e r s o n a l i t y is self c o n c e p t . T h e

s o c i a l s c i e n c e l i t e r a t u r e i s r e p l e t e w i th t h o u s a n d s of t h e o r e t i c a l a r t i -

c l e s and r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s r e l a t i n g t o self c o n c e p t (70). Self c o n c e p t ,

h o w e v e r , h a s been u s e d in d i v e r s e ways by m a n y i n v e s t i g a t o r s (70).

Wyl ie h a s r e v i e w e d t h e c o n s t r u c t of self concep t and s u g g e s t s t h a t i t

h a s b e e n r e l a t e d t o a l m o s t e v e r y o the r p s y c h o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e at one

t i m e or a n o t h e r (70). In s p i t e of t h e a t t e n t i o n pa id to t h e c o n s t r u c t

of self c o n c e p t , t h e r e a r e no wide ly a c c e p t e d s t a n d a r d t h e o r e t i c a l

o r o p e r a t i o n a l de f in i t i ons (42). T h a t self concep t i s i m p o r t a n t in

a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t , h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n s u p p o r t e d by m a n y s t u d i e s

(1, 15, 23, 41 , 67). S e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s s u g g e s t t h a t self concep t

i s t he m o s t p o w e r f u l n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e p r e d i c t o r of a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e -

m e n t (1, 23). P u r k e y s t a t e s t h a t " the body of c o n t e m p o r a r y

r e s e a r c h po in t s i n s i s t e n t l y to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n self e s t e e m

and a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t , and s u g g e s t s t ha t se l f concep t can no

l o n g e r be i g n o r e d by p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s " (41, pp. v - v i ) .

One m e t h o d of a s s e s s i n g f e e l i n g s of a d e q u a c y in c o n t r o l i n g

the e n v i r o n m e n t h a s b e e n deve loped by R o t t e r in to t h e I n t e r n a l -

E x t e r n a l L o c u s of C o n t r o l S c a l e s (43). R o t t e r in h is s o c i a l l e a r n i n g

38

t h e o r y d e s c r i b e s t h e I - E concep t in l e a r n i n g t h e o r y t e r m s (43). A

r e i n f o r c e r a c t s to s t r e n g t h e n an e x p e c t a n c y t h a t s i m i l a r b e h a v i o r

w i l l p r o d u c e r e w a r d s at s o m e f u t u r e t i m e . F a i l u r e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t

t o o c c u r s e r v e s t o e x t i n g u i s h the e x p e c t a n c y (43).

R e i n f o r c e m e n t wh ich is not con t ingen t upon a p e r s o n ' s

b e h a v i o r w i l l not i n c r e a s e an e x p e c t a n c y of f u t u r e r e w a r d s f o r t h a t

b e h a v i o r . R e i n f o r c e m e n t wh ich is con t ingen t upon b e h a v i o r w i l l

i n c r e a s e an e x p e c t a n c y of f u t u r e r e w a r d s f o r t h a t b e h a v i o r (43). T h e

ex ten t t o w h i c h r e i n f o r c e r s a r e r e l a t e d t o p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r is v i e w e d

in t e r m s of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l l ocus of c o n t r o l (43). T h o s e who a r e

e x t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d , in R o t t e r ' s t h e o r y , t e n d t o b e l i e v e t h a t r e i n f o r c e -

m e n t is i ndependen t of t h e i r b e h a v i o r , t h a t i s is c o n t r o l l e d by luck ,

c h a n c e , f a t e , o r p o w e r f u l o t h e r s . In c o n t r a s t , t h o s e who a r e i n t e r n -

a l ly o r i e n t e d p e r c e i v e t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s con t ingen t upon t h e i r

b e h a v i o r (43).

T h e c o n c e p t of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l of r e i n f o r c e r s h a s

b e e n r e l a t e d to a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t in a n u m b e r of s t u d i e s . C r a n -

da l l , K a t k o v s k y , and C r a n d a l l (6) h a v e r e p o r t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n who

t e n d t o be h i g h in n e e d f o r a c h i e v e m e n t b e l i e v e in t h e i r own ab i l i t y t o

c o n t r o l t he o u t c o m e of t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e . O t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s (43,

46, 47) have ob ta ined e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e r e s u l t s u t i l i z ing adu l t s

in the l e a r n i n g s e t t i n g s . A n u m b e r of s t u d i e s (38, 46, 47) have

39

s u g g e s t e d tha t i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l e x p e c t a n c y is r e l a t e d to

a c h i e v e m e n t in t he a c a d e m i c s e t t i n g .

In g e n e r a l , t h e p e r s o n who is i n t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d t e n d s

(1) t o be a l e r t t o c u e s r e l e v a n t t o p r o v i d i n g d i r e c t i o n s f o r f u t u r e

b e h a v i o r s ; (2) t o t ake a c t i o n t o w a r d i m p r o v e m e n t of h is l i fe s i t u a -

t i on ; (3) to be a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t e d and p l a c e g r e a t e r v a l u e on h i s

own ab i l i t y ; and (4) t o be r e s i s t a n t t o e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s (47, p.

25) .

C H A P T E R BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Albot t , W i l l i a m L . and J a c k N. H a n e y , " S e l f - C o n c e p t , Cho ice of Study P l a n and P e r f o r m a n c e in an I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y C o u r s e , 11 J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 65 (Apr i l , 1972), 173-177 .

2. A r o n s o n , E . and D. M e t t e e , " D i s h o n e s t B e h a v i o r a s a F u n c t i o n of D i f f e r e n t L e v e l s of Induced S e l f - E s t e e m , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l i t y and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 9 (1968), 121-127 .

3. B o r i s l o w , B . , " S e l f - E v a l u a t i o n and A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t , " J o u r n a l of C o u n s e l i n g P s y c h o l o g y , 9 ( M a r c h , 1962), 2 4 6 -254 .

4 . B o r n , Dav id G. , M. G. S t ephen , and M i c h a e l L . D a v i s , " E x a m i -na t ion P e r f o r m a n c e in L e c t u r e D i s c u s s i o n and P e r s o n a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n C o u r s e s , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 5 (Spr ing , 1972), 3 3 - 4 3 .

5. Ca lhoun , J a m e s F . , " M o d i f y i n g the A c a d e m i c P e r f o r m a n c e of t h e C h r o n i c P s y c h i a t r i c Inpa t i en t , " J o u r n a l of Consu l t i ng and C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , 42 (Apr i l , 1974), 62.

6. C r a n d a l l , V. C. , N. K a t k o v s k y , and V. J . C r a n d a l l , " C h i l d r e n ' s B e l i e f s in T h e i r Own C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t s in I n t e l l e c t u a l - A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t S i t u a t i o n s , " Chi ld D e v e l o p m e n t , 36 ( M a r c h , 1965), 90 -109 .

7. _, , and Anne P r e s t o n , " M o t i v a t i o n a l and Abi l i ty D e t e r m i n a n t s of Young C h i l d r e n ' s I n t e l l e c t u a l A c h i e v e m e n t B e h a v i o r , " Ch i ld D e v e l o p m e n t , 33 ( S e p t e m b e r , 1962), 6 4 3 - 6 6 1 .

8. C u r t i s , F . D. and G. G. Woods , "A Study of t h e R e l a t i v e T e a c h i n g V a l u e s of F o u r C o m m o n P r a c t i c e s in C o r r e c t i n g E x a m i n a t i o n P a p e r , " Schoo l R e v i e w , 37 ( O c t o b e r , 1929), 6 1 5 - 6 2 3 .

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41

9. D e n m a r k , F . and M. Gu t t en tag , " T h e E f f e c t of Co l l ege A t t e n d -a n c e on M a t u r e W o m e n : C h a n g e s in S e l f - C o n c e p t and E v a l u a t i o n of S tudent R o l e , " J o u r n a l of S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 69 ( J a n u a r y , 1966), 155-158 .

10. D u s t i n , D a v i d S . , "Some E f f e c t s of E x a m F r e q u e n c y , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e c o r d , 21 ( S u m m e r , 1971), 4 0 9 - 4 1 4 .

11. F a r m e r , John , G e r a l d D. L a c h t e r , J . J o e l , and K. G r e t t y , " T h e Ro le of P r o c t o r i n g in P e r s o n a l i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n , " J o u r n a l of App l i ed B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 5 ( W i n t e r , 1972), 4 0 1 - 4 0 4 .

12. F i s h , B. and S. K a r a b e n i c k , " T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Self -E s t e e m and L o c u s of C o n t r o l , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 29 ( D e c e m b e r , 1971), 784.

13. F i t t s , W . H . , M a n u a l f o r the T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e , N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1965.

14. , T h e Self Concep t and P e r f o r m a n c e , M o n o g r a p h 5, N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

15. , e t a l . , Self Concep t and Self A c t u a l i z a t i o n , M o n o -g r a p h 3, N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

16. F r e t z , B r u c e R . and David A. E n g l e , " C h a n g e s in Self Concep t a s a F u n c t i o n of A c a d e m i c T e s t R e s u l t s , " J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 66 ( J a n u a r y , 1973), 2 2 7 - 2 2 9 .

17. G a r t n e r , A len , M. K o h l e r , and F . R i e s s m a n , C h i l d r e n T e a c h Youth , New Y o r k , H a r p e r and Row, 1971.

18. H a l l , C . S . and G. L i n d z e y , T h e o r i e s of P e r s o n a l i t y , New Y o r k , John Wi ley and Co. , Inc . , 1970.

19- H a l d e n , Kenne th and J u l i a n B. R o t t e r , " S u p p l e m e n t a r y R e p o r t : A N o n v e r b a l M e a s u r e of E x t i n c t i o n in Sk i l l and Chance S i t u a -t i o n s , " J o u r n a l of E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 63 (May, 1962), 519 -520 .

42

20. J a m e s , W i l l i a m and J u l i a n R o t t e r , " P a r t i a l and 100% R e i n -f o r c e m e n t u n d e r Chance and Sk i l l Cond i t i ons , " J o u r n a l of E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 55 (May, 1958), 3 9 7 - 4 0 3 .

21. J a n i s , T . , " P e r s o n a l i t y C o r r e l a t e s of S u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o P e r -s u a s i o n , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l i t y , 22 ( S e p t e m b e r , 1954), 5 0 4 - 5 1 8 .

22. J o h n s o n , J . M. and G. O ' N e i l , " T h e A n a l y s i s of P e r f o r m a n c e C r i t e r i a Def in ing C o u r s e G r a d e s a s a D e t e r m i n a n t of Co l l ege S tudent A c a d e m i c P e r f o r m a n c e , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 6 ( S u m m e r , 1973), 161-168 .

23. J o n e s , John G. and L a u r a b e t h G r i e n e c k , " M e a s u r e s of Self Perception as Predictors of Scholastic Achievement, " Journal of Educational Research, 63 (January, 1970), 2 0 1 -203.

24 . K e l l e r , F . S . , " G o o d - b y e T e a c h e r , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 1 (Spr ing , 1968), 7 9 - 8 9 .

25 . , "A P e r s o n a l C o u r s e in P s y c h o l o g y , " in C o n t r o l of H u m a n B e h a v i o r , ed i t ed by R . T . U l r i c k and R. M a r y , C h i c a g o , Scot t F o r e s m a n and Co. , 1966.

26 . L e f c o u r t , H e r b e r t , " E f f e c t s of Cue E x p l i c a t i o n upon P e r s o n s M a i n t a i n i n g E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l E x p e c t a n c i e s , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l and Soc i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 58 ( M a r c h , 1967), 137-146 .

27. L i v e r a n t , S. and A. Scode l , " I n t e r n a l and E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l a s D e t e r m i n a n t s of D e c i s i o n Making u n d e r Condi t ions of R i s k , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 7 (Augus t , I960) , 59 -67 .

28. L loyd , K. E . and N. J . Knu tzen , "A Self P a c e d C o u r s e in t h e E x p e r i m e n t a l A n a l y s i s of B e h a v i o r , " J o u r n a l of App l i ed B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s , 2 ( S u m m e r , 1969), 125-133 .

29- Koenig, Kathryn and J . W . McKeachie, "Personality and Independent Study, " Journal of Educational Psychology, 50 (March, 1959), 132-134 .

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31. L y s a u g h t , J . P . a n d C . M . W i l l i a m s , A Guide t o P r o g r a m m e d I n s t r u c t i o n , New Y o r k , John Wi ley and S o n s , 1963.

32. M c M i c h a e l , J . S . and J . R . C o r e y , " C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t in an I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y C o u r s e P r o d u c e s B e t t e r L e a r n i n g , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 2 (Spr ing , 1959), 9 6 - 1 0 6 .

33. M c C l e l l a n d , D. C. , J . W . A lk inson , R . A . C l a r k , and E . L . L o w e l l , T h e A c h i e v e m e n t Mot ive , New Y o r k , A p p l e t o n -C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1953.

34. Ma lo t t , R i c h a r d W. and J . G. Sv in i ck i , " C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e -m e n t in an I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y C o u r s e f o r One T h o u s a n d S t u d e n t s , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e c o r d , 19 ( O c t o b e r , 1969), 545 -556.

35. M i l l e r , L . Ke i th , F . H . W e a v e r , and G. S e m b s , "A P r o c e d u r e f o r M a i n t a i n i n g S tudent P r o g r e s s in a P e r s o n a l i z e d U n i v e r s i t y C o u r s e , " J o u r n a l of App l i ed B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 7 (Spr ing , 1974), 8 7 - 9 2 .

36. M o r r i s , C . J . and G. M. K i m b r e l , " P e r f o r m a n c e and A t t i t u d i n a l E f f e c t s of t h e K e l l e r Method in an I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y C o u r s e , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e c o r d , 22 ( F a l l , 1972), 5 2 3 - 5 3 0 .

37. Mount , G e o r g e , "An E v a l u a t i o n of a Con t ingency M a n a g e m e n t A p p r o a c h in T e a c h i n g an I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y C o u r s e , " u n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Schoo l of E d u c a t i o n , N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Den ton , T e x a s , 1971.

38. Nowick i , S . and J . R o u n d t r e e , " C o r r e l a t e s of L o c u s of C o n t r o l in S e c o n d a r y Age S t u d e n t s , " D e v e l o p m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 4 (May, 1971), 4 7 7 - 4 7 8 .

39. P h a r e s , E . J e r r y , " E x p e c t a n c y C h a n g e s in Sk i l l and C h a n c e S i t u a t i o n s , " J o u r n a l of A b n o r m a l and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 54 (May, 1957), 3 3 9 - 3 4 2 .

40 . P r e s s e y , S. L . , "A S i m p l e A p p a r a t u s w h i c h Gives T e s t s and S c o r e s and T e a c h e r s , " Schoo l and S o c i e t y , 23 ( M a r c h , 1926), 3 7 3 - 3 7 6 .

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41. P u r k e y , W. W. , Self Concep t and S c h o o l A c h i e v e m e n t , E n g l e -wood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Inc . , 1970.

42. R o b i n s o n , J . P . and P . R. S h a v e r , M e a s u r e s of S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g i c a l A t t i t u d e s , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n , I n s t i t u t e f o r S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , 1969.

43. R o t t e r , J . " G e n e r a l i z e d E x p e c t a n c i e s f o r I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h , 80 (1966), N u m b e r 609.

44. , S o c i a l L e a r n i n g and C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , New J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1954.

45 . , " S o m e P r o b l e m s and M i s c o n c e p t i o n s R e l a t e d t o t h e C o n s t r u c t of I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n -f o r c e m e n t , " J o u r n a l of C o n s u l t i n g and C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , 43 ( J a n u a r y , 1975), 5 6 - 6 7 .

46 . , S h e p h a r d L i v e r a n t , and Douglas C r o w n e , " T h e G r o w t h and E x t i n c t i o n of E x p e c t a n c i e s in Chance C o n t r o l l e d and Sk i l l ed T a s k s , " J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y , 52 ( Ju ly , 1961), 161-177 .

47 . and Roy C. M u l b r y , " I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t and D e c i s i o n T i m e , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 52 ( O c t o b e r , 1961), 598 -604.

48 . Schu l t z , D. P . , A H i s t o r y of M o d e r n P s y c h o l o g y , New York , A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1969.

49. S e e m a n , J u l i u s , " P e r s o n a l i t y I n t e g r a t i o n in Co l l ege W o m e n t , " J o u r n a l of P e r s o n a l i t y and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 4 ( J a n u a r y , 1966), 9 1 - 9 3 .

50. , " T o w a r d a Concep t of P e r s o n a l i t y I n t e g r a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t , 14 ( S e p t e m b e r , 1959), 6 3 3 - 6 3 7 .

51. S e m b s , G e o r g e , " T h e E f f e c t s of M a s t e r y C r i t e r i a and A s s i g n -m e n t L e n g t h on C o l l e g e S tudent T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e , " J o u r n a l of App l i ed B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 7 (Spr ing , 1974), 6 1 - 7 0 .

45

52. S e m b s , G. , B. L . H o p k i n s , and D. E . H u r s h , " T h e E f f e c t s of Study Q u e s t i o n s and G r a d e s on S tudent T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e in a Co l l ege C o u r s e , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 6 (Win t e r , 1973), 6 3 1 - 6 4 3 .

53. S h a v e r , P . , " M e a s u r e m e n t of S e l f - E s t e e m and R e l a t e d C o n -s t r u c t s , " in J . P . Rob inson and P . R . S h a v e r , M e a s u r e s of S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g i c a l A t t i t u d e s , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n , I n s t i -t u t e f o r S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , 1969.

54. S h e p p a r d , W. C. and H. G. M a c D e r m o t , " D e s i g n and E v a l u a t i o n of a P r o g r a m m e d C p u r s e in I n t r o d u c t o r y P s y c h o l o g y , " J o u r n a l of Appl ied B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s , 3 (Spr ing , 1970), 5 - 1 1 .

55. S k i n n e r , B . F . , C o n t i n g e n c i e s of R e i n f o r c e m e n t , New York , A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1969.

56. , S c i e n c e and H u m a n B e h a v i o r , New Y o r k , M a c m i l -lan Co. , 1953.

57. , " T e a c h i n g M a c h i n e s , " S c i e n c e , 28 ( O c t o b e r , 1958), 969 -977 .

58. , T h e B e h a v i o r of O r g a n i s m s , New Y o r k , A p p l e t o n -C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1938.

59- » " T h e S c i e n c e of L e a r n i n g and t h e A r t of T e a c h i n g , " H a r v a r d E d u c a t i o n a l R e v i e w , 24 (Spr ing , 1954), 86 -97 .

60. , T h e T e c h n o l o g y of T e a c h i n g , New Y o r k , A p p l e t o n -C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1968.

61. S m i t h , D. and E . P . Donald , " F i t T e a c h i n g Methods t o P e r s o n -a l i ty S t r u c t u r e , " H i g h Schoo l J o u r n a l , 39 ( D e c e m b e r , 1955), 167-171 .

62. T a y l o r , P a t r i c i a , "S tudent P e r f o r m a n c e and At t i t udes in a C o n -t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t C o u r s e , " J o u r n a l of E x p e r i m e n t a l E v a l u a t i o n , 43 (Spr ing , 1975), 5 5 - 6 0 .

63. T o b i a s , S igmund , "Rev iew of the R e s p o n s e Mode I s s u e , " Rev iew of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 143 (Spr ing , 1973), 193-204.

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64. W a t s o n , J . B . , B e h a v i o r : An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o C o m p a r a t i v e P s y c h o l o g y , New Y o r k , H e n r y Hol t and Co. , 1914.

65. and W. MacDouga l l , T h e B a t t l e of B e h a v i o r i s m , New Y o r k , W . W . N o r t o n and Co. , I n c . , 1929.

66. W h a l e y , D. L . and R. M. M a l o t t , E l e m e n t a r y P r i n c i p l e s of B e h a v i o r , Ann A r b o r , Mich igan , E d w a r d s B r o t h e r s , Inc . , 1969.

67. W i l l i a m s , R . L . and S. Co le , "Self Concep t and School A d j u s t -m e n t , " P e r s o n n e l and Guidance J o u r n a l , 1 ( J a n u a r y , 1968), 4 7 8 - 4 8 1 .

68. W i s p e , L. G. , " E v a l u a t i n g Sec t ion T e a c h i n g Methods in the I n t r o d u c t o r y C o u r s e , " J o u r n a l of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 65 ( N o v e m b e r , 1951), 161-186 .

69. Wyl ie , R . , "Self R a t i n g s , L e v e l of I dea l Self R a t i n g s and D e f e n s i v e n e s s , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 16 ( F e b r u a r y , 1965), 135-140 .

70. , T h e Self C o n e e p t : A C r i t i c a l S u r v e y of P e r t i n e n t L i t e r a t u r e , L i n c o l n , N e b r a s k a , U n i v e r s i t y of N e b r a s k a P r e s s , 1961.

71. Z i l l e r , R . C. , J . H a g e y , M. D. S m i t h , and B . H . Long , " S e l f -E s t e e m : A S o c i a l C o n s t r u c t , " J o u r n a l of C o n s u l t i n g and C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , 33 ( F e b r u a r y , 1969), 8 4 - 9 5 .

C H A P T E R III

M E T H O D S

T h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r on m e t h o d s i s d i v i d e d in to f o u r s e c t i o n s .

T h e f i r s t s e c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i n s t r u m e n t s , t h e

s e c o n d t o t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e d a t a , t h e t h i r d t o t h e

p r o c e d u r e f o r c o l l e c t i o n of t h e d a t a , and t h e f o u r t h s e c t i o n t o an

e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of d a t a .

D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e I n s t r u m e n t s

T h e I . E . S c a l e i s an i n s t r u m e n t f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t

of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l l o c u s of c o n t r o l w h i c h e v o l v e d f r o m R o t t e r ' s

s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y (9). T h e p r e s e n t p o p u l a r i t y of t h e c o n s t r u c t

c a n be c r e d i t e d in p a r t t o t w o of R o t t e r ' s s t u d e n t s w h o h a v e d e v e l o p e d

s c a l e s f o r i t s m e a s u r e m e n t (7). R o b i n s o n a n d S h a v e r , in t h e i r

r e v i e w of e v a l u a t i o n s of t e s t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s f o r s o c i a l and p s y c h o -

l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s , s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e o v e r a d o z e n t e s t s and f i v e

l i t e r a r y r e v i e w s of t h e c o n s t r u c t (7). T h e p o p u l a r i t y of t h e c o n s t r u c t

i s due a l s o t o i t s w i d e a p p l i c a b i l i t y and s o c i a l r e l e v a n c e (7). T a k e n

a s a w h o l e , t h e r e s e a r c h on t h e c o n s t r u c t of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l l o c u s of

47

48

c o n t r o l conc luded tha t peop le w i th e x t e r n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e l i m i t e d

t o s o m e ex ten t (7).

T h e p r e s e n t I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a l e (the I . E . Sca l e ) w a s

r e d u c e d f r o m s i x t y i t e m s t o t w e n t y - n i n e by R o t t e r , L i v e r a n t , and

C r o w n e (10). R o t t e r (8) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y f o r

the p r e s e n t I . E . s c a l e s i s r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e w i th a s p l i t - h a l f c o e f f i -

c i en t of f r o m . 69 t o . 73. T h o u g h t h e s e e s t i m a t e s a r e only m o d e r -

a t e ly h igh , R o t t e r s t a t e d , "It shou ld be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e i t e m s

a r e not a r r a n g e d in a d i f f i cu l ty h i e r a r c h y , but r a t h e r a r e s a m p l e s of

a t t i t u d e s in a wide v a r i e t y of s i t u a t i o n s . T h e t e s t is an add i t i ve one

and i t e m s a r e not c o m p a r a b l e " (8, p. 10).

T h e I. E . S c a l e is s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d and t a k e s about f i f t e e n

m i n u t e s . T h o u g h no u p p e r o r l ower age l i m i t s h a v e b e e n d i s c e r n e d ,

the I . E . S c a l e h a s b e e n m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d w i t h co l l ege s t u d e n t s

(8).

T h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e (3) w a s c o n s t r u c t e d by

F i t t s in 1955 f r o m a c l i n i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e (12). T h e s c a l e was d e v e l -

oped by a c c u m u l a t i n g a l a r g e q u e s t i o n pool c o m p o s e d of s t a t e m e n t s

f r o m e x i s t i n g t e s t s and o the r o p e n - e n d e d s t a t e m e n t s . T h e s e q u e s -

t i o n s w e r e c l a s s i f i e d by s e v e n c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s in to f i f t e e n c a t e -

g o r i e s (12).

49

The classification resulted in ninety statements, balanced as

to positive and negative content. The selected items were placed in

five general categories: physical self, moral-ethical self, personal

self, family self, and social self. Social self was further divided

into statements of self identity, self acceptance, and behavior. In

addition to the positively and negatively balanced ninety-item scale,

there were ten items selected from the lie scale of the Minnesota

Multiphasic Personality Inventory (9).

The Counseling Form of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale,

which consists of one hundred items, was utilized. The instrument

yields a multi-dimensional composite score which is an aggregate of

eight aspects of self concept: (1) self identity, (2) self satisfac-

tion, (3) behavior, (4) physical self, (5) moral-ethical self,

(6) personal self, (7) family self, and (8) social self. Test-

retest reliability for the total positive composite score over a two-

week period was r = . 92, and that for the subscores was from r -

. 70 to . 90 (4). On convergent validity, the Tennessee Self Concept

Scale correlated - . 70 with the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (4).

The instruments utilized for this investigation were chosen

for the following reasons: (1) The normative data on the Tennessee

Self Concept Scale and the I .E. Scale are impressive when compared

to other instruments measuring the same constructs. (2) The

50

T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e , C o u n s e l i n g F o r m , was r a t e d f i r s t in a

f i e l d of t h i r t y - o n e i n s t r u m e n t s f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of s e l f - e s t e e m

and o the r r e l a t e d c o n s t r u c t s (7). T h e I . E . S c a l e a p p e a r s t o be t h e

m o s t u s e d of the l o c u s - o f - c o n t r o l s c a l e s m e n t i o n e d wi th in t h e l i t e r a -

t u r e . (3) T h e r e is no p u b l i s h e d or p r i n t e d a c h i e v e m e n t i n s t r u m e n t

t o m e a s u r e a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e as de f ined in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n

(4). Al l of the s c a l e s wh ich w e r e c h o s e n o r deve loped a r e p r a c t i c a l

and e c o n o m i c a l t o a d m i n i s t e r , s c o r e , and i n t e r p r e t .

P r o c e d u r e in t h e D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t

T h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t (Appendix C) w a s d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e

p e r f o r m a n c e on C h a p t e r s 9, 10, 11, and 12 of B r e t h o w e r ' s

B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s in B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e

S y s t e m (1). Bo th v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e a c h i e v e -

m e n t t e s t w e r e deve loped fo l lowing p r o c e d u r e s ou t l ined by Sax (11).

A pool of one h u n d r e d m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e t e s t i t e m s w a s f o r m e d .

T h e pool w a s c o m p o s e d of m o d i f i e d p u b l i s h e d i t e m s (2) and i n s t r u c t o r -

m a d e i t e m s . T h e p u b l i s h e d t e s t i t e m s w e r e not u s e a b l e wi thout

m o d i f i c a t i o n f o r the fo l lowing r e a s o n s : F i r s t , a l t hough p u b l i s h e d

t e s t q u e s t i o n s c o n t a i n e d f o u r m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e t e s t s w i th t e n q u e s t i o n s

on e a c h t e s t , f o r e a c h c h a p t e r , m a n y of t h e i t e m s w e r e d e s i g n e d f o r

s u p p l e m e n t a l m a t e r i a l s not r e l a t e d t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A s e c o n d

51

r e a s o n is tha t the m u l t i p l e cho ice t e s t i t e m s in the p u b l i s h e r ' s t e s t

m a n u a l a s s u m e d the f o r m a t of (a) t r u e or f a l s e i t e m s , (b) m a t c h -

ing i t e m s , or (c) i t e m s c o m p o s e d of f ive a l t e r n a t i v e s . A t h i r d

r e a s o n is tha t m a n y of the t e s t i t e m s have m o r e t h a n one c o r r e c t

a n s w e r .

Content va l id i ty f o r the i n s t r u m e n t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d by giving

a o n e - h u n d r e d - q u e s t i o n pool , a long wi th a copy of B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s

in B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m (1), t o f ive

c o m m u n i t y co l lege psycho logy i n s t r u c t o r s on two c a m p u s e s . T h e

i n s t r u c t o r s w e r e a s k e d to r e a d and c a t e g o r i z e e a c h ques t i on in the pool

as t o w h e t h e r the ques t ion " a p p l i e s , " "does not apply , " or "do not

know. " T h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t was c o m p o s e d of the f i r s t e ighty i t e m s

which t h r e e of the f ive judges r a t e d as " a p p l i e s . "

A r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e was e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h a t e s t - r e t e s t

p r o c e d u r e . T h e e i g h t y - q u e s t i o n a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d

t o t w e n t y - t h r e e s tuden t s in an i n t r o d u c t o r y soc io logy c l a s s . Two

w e e k s l a t e r the i n s t r u m e n t was r e a d m i n i s t e r e d to the s a m e g roup .

A coe f f i c i en t of s t ab i l i t y , r = . 89, was ob ta ined . T h e m e a n and

s t a n d a r d devia t ion f o r the f i r s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t

w a s = 2 6 . 5 2 , S. D. ^ = 8 . 2 4 . The m e a n and s t a n d a r d devia t ion

f o r the s econd a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was X2 = 2 8 . 6 5 , S .D»2 = 9 . 9 6 .

52

P r o c e d u r e f o r C o l l e c t i o n of Data

T h e s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s s tudy w e r e t h o s e s t u d e n t s who r e g i s t e r e d

f o r two even ing c l a s s e s in H u m a n R e l a t i o n s at Mounta in View C o l l e g e ,

s p r i n g , 1976. T h e 1976 c o u r s e c a t a l o g u e d e s c r i p t i o n of the c o u r s e

d e s c r i b e s H u m a n R e l a t i o n s as f o l l o w s :

A s tudy involv ing the d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of p s y c h o l o -g i ca l p r i n c i p l e s to h u m a n r e l a t i o n s 1 p r o b l e m s in b u s i -n e s s and i n d u s t r y . C o n s i d e r a t i o n is g iven t o g r o u p d y n a m i c s and a d j u s t m e n t f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o e m p l o y m e n t and a d v a n c e m e n t . T h e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i l l be t a i l o r e d to f i t t he n e e d s of s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d in e a c h s e c t i o n (5,

p. 30).

T h e H u m a n R e l a t i o n s c l a s s e s u t i l i z ed f o r t h i s s tudy w e r e

even ing c l a s s e s , m e e t i n g two t i m e s a w e e k , on T u e s d a y and T h u r s d a y ,

one s e c t i o n fo l lowing the o t h e r . T h e s t u d e n t s in both s e c t i o n s

r e c e i v e d a c o u r s e s y l l a b u s (Appendix A) d u r i n g the f i r s t and s e c o n d

c l a s s m e e t i n g out l in ing the p r o c e d u r e s f o r the c o u r s e . T h e s a m e

i n s t r u c t o r t augh t both s e c t i o n s . T h e s t u d e n t s r e g i s t e r i n g f o r e a c h

s e c t i o n w e r e r a n d o m l y d iv ided into two g r o u p s u t i l i z ing a t a b l e of

r a n d o m n u m b e r s . E a c h n a m e in an a l p h a b e t i z e d l i s t f o r e a c h c l a s s

w a s a s s i g n e d to 1 or 2 a s it a p p e a r s in the t a b l e . T h e p r o c e d u r e of

r a n d o m i z a t i o n of the g roups in e a c h s e c t i o n w a s d e s i g n e d to e l i m i n a t e

any s y s t e m a t i c s o u r c e of b i a s b e t w e e n the g r o u p s .

T h e s t u d e n t s in G r o u p A w e r e given a r e a d i n g a s s i g n m e n t

c o v e r i n g the f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s of B r e t h o w e r - s B e h a v i o r A n a l y s i s in

53

B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m (1). At t h e

end of f i v e w e e k s a f o r t y - q u e s t i o n , m u l t i p l e c h o i c e e x a m i n a t i o n c o v e r -

ing t h e f o u r c h a p t e r s and l e c t u r e m a t e r i a l w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e

g r o u p in t h e c l a s s r o o m by t h e i n s t r u c t o r .

D u r i n g t h e f i r s t f i v e w e e k s t h e s t u d e n t s in G r o u p B w e r e

r e q u i r e d t o a t t e n d c l a s s but t o o k c h a p t e r t e s t s of t e n m u l t i p l e c h o i c e

i t e m s on t h e M y c o m L e a r n i n g M a c h i n e (6). T h e M y c o m m a c h i n e s

w e r e l o c a t e d in t h e T e s t i n g C e n t e r w h i c h i s s i t u a t e d on t h e o p p o s i t e

s i d e of t h e b u i l d i n g f r o m t h e c l a s s r o o m . T h e T e s t i n g C e n t e r w a s

open f i v e d a y s a w e e k , a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e l v e h o u r s a d a y , and f o u r

h o u r s on S a t u r d a y . T h e T e s t i n g C e n t e r w a s s t a f f e d by f u l l - a n d p a r t -

t i m e c o l l e g e e m p l o y e e s . T h e c l a s s l e c t u r e r h a d no p a r t in t h e a d m i n -

i s t r a t i o n of t h e M y c o m t e s t s .

T h e M y c o m L e a r n i n g M a c h i n e a l l o w s t h e s t u d e n t t o d i a l h i s

a n s w e r t o m u l t i p l e c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s . If a s t u d e n t d i a l s t h e c o r r e c t

a n s w e r , it i s r e c o r d e d on a c o u n t e r . If t h e s t u d e n t d i a l s a n i n c o r r e c t

a n s w e r , h e is r e q u i r e d t o r e d i a l u n t i L t h e q u e s t i o n i s a n s w e r e d c o r -

r e c t l y . T h e s t u d e n t w a s r e q u i r e d t o a n s w e r n i n e out of t e n i t e m s

c o r r e c t l y in o r d e r t o p a s s a n y un i t . If t h e s t u d e n t d id no t a c h i e v e

m a s t e r y o v e r a n y c h a p t e r , h e w a s r e q u i r e d t o r e t a k e a d i f f e r e n t t e n -

q u e s t i o n , m u l t i p l e c h o i c e t e s t o v e r t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l . T h e s t u d e n t

c o u l d t a k e a s m a n y a s f o u r d i f f e r e n t t e s t s o v e r a n y one c h a p t e r . If

54

the s t uden t did not a c h i e v e m a s t e r y wi th in f o u r a t t e m p t s , t h e s t u d e n t ' s

g r a d e was r e d u c e d one l e t t e r g r a d e f o r t ha t s e t of f o u r c h a p t e r s .

A t w e n t y - m i n u t e t i m e out w a s i m p o s e d f o r f a i l i n g to m e e t

m a s t e r y on any t e s t . Dur ing the t i m e out , t h e s tuden t w a s not p e r -

m i t t e d in the T e s t i n g C e n t e r . T h e t i m e out p r o c e d u r e s e r v e d as a

m i ld f o r m of p u n i s h m e n t in an a t t e m p t t o r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r of f a i l -

u r e s by induc ing the s tuden t to s tudy the d e s i g n a t e d m a t e r i a l b e f o r e

e n t e r i n g t h e t e s t i n g c e n t e r .

A d o o m s d a y con t ingency was i m p o s e d . A d o o m s d a y is a

s p e c i a l con t ingency wh ich r e q u i r e s t ha t a s t u d e n t c o m p l e t e a s p e c i f i e d

a m o u n t of c o u r s e r e q u i r e m e n t s w i th in a s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d of t i m e (13).

An e x a m p l e of a n a t u r a l d o o m s d a y is t he end of t h e a c a d e m i c s e m e s -

t e r . H a v i n g t h e c o u r s e r e q u i r e m e n t s b r o k e n in to s m a l l e r s e g m e n t s

w h i c h w e r e e v a l u a t e d gave the s tuden t m o r e oppo r tun i t y f o r r e i n f o r c e -

m e n t , and e n s u r e d tha t t h e r e q u i r e d m a t e r i a l w a s c o v e r e d by t h e end

of the t e r m .

At t h e end of t he f i r s t f i ve i n s t r u c t i o n a l w e e k s a f o r t y - q u e s t i o n

m u l t i p l e cho ice e x a m i n a t i o n ove r the a s s i g n e d c h a p t e r s in t h e t e x t

w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e s u b j e c t s in G r o u p A. T h e c l a s s l e c t u r e r

a d m i n i s t e r e d the t e s t . T h e g r a d e d t e s t w a s r e t u r n e d t o t he s t uden t

one w e e k l a t e r . T h e s t u d e n t s in G r o u p B w e r e not a l lowed in the

c l a s s r o o m . In t h e p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r c o l l e c t i o n of

55

da t a , p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s of inva l id i ty and b i a s w e r e c o n t r o l l e d a s f o l -

lows :

1. T h e s a m e i n s t r u c t o r l e c t u r e d t o both the l e c t u r e - t e s t and

t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t g roups at t h e s a m e t i m e .

2 . T h e i n s t r u c t o r had no c o n t r o l over t h e eva lua t i on p r o c e -

d u r e s once t h e t e s t s had b e e n p r e p a r e d and t h e s c h e d u l e e s t a b l i s h e d .

3. T h e t e s t i n g s i t e s f o r the g r o u p s w e r e d i f f e r e n t . The

t e s t s f o r t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t g r o u p w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d

in t h e T e s t i n g C e n t e r , w h e r e a s t h e t e s t s f o r t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t g r o u p

w e r e he ld in t h e c l a s s r o o m .

4. It w a s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e w a s m i n i m a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n

the g r o u p s s i n c e t h e s a m p l e c o n s i s t e d of p a r t - t i m e , n ight s t u d e n t s who

w e r e t o g e t h e r d u r i n g c l a s s t i m e only.

F o r the s e c o n d f ive i n s t r u c t i o n a l w e e k s G r o u p A w a s e x p o s e d

t o l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s de f ined e a r l i e r . T h e

s t u d e n t s in G r o u p B w e r e e x p o s e d t o t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g p r o c e -

d u r e s . Dur ing the s e c o n d f ive i n s t r u c t i o n a l w e e k p e r i o d t h e

T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e (3), t h e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l Sca l e (8),

and the f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o a l l s t u d e n t s . T h e

f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n , c o m p o s e d of e igh ty m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s

c o v e r i n g t h e m a t e r i a l in c h a p t e r s n ine t h r o u g h t w e l v e of B r e t h o w e r ' s

56

t e x t B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s in B u s i n e s s a n d I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l

P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m (1), s e r v e d a s a p r e - t e s t .

At t h e e n d of t h e t e n t h i n s t r u c t i o n a l w e e k , s t u d e n t s w e r e

g i v e n t h e o p t i o n t o s e l e c t e i t h e r t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h o r t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h f o r t h e r e m a i n -

ing s i x w e e k s . T h e s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t e d t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y

m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h w e r e r a n d o m l y d i v i d e d in to G r o u p s A and B .

T h e s t u d e n t s i n G r o u p A w e r e e x p o s e d t o t h e i r s e l e c t e d l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h , i . e . , l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t , w h e r e a s s t u d e n t s

in G r o u p B w e r e p l a c e d in t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h no t s e l e c t e d , i . e . ,

t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h . T h e s t u d e n t s in G r o u p C w e r e e x p o s e d t o

t h e i r s e l e c t e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h , i . e . , t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h .

T h e s t u d e n t s in G r o u p D w e r e p l a c e d in t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h not

s e l e c t e d , i . e . , t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h .

D u r i n g t h e t h i r d f i v e - w e e k i n s t r u c t i o n a l p e r i o d t h e p r e - t e s t

w a s r e a d m i n i s t e r e d aa a p o s t - t e s t t o a l l s t u d e n t s . T h e s t u d e n t s 1 p r e -

t e s t s c o r e w a s s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e p o s t - t e s t s c o r e and t h e r e s u l t i n g

g a i n s c o r e w a s a n a l y z e d f o r a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . At t h e e n d of

t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d a l l d a t a w e r e c a t e g o r i z e d on I B M s h e e t s a n d

s u b m i t t e d t o t h e N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y C o m p u t e r C e n t e r f o r

t h e s t a t i s t i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n s .

57

P r o c e d u r e f o r A n a l y s i s of D a t a

T h e r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s e s w e r e c o n v e r t e d t o n u l l h y p o t h e s e s

a n d t r e a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y . T h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be

n o d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n g r o u p s , w a s t e s t e d a t t h e p = . 05 l e v e l of s i g n i -

f i c a n c e f o r a l l h y p o t h e s e s .

H y p o t h e s i s I , t h a t s u b j e c t s , a f t e r e x p o s u r e t o b o t h l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h e s , w h o s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h t o i n s t r u c t i o n w i l l not

h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r m e a n c o m p o s i t e s c o r e s on t h e T e n n e s s e e

Self C o n c e p t S c a l e , C o u n s e l i n g F o r m (3) t h a n w i l l s u b j e c t s w h o

s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h w a s t e s t e d u t i l i z i n g

a Ji t e s t .

H y p o t h e s i s I I , t h a t s u b j e c t s w h o s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y

m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h w i l l no t h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r m e a n r e w a r d

e x p e c t a n c y a s m e a s u r e d by t h e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a l e (8) t h a n w i l l

s u b j e c t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h w a s t e s t e d u t i l i z i n g a t

t e s t .

H y p o t h e s e s I I I , IV, V , and VI , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t s on

m e a n ga in s c o r e s d e r i v e d f r o m p r e - and p o s t - a c h i e v e m e n t - t e s t s c o r e s

of t w o l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s and of r e c e i v i n g and no t r e c e i v i n g a p r e -

f e r r e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h w e r e e v a l u a t e d u t i l i z i n g an a n a l y s i s of v a r i -

a n c e . T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e d i v i d e d i n to f o u r g r o u p s b a s e d on l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h and r e c e i p t / n o n - r e c e i p t of a s e l e c t e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h . A

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t w o - b y - t w o a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w a s t h e n c o m p u t e d u s i n g t h e s u b j e c t s 1

m e a n g a i n s c o r e on t h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t .

H y p o t h e s i s VII , VIII , a n d IX, t h a t t h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n -

a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h a n d s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h , on c u m u l a t i v e g r a d e po in t a v e r a g e , c u m u l a t i v e n u m b e r of

s e m e s t e r h o u r s , a n d a g e , w a s t e s t e d u t i l i z i n g t t e s t s .

C H A P T E R BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. B r e t h o w e r , D . W . , B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s in B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m , K a l a m a z o o , M i c h i g a n , B e h a v i o r d e l i a , Inc . , 1972.

2 . , I n s t r u c t o r ' s M a n u a l : B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s in B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m , K a l a m a z o o , M i c h i g a n , B e h a v i o r d e l i a , Inc . , 1972.

3. F i t t s , W . H . , M a n u a l f o r t h e T e n n e s s e e Self C o n c e p t S c a l e , N a s h -v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1965.

4 . , T h e Self Concep t and P e r f o r m a n c e , M o n o g r a p h 5, N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

5. Moun ta in View Co l l ege C a t a l o g u e , 1975-1976 , D a l l a s , T e x a s , D a l l a s County C o m m u n i t y Co l l ege D i s t r i c t , 1975-1976 .

6. M y c o m L e a r n i n g M a c h i n e , M y c o m C o r p o r a t i o n , P . O. Box 9576, F o r t "Worth, T e x a s 76107.

7. R o b i n s o n , J . P . and P . R. S h a v e r , M e a s u r e s of S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g i c a l A t t i t u d e s , Ann A r b o r , Mich igan , I n s t i t u t e f o r S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , 1969.

8. R o t t e r , J u l i a n B. , " G e n e r a l i z e d E x p e c t a n c i e s f o r I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h , 80 (1966), N u m b e r 609.

9. , S o c i a l L e a r n i n g and C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , Eng lewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1954.

10. , S h e p h a r d L i v e r a n t , and Douglas C r o w n e , " T h e G r o w t h and E x t i n c t i o n of E x p e c t a n c i e s in C h a n c e C o n t r o l l e d and Sk i l l ed T a s k s , " J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y , 52 ( Ju ly , 1961), 161-177 .

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60

11. Sax , G i l b e r t , E m p i r i c a l F o u n d a t i o n s of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , New J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1968.

12. T h o m p s o n , W. , C o r r e l a t e s of Self C o n c e p t , N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s ' s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

13. Wha ley , D. L . a n d R . W . Ma lo t t , E l e m e n t a r y P r i n c i p l e s of B e h a v i o r , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n , E d w a r d s B r o t h e r s , Inc. , 1969.

C H A P T E R IV

R E S U L T S AND DISCUSSION

T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r is t o p r e s e n t the r e s u l t s of a

c o m p a r i s o n of s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s of a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t , se l f c o n -

cep t , and r e i n f o r c e m e n t e x p e c t a n c i e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who a r e

e v a l u a t e d in a p r e f e r r e d m e t h o d and s t u d e n t s who a r e e v a l u a t e d in a

n o n - p r e f e r r e d m e t h o d . T h e f ind ings a r e p r e s e n t e d in the o r d e r in

w h i c h t h e n ine h y p o t h e s e s a r e s t a t e d in C h a p t e r I.

T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n c o n s i s t e d of jt t e s t s f o r H y p o t h e s e s I,

II , and VII. A t w o - b y - t w o a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w a s u t i l i z e d f o r

H y p o t h e s e s III, IV, V, and VI. S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s of t h e da ta w e r e

m a d e in t e r m s of t h e nu l l h y p o t h e s e s .

E i g h t y - o n e s u b j e c t s , in two s e c t i o n s of P s y c h o l o g y 131

du r ing the s p r i n g , 1976, a t Moun ta in View C o l l e g e , D a l l a s , T e x a s ,

w e r e inc luded in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A t o t a l of s i x t y - e i g h t s u b j e c t s

c o m p l e t e d a l l c o u r s e r e q u i r e m e n t s . D u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l p h a s e of t h e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s ix s u b j e c t s w i t h d r e w f r o m t h e c o u r s e ; f o u r w i t h d r e w

d u r i n g the s e c o n d f i v e - w e e k i n t e r v a l ; and t h r e e w i t h d r e w d u r i n g t h e

f i n a l s i x - w e e k i n t e r v a l a f t e r t he s e l e c t i o n v a r i a b l e had b e e n

61

62

i m p l e m e n t e d . Da ta c o l l e c t e d p r i o r to , but i nc lud ing , s e l e c t i o n of

l e a r n i n g m e t h o d w e r e u t i l i z ed in the a n a l y s i s of da t a .

Al l h y p o t h e s e s w e r e r e s t a t e d in t h e n u l l f o r m f o r t e s t i n g .

H y p o t h e s e s I and II w e r e a n a l y z e d wi th s e v e n t y s u b j e c t s ; H y p o t h e s e s

III, IV, V, and VI w e r e a n a l y z e d wi th s i x t y - e i g h t s u b j e c t s ; H y p o t h e s e s

VII, VIII, and IX w e r e a n a l y z e d wi th s e v e n t y - o n e s u b j e c t s .

T h e fo l lowing r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e o r d e r of the hypoth-

e s e s s t a t e d in C h a p t e r I.

Nu l l H y p o t h e s i s I : S tuden ts who s e l e c t t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t

a p p r o a c h w i l l not have s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t o t a l se l f concep t a s

m e a s u r e d by the T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e (1) t h a n w i l l s t u d e n t s

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h .

S tuden t s s e l e c t i n g l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t p r o d u c e d

h i g h e r m e a n t o t a l se l f concep t s c o r e s on t h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concept

S c a l e t h a n did s t u d e n t s s e l e c t i n g l e c t u r e - t e s t a s r e v e a l e d in T a b l e I.

A_t t e s t of t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e b e t w e e n m e a n s p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e

I w a s c a l c u l a t e d , _t = . 534. Wi th s i x t y - e i g h t d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m ,

the _t r a t i o , s i g n i f i c a n t at t he p = . 05 l eve l , is 1. 998. The_t v a l u e

on the T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t Sca l e is 1. 534, w h i c h is not s i g n i f i c a n t

at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l , r e s u l t i n g in the a c c e p t a n c e of Nul l H y p o t h e s i s I .

F a i l u r e t o r e j e c t t he nu l l h y p o t h e s i s r e s u l t e d in r e j e c t i o n of

the w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s wh ich p r e d i c t e d t h a t s u b j e c t s who s e l e c t e d t h e

63

l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h would have a h i g h e r t o t a l self concep t

as m e a s u r e d by t h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e t h a n would s t u d e n t s

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

T A B L E I

NUMBERS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F C O M P O S I T E SCORES ON THE T E N N E S S E E S E L F C O N C E P T S C A L E O F

S T U D E N T S WHO S E L E C T E D T H E L E C T U R E -CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT AND T H E L E C T U R E - T E S T LEARNING A P P R O A C H

G r o u p s N M e a n s S t a n d a r d Dev ia t i ons

L e c t u r e - C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t 36 3 4 7 . 3 3 3 30. 210

L e c t u r e - T e s t 34 3 3 6 . 7 9 4 27. 055

C o m b i n e d 70 3 4 2 , 2 1 4 29. 003

N o t e : _t t e s t b e t w e e n m e a n s did not r e a c h t h e p = . 05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

It is w o r t h no t ing t h a t t h e t r e n d of t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s

i s not in t h e d i r e c t i o n h y p o t h e s i z e d : t h e m e a n f o r t h e l e c t u r e -

c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t g r o u p is h i g h e r t h a n t h e m e a n of t h e l e c t u r e -

t e s t g r o u p .

Nul l H y p o t h e s i s II : S tuden t s who s e l e c t t h e l e c t u r e -

c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h w i l l not be m o r e e x t e r n a l

64

a s m e a s u r e d by the I . E . S c a l e (2) t h a n w i l l s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a

l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h .

S tuden t s s e l e c t i n g the l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h p r o d u c e d

s l igh t ly h i g h e r m e a n I . E . S c a l e s c o r e s t han did s t u d e n t s s e l e c t i n g

the l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h as r e v e a l e d in T a b l e II.

T A B L E II

N U M B E R , MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F I . E . S C A L E O F S T U D E N T S WHO S E L E C T E D T H E L E C T U R E - C O N T I N G E N C Y

MANAGEMENT AND T H E L E C T U R E - T E S T LEARNING A P P R O A C H

G r o u p s N M e a n s S t a n d a r d Dev ia t i ons

L e c t u r e -Con t ingency M a n a g e m e n t 36 8 . 2 7 8 3 . 2 9 2

L e c t u r e - T e s t 34 9. 088 4 . 159

C o m b i n e d 70 8 . 6 7 1 3. 733

N o t e : _t t e s t b e t w e e n m e a n s did not r e a c h the p = . 05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

In o r d e r to t e s t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

m e a n s , a j t t e s t w a s c a l c u l a t e d . Wi th s i x t y - e i g h t d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m ,

the_t r a t i o s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l is 1. 998. T h e t v a l u e f o r

the I, E . S c a l e r a t i o i s _t = . 907, w h i c h f a i l e d t o r e a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e at

t h e p = . 05 l e v e l , r e s u l t i n g in the a c c e p t a n c e of Ny l l H y p o t h e s i s II.

65

Fa i lu re to r e j ec t the null hypothesis resu l ted in the re jec t ion

of the working hypothesis which predicted t h a t subjects who select the

lecture-cont ingency management learning approach would be more

ex terna l as m e a s u r e d by the I. E. Scale than would students who

selected the l ec tu re - t e s t learning approach.

Null Hypothesis III: Students who receive the l ec tu re -

contingency management approach, r e g a r d l e s s of p re fe rence , will

not achieve significantly higher mean gain s c o r e s than will students

who rece ive the l ec tu re - t e s t approach.

Null Hypothesis IV: Students who rece ive the learning

approach that they p r e f e r will not achieve significantly higher mean

gain s c o r e s than will students who are taught the same subject ma t t e r

in a learning approach they do not p r e f e r .

Null Hypothesis V: Of students who rece ive the learning

approach they p r e f e r , those students who p r e f e r the l ec tu re -

contingency management learning approach will not achieve s ignif i -

cantly higher mean gain s co re s than will s tudents who p re fe r l e c tu r e -

t e s t learning approach.

Null Hypothesis VI: Of students who rece ive the learning

approach they do not p r e f e r , those students who rece ive the l ec tu re -

contingency management learning approach will not achieve significantly

66

h i g h e r m e a n ga in s c o r e s t h a n w i l l s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e t h e l e c t u r e -

t e s t a p p r o a c h .

Nul l H y p o t h e s e s III, IV, V, and VI w e r e a n a l y z e d w i th s i x t y -

e ight s u b j e c t s . T h e m e a n p r e - t e s t s c o r e f o r t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y

m a n a g e m e n t g r o u p is 40 . 778, w h e r e a s t h e m e a n p r e - t e s t s c o r e f o r t h e

l e c t u r e - t e s t g r o u p is 3 8 . 9 3 8 . T h e m e a n p o s t - t e s t s c o r e s a r e 54. 139

and 53. 157, r e s p e c t i v e l y , as r e v e a l e d in T a b l e III.

T A B L E HI

NUMBERS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F P R E -AND P O S T - A C H I E V E M E N T T E S T SCORES BY LEARNING

M E T H O D R E C E I V E D

G r o u p s N M e a n s S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s

P r e - t e s t 40. 778 6 . 3 6 1

L e c t u r e - C o n t i n g e n c y M a n a g e m e n t 35

P o s t - t e s t 54. 139 9. 144

P r e - t e s t 3 8 . 9 3 8 8. 374

L e c t u r e - t e s t 33

P o s t - t e s t —

5 3 . 1 5 7 8. 912

C o m b i n e d 68 4 6 . 7 5 3 8. 198

N o t e : _t t e s t b e t w e e n p r e - t e s t m e a n s f a i l e d t o r e a c h the p = . 05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

67

It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t g r o u p

w a s i n i t i a l l y s u p e r i o r to t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t g r o u p and m a i n t a i n e d t h e

s u p e r i o r i t y on t h e p o s t - t e s t .

A_t t e s t w a s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e p r e - t e s t s c o r e s t o a s s u r e

equa l i t y of t h e g r o u p s p r i o r t o t r e a t m e n t . T h e R v a l u e on t h e p r e -

t e s t s c o r e s b e t w e e n t h e l e a r n i n g m o d e s is_t = . 969 w h i c h f a i l e d t o

r e a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e at t h e p = . 05 l eve l .

S tuden t s who r e c e i v e d t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h p r o -

duced h i g h e r m e a n gain s c o r e s t h a n did s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e d t h e

l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h r e g a r d l e s s of

t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e , as r e v e a l e d in T a b l e IV.

T h e m e a n gain s c o r e s of s t u d e n t s who did not r e c e i v e t h e

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y s e l e c t e d a r e h i g h e r t h a n a r e t h o s e of s t u d e n t s

who r e c e i v e d t h e i r cho ice of l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

In o r d e r t o m e a s u r e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s a m p l e

m e a n s , an a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was c a l c u l a t e d . T h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e

tha t i n t e r a c t i o n w a s not s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l , a s r e v e a l e d

in T a b l e V.

T h e t a b l e d v a l u e f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e of i n t e r a c t i o n wi th one

d e g r e e of f r e e d o m f o r r o w s and c o l u m n s and s i x t y - f o u r d e g r e e s of

f r e e d o m f o r m e a n s q u a r e wi th in i s 3. 98 at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l . T h e

68

F v a l u e f o r i n t e r a c t i o n f o r the a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t ga in s c o r e s a c r o s s

l e a r n i n g m o d e s is 2. 727, w h i c h i s not s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l eve l .

T A B L E IV

NUMBERS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F A C H I E V E M E N T TEST GAIN SCORES B E T W E E N LEARNING A P P R O A C H AND

S E L E C T - R E C E I V I N G , S E L E C T - N O T R E C E I V I N G

L e a r n i n g Method N S e l e c t e d N Not S e l e c t e d C o m b i n e d N, X, and S. D.

M e a n s 11 .632 1 2 . 5 3 3 12. 029 L e c t u r e -Con t ingency 19 16 35 M a n a g e m e n t

S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s 6. 039 9 . 141 7 . 4 5 3

M e a n s 15. 625 15 .722 1 5 . 6 7 7 L e c t u r e - T e s t 15 18 33

S t a n d a r d 7. 632 7 . 2 9 1 7. 339 Dev ia t i ons

M e a n s 13 .457 14. 273 1 3 . 8 5 3 C o m b i n e d 34 34 68

S t a n d a r d 7. 006 8 . 2 1 0 7. 567 D e v i a t i o n s

A t e s t of m a i n e f f e c t s f o r s e l e c t i o n y i e ld s an F v a l u e of . 075.

Wi th one d e g r e e of f r e e d o m in t h e n u m e r a t o r and s i x t y - f o u r d e g r e e s

of f r e e d o m in t h e d e n o m i n a t o r t h e F r a t i o s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05

l e v e l i s 3. 99. C o m p a r i s o n of the F va lue f o r s e l e c t i o n in T a b l e V

69

w i th t a b l e d v a l u e s f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l r e v e a l s t h a t

t h e F v a l u e of . 075 is not s i g n i f i c a n t .

T A B L E V

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE O F A C H I E V E M E N T TEST GAIN SCORES B E T W E E N LEARNING A P P R O A C H AND

S E L E C T - R E C E I V I N G AND S E L E C T - NOT R E C E I V I N G

S o u r c e S u m of S q u a r e s df M e a n S q u a r e F P

R o w s ( s e l e c t i o n , n o n - s e l e c t i o n ) 4. 205 1 4 . 2 0 5 0. 075 0. 786

C o l u m n s ( l e a r n -ing m e t h o d s ) 217. 336 1 217. 336 3. 860 0. 054

I n t e r a c t i o n ( s e l e c t i o n / l e a r n i n g m e t h o d ) 2. 727 1 2. 727 0. 048 0. 827

Wi th in Ce l l s 3 6 0 3 . 5 1 6 64 5 6 . 3 0 5 •

T o t a l 3 8 2 7 . 7 8 3 67 •

A t e s t of t h e m a i n e f f e c t s f o r l e a r n i n g m e t h o d r e v e a l e d no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t and

l e c t u r e - t e s t on a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t ga in s c o r e s . With one d e g r e e of

f r e e d o m in t h e n u m e r a t o r and s i x t y - f o u r d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m in the

d e n o m i n a t o r , t h e F r a t i o , t ha t is s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l , i s

3. 99. T h e F v a l u e f o r t h e l e a r n i n g m o d e s is 3. 860 which i s not

70

s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l eve l . T h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e V

r e s u l t e d in t h e a c c e p t a n c e of Nu l l H y p o t h e s e s III, IV, V, and VI.

F a i l u r e t o r e j e c t Nul l H y p o t h e s i s III n e c e s s i t a t e d r e j e c t i o n

of t h e w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s w h i c h p r e d i c t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e

t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h , r e g a r d l e s s of

p r e f e r e n c e , wou ld a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n ga in s c o r e s t h a n would

s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

F a i l u r e t o r e j e c t Nul l H y p o t h e s i s IV n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e r e j e c t i o n

of t h e w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s w h i c h p r e d i c t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e

t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h a t t h e y p r e f e r would a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n ga in

s c o r e s t h a n would s t u d e n t s who w e r e t augh t t h e s a m e s u b j e c t m a t t e r

in a l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y did not p r e f e r .

F a i l u r e t o r e j e c t Nul l H y p o t h e s i s V n e c e s s i t a t e d r e j e c t i o n of

t h e w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s w h i c h p r e d i c t e d t h a t of s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e

the l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y p r e f e r , t h o s e s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r t h e

l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h would a c h i e v e

h i g h e r m e a n ga in s c o r e s t h a n would s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r t h e l e c t u r e -

t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

F a i l u r e t o r e j e c t Nul l H y p o t h e s i s VI r e s u l t e d in t h e r e j e c t i o n

of t h e w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s wh ich p r e d i c t e d t h a t of s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e

t h e learning a p p r o a c h t h e y do not p r e f e r , t h o s e s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e

the l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h w i l l a c h i e v e

71

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r m e a n gain s c o r e s t h a n wou ld s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e

t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

S tuden t s who r e c e i v e d the l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h did not a c h i e v e h i g h e r ga in a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s c o r e s

t h a n did s t u d e n t s who r e c e i v e d t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

T h e r e was a t r e n d f o r t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t g r o u p s t o h a v e h i g h e r m e a n

ga in s c o r e s on the a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t t h a n did t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y

m a n a g e m e n t g r o u p w h i c h w a s oppos i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n p r e d i c t e d in t h e

h y p o t h e s e s . It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n f a c t o r p l a y s no s i g n i f i c a n t

r o l e in a c h i e v e m e n t e i t h e r in the l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t or

in t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s . S tuden t s who s e l e c t e d t h e

t e a c h i n g m o d e t h e y r e c e i v e d did not s c o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on the

a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t t h a n did s t u d e n t s who did not r e c e i v e t h e a p p r o a c h

t h e y s e l e c t e d .

Nul l H y p o t h e s i s VII: T h e r e w i l l be no signif icant d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h and t h o s e s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of c u m u l a t i v e m e a n g r a d e poin t a v e r a g e s f o r p o s t -

s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s .

Nul l H y p o t h e s i s VIII: T h e r e w i l l be no s ignif icant d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h o s e s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t

72

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s c o m p l e t e d

at a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y l e v e l .

Nu l l H y p o t h e s i s IX: T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h and t h o s e s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of y e a r s of age .

S tuden t s who s e l e c t e d the l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h , as r e v e a l e d in T a b l e VI, have h i g h e r g r a d e point

a v e r a g e s t han do s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t e d the l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h .

T A B L E VI

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F CUMULATIVE MEAN GRADE POINT AVERAGES FOR P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y COURSES

B E T W E E N STUDENTS WHO S E L E C T T H E L E C T U R E -CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT AND T H E L E C T U R E -

T E S T LEARNING A P P R O A C H

Groups N M e a n s S t a n d a r d Dev ia t ions

L e c t u r e -Con t ingency M a n a g e m e n t 37 2 . 8 1 6 0. 932

L e c t u r e - t e s t 34 2 . 690 0. 925

C o m b i n e d 71 2. 756 0. 919

Note : jt t e s t b e t w e e n m e a n s did not r e a c h t h e p = . 05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

73

A_t t e s t was ca lcu la ted on the d i f f e r ence between the m e a n s

p r e s e n t e d in Tab le VI. With s ix ty -n ine deg rees of f r e e d o m , the j t

r a t i o s igni f icant at the p = . 05 level is 1. 997. The_t value f o r

cumula t ive g rade point ave rage is . 574 which is not s igni f icant at the

p = . 05 level r e su l t i ng in the accep tance of Null Hypothes i s VII.

F a i l u r e to r e j e c t Null Hypothes i s VII r e s u l t e d in the r e j e c t i o n

of the working hypothes is which p red i c t ed that t h e r e would be a s i gn i -

f icant d i f f e r ence in cumula t ive m e a n grade point a v e r a g e f o r p o s t -

s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s among s tudents who s e l ec t ed the l e c t u r e - t e s t and

those who se l ec t ed the l e c tu r e - con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t l ea rn ing

a p p r o a c h e s .

Though the m e a n s of the groups indicate tha t the l e c t u r e -

cont ingency managemen t group had h igher cumula t ive grade point

a v e r a g e s p r i o r to en te r ing the c o u r s e , it is not s igni f icant at the

p = . 05 leve l . The s t anda rd deviat ions f o r both groups a r e high

indicat ing subs t an t i a l d i f f e r ences within the groups with r e g a r d to

cumula t ive g rade point a v e r a g e .

Students who se l ec ted the l e c tu r e - con t ingency managemen t

mode of i n s t ruc t i on had m o r e expe r i ence in p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s

than did the s tudents se lec t ing the l e c t u r e - t e s t l ea rn ing a p p r o a c h as

indicated in Tab le VII.

74

T A B L E VII

NUMBERS, MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F CUMULATIVE NUMBER O F S E M E S T E R HOURS C O M P L E T E D AT A P O S T -

SECONDARY L E V E L OF STUDENTS WHO S E L E C T E D L E C T U R E - C O N T I N G E N C Y MANAGEMENT AND

L E C T U R E - T E S T

G r o u p s N M e a n s S t a n d a r d Dev ia t i ons

L e c t u r e -Con t ingency M a n a g e m e n t 37 3 2 . 6 4 9 25. 378

L e c t u r e - T e s t 34 2 6 . 0 8 8 18 .902

C o m b i n e d 70 29. 507 2 2 . 5 9 6

No te : _t t e s t b e t w e e n m e a n s did not r e a c h the p = . 05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

A _t t e s t w a s c o m p u t e d to a n a l y z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

m e a n s . Wi th s i x t y - n i n e d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m t h e tab led_t v a l u e , s ign i -

f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l , is 1. 997. T h e _t v a l u e f o r t h e n u m b e r of

s e m e s t e r h o u r s in p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s is 1 . 2 2 7 , w h i c h i s not

s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l r e s u l t i n g in t h e a c c e p t a n c e of Nul l

H y p o t h e s i s VIII .

F a i l u r e t o r e j e c t Nul l H y p o t h e s i s VIII r e s u l t e d in the r e j e c -

t i on of t h e w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s wh ich p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e r e would be a

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s c o m p l e t e d at a

75

p o s t - s e c o n d a r y l e v e l b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t e d t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t

and t h o s e w h o s e l e c t e d t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h e s .

T h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h g r o u p , w h i c h h a d l e s s e x p e r i e n c e in p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s ,

w e r e m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s t h a n w e r e t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t g r o u p . T h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e VII i n d i c a t e

t h a t t h e g r o u p s w e r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s . H a d t h e g r o u p s b e e n m o r e

h o m o g e n e o u s w i t h i n t h e g r o u p s w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e

in c o l l e g e , t h e t_ v a l u e m i g h t h a v e b e e n h i g h e r .

S t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t e d t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a r e o l d e r a s a g r o u p t h a n s t u d e n t s s e l e c t i n g t h e

l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h a s i s r e v e a l e d in T a b l e VIII .

A jt t e s t f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p m e a n s w a s

c a l c u l a t e d . W i t h s i x t y - n i n e d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m , t h e R v a l u e ,

s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p = . 05 l e v e l , i s 1. 997. The^ t v a l u e f o r a g e i s

3. 97 w h i c h i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 001 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e , r e s u l t i n g

in t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e N u l l H y p o t h e s i s IX.

R e j e c t i o n of N u l l H y p o t h e s i s IX r e s u l t e d in t h e a c c e p t a n c e

of t h e w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e

in a g e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - t e s t

76

T A B L E VIII

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ON AGE O F STUDENTS WHO S E L E C T A L E C T U R E - C O N T I N G E N C Y MANAGEMENT AND

L E C T U R E - T E S T LEARNING A P P R O A C H

G r o u p s N M e a n s S t a n d a r d Dev ia t i ons

L e c t u r e -Con t ingency M a n a g e m e n t 37 3 2 . 2 9 7 5. 901

L e c t u r e - T e s t 34 27 , 147 5. 106

C o m b i n e d 71 29. 831 6. 076

No te : Jt t e s t b e t w e e n m e a n s is s i g n i f i c a n t at t h e p = . 05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of age . T h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t

s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t e d the l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y o l d e r t h a n a r e s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t e d t he

l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

C H A P T E R BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. F i t t s , W . H . , T h e Self Concept and P e r f o r m a n c e , Monograph 5, N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

2. R o t t e r , J . , " G e n e r a l i z e d E x p e c t a n c i e s f o r I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l Monograph , 80 (1966), N u m b e r 609.

77

C H A P T E R V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

S u m m a r y

T h i s s tudy w a s c o n c e r n e d wi th t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r -

e n c e s on the T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e (1), t h e I . E . S c a l e (2),

and an a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - t e s t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h o s e who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t w o l e a r n i n g s y s t e m s .

T h e s tudy w a s d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s in self concep t ,

r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c i e s , and a c h i e v e m e n t b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s t a t e a

p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l e c t u r e - t e s t and s t u d e n t s who s t a t e a p r e f e r e n c e f o r

a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t m o d e of i n s t r u c t i o n .

T h e P r o b l e m

T h e p r o b l e m w a s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s on s e l e c t e d

v a r i a b l e s b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

and t h o s e who p r e f e r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e wi th both l e a r n i n g s y s t e m s .

T h e p u r p o s e s w e r e a s f o l l o w s :

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79

1. T o c o m p a r e t h e se l f concep t of s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a

l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h wi th t h a t of

s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

2 . T o c o m p a r e t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n t e r n a l -

v e r s u s e x t e r n a l - r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c y b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a

l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h o s e who

s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c i n g b o t h l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h e s .

3. T o d e t e r m i n e the e f f e c t on a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e of a

p r e f e r r e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p e r i e n c e wi th an a l t e r n a t i v e

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

4. T o d e t e r m i n e the e f f e c t on a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e of

r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n by one l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h when a s t a t e d p r e f e r -

ence f o r a n o t h e r l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h h a s been m a d e .

5. T o c o m p a r e co l l ege s t u d e n t s who c h o o s e t h e l e c t u r e -

c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h o s e who c h o o s e t h e

l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a f t e r e x p o s u r e t o bo th l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h e s wi th r e f e r e n c e t o t h e v a r i a b l e s of a g e , c u m u l a t i v e g r a d e

poin t a v e r a g e , and p r e v i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e .

T h e H y p o t h e s e s

I. S tuden t s who s e l e c t t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t a p p r o a c h w i l l h a v e

a h i g h e r t o t a l se l f concep t as m e a s u r e d by t h e T e n n e s s e e Self

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Concept Scale (1) than wi l l s tudents who se l ec t a lec ture-cont ingency-

m a n a g e m e n t approach .

II. Students who se l ec t the l ec tu re - con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t

l ea rn ing app roach wi l l be m o r e e x t e r n a l as m e a s u r e d by the I. E .

Scale (2) than wil l s tudents who se lec t the l e c t u r e - t e s t approach .

III. Students who follow the l e c tu r e - con t ingency m a n a g e -

ment approach , r e g a r d l e s s of p r e f e r e n c e , wi l l achieve h igher mean

gain s c o r e s than wi l l s tudents who follow the l e c t u r e - t e s t approach .

IV. Students who follow the l ea rn ing app roach tha t they p r e -

f e r wi l l achieve h igher mean gain s c o r e s than wi l l s tudents who a r e

taught the s a m e sub jec t m a t t e r by a l ea rn ing app roach they do not p r e -

f e r .

V. When s tudents follow the l ea rn ing app roach they p r e f e r ,

t hose s tudents who p r e f e r the l e c tu r e - con t ingency managemen t l e a r n -

ing app roach wi l l ach ieve h igher mean gain s c o r e s than wil l s tudents

who p r e f e r the l e c t u r e - t e s t l ea rn ing approach .

VI. When s tudents follow the lea rn ing app roach they do not

p r e f e r , t hose s tudents who follow the l e c tu r e - con t ingency managemen t

l ea rn ing app roach wi l l achieve h igher m e a n gain s c o r e s than wi l l

s tudents who follow the l e c t u r e - t e s t approach .

VII. T h e r e wi l l be a s igni f icant d i f f e r ence between s tudents

who se l ec t a l e c tu re - con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t l ea rn ing app roach and

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s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of

c u m u l a t i v e m e a n g r a d e point a v e r a g e s f o r p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s .

VIII. T h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h and s t u d e n t s

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of n u m b e r of

s e m e s t e r h o u r s c o m p l e t e d at a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y l eve l .

IX. T h e r e w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and

s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of y e a r s

of a g e .

T h e Method

T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s conduc t ed in t h r e e p h a s e s : t h e f i r s t

two p h a s e s w e r e d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y to equa t e t h e s u b j e c t s in t e r m s of

e x p e r i e n c e ; t h e t h i r d p h a s e w a s the e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e du r ing wh ich

da ta w e r e t a k e n . D u r i n g P h a s e I t h e s t u d e n t s of an i n t r o d u c t o r y

p s y c h o l o g y c o u r s e w e r e r a n d o m l y d iv ided wi th in e a c h s e c t i o n in to two

g r o u p s , A and B. T h e s t u d e n t s who w e r e a s s i g n e d t o G r o u p A in

both s e c t i o n s w e r e g iven a r e a d i n g a s s i g n m e n t and a da t e , f i ve w e e k s

l a t e r , f o r a m u l t i p l e cho ice e x a m i n a t i o n o v e r t h e m a t e r i a l .

T h e s t u d e n t s who w e r e a s s i g n e d to G r o u p B w e r e g iven a

r e a d i n g a s s i g n m e n t c o v e r i n g t h e f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s wi th a t e s t o v e r

e a c h c h a p t e r on the M y c o m m a c h i n e s wi th in f i ve w e e k s . T h e

82

s t u d e n t s w e r e to ld tha t a s c o r e of at l e a s t 90 p e r cen t w a s r e q u i r e d

t o p a s s any c h a p t e r .

P h a s e II b e g a n at t h e end of t h e f i r s t f i v e w e e k s ; the s u b j e c t s

in G r o u p A took a t e s t a f t e r e a c h of c h a p t e r s f i ve t h r o u g h eight on t h e

M y c o m , w h e r e a s t h e s u b j e c t s in G r o u p B took one t e s t o v e r c h a p t e r s

f i ve t h r o u g h e igh t . Dur ing t h e s e c o n d p h a s e a l l s u b j e c t s w e r e given

the I . E . S c a l e (2), t h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e (1), and t h e

p r e - t e s t w h i c h w a s t o be t h e f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n .

At t h e beg inn ing of the t h i r d p h a s e e a c h s u b j e c t w a s a s k e d t o

s e l e c t t he e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e he p r e f e r r e d f o r t h e r e m a i n i n g s ix

w e e k s of the s e m e s t e r . A f t e r e a c h s tuden t had s e l e c t e d an e v a l u a t i o n

p r o c e d u r e , he w a s r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d e i t h e r t o t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

he had s e l e c t e d or to t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h he had not s e l e c t e d .

At t h e end of t h e s e m e s t e r a l l s u b j e c t s w e r e g iven t h e f i n a l

e x a m i n a t i o n as a p o s t - t e s t . T h e p r e - t e s t w a s s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e

p o s t - t e s t t o y i e ld gain s c o r e s w h i c h w e r e a n a l y z e d f o r a c h i e v e m e n t

g a i n s . T h e I . E . S c a l e (2) and the T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e (1)

s c o r e s w e r e a n a l y z e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s

b e t w e e n t h e s c o r e s on t h e i n s t r u m e n t s and s e l e c t i o n of a l e a r n i n g

m o d e .

T h e da ta on a g e , n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s , and c u m u l a t i v e

g r a d e point a v e r a g e w e r e c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h a s e l f - r e p o r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e

and co l l ege r e c o r d s (Appendix A).

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S u m m a r y of F i n d i n g s

T h e fo l lowing f ind ings a r e n o t e d :

1. S tuden t s who s e l e c t e d the l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

did not have a h i g h e r t o t a l se l f concep t as m e a s u r e d by the T e n n e s s e e

Self Concep t S c a l e (1) t han did s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t e d t h e l e c t u r e -

con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h .

2. S tuden t s who s e l e c t e d the l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h w e r e not s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e e x t e r n a l a s

m e a s u r e d by the I . E . Sca l e (2) t h a n w e r e s t u d e n t s who se l ec t ed

the l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

3. S tuden t s who fo l lowed t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t a p p r o a c h , r e g a r d l e s s of p r e f e r e n c e , did not a c h i e v e h i g h e r

m e a n gain s c o r e s t h a n did s t u d e n t s who f o l l o w e d the l e c t u r e - t e s t

a p p r o a c h .

4. S tuden t s who fo l l owed t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h a t t h e y

p r e f e r r e d did not a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n ga in s c o r e s t h a n did s t u d e n t s

who w e r e t augh t t h e s a m e s u b j e c t m a t t e r by a l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y

did not p r e f e r .

5. When s t u d e n t s fo l l owed the l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y p r e -

f e r r e d , t h o s e s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r r e d t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e -

m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h did not a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n gain s c o r e s

t h a n did s t u d e n t s who p r e f e r r e d t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

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6 . W h e n s t u d e n t s f o l l o w e d t h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h t h e y did

no t p r e f e r , t h o s e s t u d e n t s w h o f o l l o w e d t h e l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n -

a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h did not a c h i e v e h i g h e r m e a n g a i n s c o r e s

t h a n did s t u d e n t s w h o f o l l o w e d t h e l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

7. T h e r e w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

w h o s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h a n d

s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s of

c u m u l a t i v e m e a n g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e s f o r p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e s .

8. T h e r e w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

w h o s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

and s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s

of h o u r s c o m p l e t e d a t a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y l e v e l .

9. T h e r e w a s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s

w h o s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h

and s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t e d a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in t e r m s

of y e a r s of a g e .

C o n c l u s i o n s

T h e f i n d i n g s of t h i s s t u d y a p p e a r t o s u p p o r t t h e f o l l o w i n g

c o n c l u s i o n s :

1. Self c o n c e p t a s m e a s u r e d by t h e T e n n e s s e e Self C o n c e p t

S c a l e (1) i s i n e f f e c t i v e in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t e w e n s t u d e n t s w h o s e l e c t

85

a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h and t h o s e who

s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

2. I n t e r n a l - v e r s u s e x t e r n a l - r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c y as

m e a s u r e d by t h e I . E . Sca l e (2) is i n e f f e c t i v e in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t and

t h o s e who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

3. A l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h i s i n e f f e c -

t i ve in f a c i l i t a t i n g g r e a t e r a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t is a l e c t u r e -

t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

4 . R e c e i v i n g one ' s p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h is

i n e f f e c t i v e in f a c i l i t a t i n g g r e a t e r a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n is not

r e c e i v i n g o n e ' s p r e f e r e n c e of a l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

5. P r e f e r e n c e f o r a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n -

ing a p p r o a c h i s i n e f f e c t i v e in f a c i l i t a t i n g g r e a t e r a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m -

ance t h a n is p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

6. A l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h as

a n o n - p r e f e r r e d l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h i s i n e f f e c t i v e in f a c i l i t a t i n g

g r e a t e r a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n is a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h .

7. C u m u l a t i v e m e a n g r a d e point a v e r a g e f o r p o s t - s e c o n d a r y

c o u r s e s and n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r h o u r s c o m p l e t e d at a p o s t - s e c o n d a r y

l e v e l a r e i n e f f e c t i v e in d i s t i ngu i sh ing b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a

86

l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t and t h o s e who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - t e s t

l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

8. Age i s an e f f e c t i v e v a r i a b l e f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n

s t u d e n t s who s e l e c t a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g

a p p r o a c h r a t h e r t h a n a l e c t u r e - t e s t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

B a s e d upon t h e r e s e a r c h f ind ings and c o n c l u s i o n s t h e f o l l o w -

ing r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e m a d e :

1. C o n s i d e r a t i o n shou ld be g iven to t h e i n c l u s i o n of l e c t u r e -

c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t as an a l t e r n a t i v e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h in p o s t -

s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n .

2. T h e T e n n e s s e e Self Concep t S c a l e i s not r e c o m m e n d e d

a s a c r i t e r i o n m e a s u r e f o r the p l a c e m e n t of s t u d e n t s in a l e c t u r e - t e s t

or a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

3. T h e I n t e r n a l v e r s u s E x t e r n a l Sea l e is not r e c o m m e n d e d

as a c r i t e r i o n m e a s u r e f o r the p l a c e m e n t of s t u d e n t s in a l e c t u r e -

t e s t or a l e c t u r e - c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

4 . When a c h i e v e m e n t i s t h e c r i t e r i o n , s t uden t p r e f e r e n c e

shou ld not be u s e d f o r t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n of o r t h e e x c l u s i o n f r o m a

p o s t - s e c o n d a r y c o u r s e e m p l o y i n g a l e c t u r e - t e s t or a l e c t u r e -

c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

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5. P o s t - s e c o n d a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s shou ld give c o n s i d e r a t i o n

to r e s e a r c h on age , a s a v a r i a b l e , in t h e s e l e c t i o n of a l t e r n a t e

i n s t r u c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s .

6. S e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n should be g iven f o r f u r t h e r

r e s e a r c h into self concep t and r e w a r d e x p e c t a n c y c h a n g e s in a l e c t u r e -

con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h .

7. Add i t i ona l r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d t o a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t s of a

s t u d e n t ' s r e c e i v i n g h i s p r e f e r e n c e when s e l e c t i n g c o u r s e s e m p l o y i n g

a l t e r n a t e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e s .

8. In con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is

n e e d e d in f i nd ing a me thod of r e w a r d i n g s t u d e n t s who m a s t e r t h e

m a t e r i a l t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e t h e y a p p e a r to d e m o n s t r a t e a s u p e r i o r

g r a s p of the m a t e r i a l .

9. In f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h into c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s t h e l eng th of unit t e s t s shou ld be i n c r e a s e d t o p r o -

duce g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y .

10. In f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h into c o n t i n g e n c y m a n a g e m e n t

i n s t r u c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h a g r e a t e r l eng th of t i m e shou ld be e m p l o y e d

b e t w e e n the end of the e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d and t h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t

u t i l i z ed t o e v a l u a t e a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e .

C H A P T E R BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. F i t t s , W . H . , T h e Self Concep t and P e r f o r m a n c e , M o n o g r a p h 5, N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

2. R o t t e r , J . , " G e n e r a l i z e d E x p e c t a n c i e s f o r I n t e r n a l V e r s u s E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l of R e i n f o r c e m e n t , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h , 80 (1966), N u m b e r 609.

88

A P P E N D I X A

SYLLABUS

PSYCHOLOGY 131 - HUMAN RELATIONS

SECTIONS 501-502

SPRING 1976

P s y c h o l o g y 131, H u m a n R e l a t i o n s , is de f ined in t h e M o u n t a i n

View Co l l ege c a t a l o g u e a s a s tudy of the d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of p s y c h o -

l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s t o t h e h u m a n r e l a t i o n s p r o b l e m s in b u s i n e s s and

i n d u s t r y . T h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n of a l l c o u r s e r e q u i r e m e n t s

w i l l enab l e t h e s t uden t t o ob ta in c r e d i t f o r t h e c o u r s e .

T h e f i r s t s e c t i o n of t h i s s y l l a b u s con ta in s s o m e g e n e r a l

i n f o r m a t i o n on the c o u r s e . T h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a t e n t a t i v e

s c h e d u l e f o r the c o u r s e .

I. De f in i t i ons

A. I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode I - i m p l i e s the fo l lowing cond i t ions

1. C h a p t e r s in the t e x t w i l l be a s s i g n e d .

2. E a c h c h a p t e r w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in c l a s s .

3. A m u l t i p l e cho ice t e s t w i l l be g iven ove r a l l c h a p t e r s a s s i g n e d on a p r e - s p e c i f i e d da te .

B. I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode II - i m p l i e s t h e fo l lowing cond i t ions

1. S p e c i f i c c h a p t e r s a r e a s s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g t o p r e - s p e c i f i e d s c h e d u l e .

2. E a c h c h a p t e r w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in c l a s s .

3. T h e s tuden t w i l l m a s t e r t h e m a t e r i a l in e a c h c h a p t e r b e f o r e m o v i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r .

4 . T h e s t u d e n t s w i l l u t i l i z e t h e m y c o m s in t h e t e s t i n g c e n t e r f o r c h a p t e r t e s t s .

90

91

C. M a s t e r y - M a s t e r r e f e r s t o t h e c r i t e r i o n of a n s w e r i n g nine

out of t e n q u e s t i o n s c o r r e c t l y f o r e a c h c h a p t e r . T h e s t u d e n t m a y

a t t e m p t e a c h c h a p t e r f o u r t i m e s du r ing the I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode II of

i n s t r u c t i o n . A l l I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode II t e s t s w i l l be t a k e n on the

m y c o m l e a r n i n g c o m p u t e r s in the t e s t i n g c e n t e r . A s c h e d u l e f o r the

t e s t i n g h o u r s is a v a i l a b l e on page 5. E a c h c h a p t e r can be a p p r o a c h e d

f o u r t i m e s . A t w e n t y - m i n u t e t i m e out , d u r i n g wh ich the s t uden t m a y

not s e l e c t a t e s t is i m p o s e d a f t e r e a c h t e s t a t t e m p t w h i c h did not m e e t

t h e m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n of n ine out of t e n c o r r e c t . Dur ing the t i m e - o u t

the s t u d e n t is e n c o u r a g e d to r e s t u d y t h e m a t e r i a l .

D. T e x t - T h e t e x t f o r P s y c h o l o g y 131 w i l l be B r e t h o w e r ' s B e h a v i o r a l A n a l y s i s in B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y : A T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m . T h e t e x t m a y be p u r c h a s e d in t h e b o o k s t o r e .

II . C o u r s e S t r u c t u r e

T h e f o r m a t of t h i s c o u r s e w i l l enab l e t h e s t u d e n t the o p p o r -

t un i t y to c h o o s e t h e t y p e of i n s t r u c t i o n a l m o d e w h i c h h e / s h e f e e l s is

m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e . E a c h s tuden t w i l l be e x p o s e d t o bo th I n s t r u c t i o n a l

Modes I and II. A f t e r e x p o s u r e the s t uden t w i l l c h o o s e t h e mode he

p r e f e r s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e c l a s s .

E a c h s tuden t w i l l be a s s i g n e d t o e i t h e r G r o u p A or G r o u p B

on a r a n d o m b a s i s . G r o u p A w i l l fo l low I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode I and w i l l

beg in the s e m e s t e r r e a d i n g t h e f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s in the t e x t . A

92

m u l t i p l e cho i ce t e s t of f o r t y i t e m s ove r c h a p t e r s one t h r o u g h f o u r w i l l

be g iven on F e b r u a r y 19, 1976. E a c h c h a p t e r w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in

c l a s s . G r o u p B w i l l fo l low I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode II and beg in the

s e m e s t e r r e a d i n g e a c h of f o u r c h a p t e r s and t a k i n g a c h a p t e r t e s t on

t he M y c o m at h e r / h i s c o n v e n i e n c e . E a c h c h a p t e r t e s t m a y be t a k e n

f o u r t i m e s t o m e e t c r i t e r i o n f o r p a s s i n g . E a c h c h a p t e r w i l l be d i s -

c u s s e d in c l a s s .

At t he end of s ix w e e k s on F e b r u a r y 24, 1976, t he s t u d e n t s in

Group A w i l l w o r k u n d e r I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode II and s t u d e n t s in G r o u p B

wi l l fo l low the I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode I f o r m a t f o r c h a p t e r s f ive t h r o u g h

e ight . In o t h e r w o r d s , G r o u p A w i l l be t e s t e d on the M y c o m in t he

t e s t i n g c e n t e r ove r e a c h c h a p t e r and G r o u p B w i l l be g iven a m u l t i p l e

cho ice t e s t ove r c h a p t e r s f i ve t h r o u g h e ight at one t i m e on A p r i l 1,

1976.

On A p r i l 6, 1976, e a c h s tuden t w i l l c h o o s e in w r i t i n g wh ich

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m o d e s h e / h e p r e f e r s b a s e d on p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e in t he

c o u r s e . T h e r e m a i n d e r of t he s e m e s t e r w i l l c o v e r c h a p t e r s n ine

t h r o u g h t w e l v e and wi l l be spen t a s the s tuden t c h o o s e s - - e i t h e r in

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode I o r II. At the end of the c o u r s e , d u r i n g t h e f i n a l

e x a m i n a t i o n s c h e d u l e , a l l s t u d e n t s wi l l t a k e a m u l t i p l e cho ice t e s t ove r

c h a p t e r s one t h r o u g h t w e l v e in t he t e x t .

93

III. C l a s s r o o m T i m e

It is e x p e c t e d t h a t c l a s s t i m e w i l l be t a k e n up l e c t u r i n g o v e r

t h e m a t e r i a l in t h e t ex t and s u p p l e m e n t a l m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g to the sub-

j e c t m a t t e r . T h e s tuden t is e n c o u r a g e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s o v e r

p r e s e n t e d m a t e r i a l s . G r o u p d i s c u s s i o n s a r e e n c o u r a g e d . S o m e

t i m e w i l l be spen t in s m a l l g r o u p e x e r c i s e s and d i s c u s s i o n s . T h e

s tuden t w i l l be g r a d e d on c l a s s p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

IV. T e s t s

It is e x p e c t e d t h a t 90 p e r cen t of t h e t e s t i t e m s w i l l c o m e

f r o m t h e t e x t b o o k ; 10 p e r cen t w i l l c o m e f r o m l e c t u r e of m a t e r i a l s

not n e c e s s a r i l y in t h e t e x t but p r e s e n t e d in l e c t u r e . Al l t e s t s w i l l be

m u l t i p l e c h o i c e .

V. P r o j e c t s

T h e s tuden t i s e x p e c t e d to d e s i g n and i m p l e m e n t a b e h a v i o r

change p r o j e c t . T h e s tuden t w i l l s e l e c t a p r o j e c t , r e s e a r c h the

m e t h o d s u t i l i zed f o r change in the l i t e r a t u r e , d e s i g n and i m p l e m e n t

t h e change on a s u b j e c t of h i s c h o i c e . T h e p r o j e c t w i l l be g r a d e d

( see g r a d e s ) . A l l p r o j e c t s m u s t h a f e w r i t t e n a p p r o v a l of t h e i n s t r u c -

t o r b e f o r e i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e m . P r o p o s a l s f o r the p r o j e c t s m u s t be

s u b m i t t e d on or b e f o r e M a r c h 30, 1976. T h e p r o j e c t m u s t be c o m -

p le t ed by May 6, 1976, w h i c h is t he d e a d l i n e . No p r o j e c t s w i l l be

a c c e p t e d a f t e r M a y 6, 1976.

94

VI. Grades

T h e s tuden t wi l l r e c e i v e h e r / h i s g r a d e f o r the c o u r s e b a s e d upon :

A. N u m b e r of q u e s t i o n s a n s w e r e d c o r r e c t l y on f o u r c h a p t e r s , I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode I.

36+ A 3 2 - 3 5 B 2 8 - 3 1 C 2 4 - 2 7 D

B . M a s t e r y on n u m b e r of c h a p t e r s in I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode II.

M a s t e r y of 4 c h a p t e r s at 90 p e r cen t c r i t e r i o n A M a s t e r y of 3 c h a p t e r s at 90 p e r cen t c r i t e r i o n B M a s t e r y of 2 c h a p t e r s at 90 p e r cen t c r i t e r i o n C M a s t e r y of 1 c h a p t e r at 90 p e r cen t c r i t e r i o n D

C. Dur ing the opt ion p h a s e of c l a s s the s t u d e n t s w i l l be g r a d e d a s s t a t e d in A and B, f o r the s e l e c t e d m o d e of i n s t r u c t i o n .

D. A p r o j e c t g r a d e of P w i l l i n s u r e t e s t g r a d e . G r a d e of F w i l l l ower t e s t g r a d e one l e t t e r g r a d e .

E . S tudent p a r t i c i p a t i o n

D u r i n g t h e c l a s s l e c t u r e and s m a l l g roup , ind iv idua l s w i l l be g r a d e d on t h e b a s i s of s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n . A t t e n d a n c e w i l l be t a k e n into c o n s i d e r a t i o n . " ' T h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n g r a d e s w i l l r a n g e f r o m A t h r o u g h D.

A 90 - 100 B 8 0 - 8 9 C 7 0 - 7 9 D 6 0 - 6 9

F . T h e f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n w i l l be c u m u l a t i v e . E igh ty m u l t i p l e c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s , t w e n t y q u e s t i o n s f r o m e a c h c h a p t e r , n ine t h r o u g h t w e l v e . T h e f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n w i l l be g r a d e d on t h e b a s i s of n u m b e r of c o r r e c t a n s w e r s .

' T h e i n s t r u c t o r wi l l a d h e r e t o t h e po l i cy of Mounta in View Co l l ege a s s t a t e d in the c a t a l o g u e .

95

72

o 00 1 A 64 - 71 B 56 - 63 C 48 - 55 D

0 - 47 F

VII. O f f i c e H o u r s

R o b e r t Rowland O f f i c e W 2 7 1

T u e s . , T h u r s . 5:30 p. m . - 6 :25 p. m . T u e s . , T h u r s . 9:05 p. m . - 9:30 p. m .

By a p p o i n t m e n t . You m a y a l s o l eave a m e s s a g e f o r m e in the Even ing D e a n ' s O f f i c e .

VIII. Mounta in View Col l ege T e s t i n g C e n t e r is in R o o m W 136.

H o u r s 8:30 a . m . - 8:30 p . m . Monday - F r i d a y 8:00 a . m . -12:00 p . m . S a t u r d a y

INFORMATION S H E E T

96

1. N a m e

2. Age

P h o n e

3. M a r r i e d S ingle D i v o r c e d (check one)

4 . C h i l d r e n at h o m e ( n u m b e r ) ; Ages

5. M a j o r f i e l d of s tudy

6. H igh s c h o o l l a s t a t t e n d e d

Da te of l a s t a t t e n d a n c e

8. P l e a s e l i s t below t h e c o u r s e s f o r w h i c h you a r e e n r o l l e d t h i s s e m e s t e r :

1.

2.

3.

4 .

5.

6.

9. Which s e n i o r co l l ege do you plan on a t t end ing?

10. How m a n y h o u r s p e r w e e k wi l l you be w o r k i n g t h i s s e m e s t e r ?

11. H a v e you h a d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e wi th t h e t e s t i n g c e n t e r ?

y e s no

12. H a v e you h a d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e wi th con t ingency m a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ? yes no

97

R E L E A S E O F C O N F I D E N T I A L INFORMATION F O R M

J a n u a r y 20, 19*76

I,

S o c i a l S e c u r i t y No. _» give

R o b e r t W. Rowland m y p e r m i s s i o n t o view and r e c o r d my a c a d e m i c

r e c o r d s and r e l a t e d p e r s o n a l d e m o g r a p h i c da ta f o r r e s e a r c h p u r p o s e s

only. It is m y u n d e r s t a n d i n g tha t any i n f o r m a t i o n on any s tuden t

w i l l be used f o r g r o u p r e s e a r c h p u r p o s e s and w i l l not a p p e a r

ind iv idua l ly .

S igned

APPENDIX B

CHAPTER AND UNIT TEST MATERIALS: PHASE III

99

H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 131

C h a p t e r 9 F o r m A

1. Which one of the fo l lowing is not one of t h e s t e p s of the "bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s " s t r a t e g y ?

a. f ind out what the people a r e a l r e a d y good at b. f i nd out what t h e peop le want to do c. s e l e c t t h e t h i n g s t h e y a r e good at w h i c h a r e s i m i l a r t o the

p e r f o r m a n c e you want d. bui ld on t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e

2 . L e a r n i n g invo lves

a . chang ing wha t h a p p e n e d in the p a s t b. s t r i v i n g f o r the f u t u r e c . e x t i n g u i s h i n g p a s t b e h a v i o r d. add ing t o wha t is a l r e a d y p r e s e n t

3. One of t h e m a j o r r e a s o n s f o r bu i ld ing s t r e n g t h s t o be f a s t e r t h a n r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s is

a . bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s is o f ten i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e s s f u l b . H e l p s avoid m a k i n g b ig c h a n g e s w h e r e j u d i c i o u s l y s e l e c t e d

s m a l l change would w o r k as w e l l c. it i s e a s i e r d. r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s n e v e r w o r k s

4 . T h e t i m e it t a k e s t o bui ld on s t r e n g t h s in c o m p a r i s o n t o r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s i s u s u a l l y

a . t h e s a m e b. v a r i a b l e c. s l o w e r d. f a s t e r

5. Which of t h e fo l l owing is an a d v a n t a g e of "bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s " r a t h e r t h a n " r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s ? "

a . you look at w e a k n e s s e s and e m p h a s i z e how f a r t h e p e r s o n i s f r o m the g o a l

100

b. it is e a s i e r c . t he m a n a g e r or i n s t r u c t o r who looks f o r s t r e n g t h s can f i nd

a s u r p r i s i n g n u m b e r of t h e m wh ich would p r o b a b l y be o v e r -looked if he w e r e f o c u s i n g on w e a k n e s s e s .

d. t h e s t r e n g t h is i n h e r e n t l y e a s i e r t o i d e n t i f y t h a n the w e a k n e s s

6. In t h e s t o r y " F i s h n e t , 11 M r s . C l u m p ! s b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m w a s h e r

a . e a t i ng h a b i t s b . v e r b a l h a b i t s c . w o r k i n g h a b i t s d. s loppy d r e s s i n g h a b i t s

7. If you can*t s e e m to f ind any s t r e n g t h s t o bu i ld on, you

a. k e e p looking b. s t op looking c. w o r k wi th a n o t h e r p r o b l e m d. s t a r t r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s

8. In r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t t he b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s p r o -c e d u r e h a s , it has b e e n found tha t

a. it ha s a d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t b. it h a s a t e m p o r a l e f f e c t c. t h e r e s e e m s to be a snowba l l i ng e f f e c t d. t h e r e is no l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t

9. What shou ld the m a n a g e r have done wi th t h e g i r l w a i t r e s s t o bui ld on s t r e n g t h s

a . wa i t un t i l s h e was slow giving a c u s t o m e r a m e n u , t h e n c o r r e c t h e r

b. wa i t un t i l she w a s slow giving a c u s t o m e r a m e n u , t h e n e n c o u r a g e h e r t o be f a s t e r

c . wa i t un t i l t he end of t h e day and p r e s e n t h e r wi th a b i l l f o r t h e m o n e y she c o s t t he o p e r a t i o n

d. wa i t un t i l she w a i t s on a c u s t o m e r qu i ck ly , t h e n e n c o u r a g e h e r

101

10. What could t h e m a n a g e r have done t o bu i ld on s t r e n g t h s wi th t h e boy cook?

a. s t a r t w i th wha t the boy does not a l r e a d y know b. o c c a s i o n a l l y c h e c k the cooking and p r a i s e t h e boy if t h e food

is cooked c o r r e c t l y c. wa i t un t i l he b u r n s the f r i e s and t e l l h i m " I ' m s o r r y " d. wa i t un t i l a c u s t o m e r c o m p l a i n s and t h e n t e l l t he boy h e

d o e s n ' t h a f e an ounce of b r a i n

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C h a p t e r 9 F o r m B

1. T h e t i m e it t a k e s t o bu i ld on s t r e n g t h s in c o m p a r i s o n t o r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s is u s u a l l y

a . t he s a m e b. f a s t e r c . s l o w e r d. v a r i a b l e

2. One of t h e r e a s o n s f o r bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s t o be f a s t e r t h a n r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s is

a . bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s is o f t en i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e s s f u l b . r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s n e v e r w o r k s c. it is e a s i e r d. h e l p s avo id m a k i n g big c h a n g e s w h e r e j u d i c i o u s l y s e l e c t e d

s m a l l change would w o r k as w e l l

3. T h e b a s i c r a t i o n a l e f o r the s t r a t e g y of bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s i s (pick out t he b e s t a n s w e r )

a. you n e e d it b. it is i n c o n s i s t e n t c . it w o r k s d. it is c h e a p

4 . T h e bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s s t r a t e g y w o r k s w i t h

a . only v e r y s t r o n g b e h a v i o r s b. only v e r y w e a k b e h a v i o r s c . any b e h a v i o r d. b e h a v i o r s wh ich o c c u r above t h e o p e r a n t l e v e l

5. T h e s t r a t e g y of "bu i ld ing on s t r eng ths 1 1 i s e s s e n t i a l l y f o r

a . bu i ld ing self concep t b. chang ing b e h a v i o r c . deve lop ing sel f e s t e e m d. r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n

103

6. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s p a r t of t h e p r o c e s s f o r b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s ?

a . f i n d out w h a t i s no t done at a l l b. a s k w h a t s h o u l d be done c. f i n d out w h a t i s done p o o r l y d. f i n d out w h a t i s done w e l l

7. W h e n B r e t h o w e r s p e a k s of b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s he i s ac tual ly-t a l k i n g a b o u t

a . b e h a v i o r w h i c h e x i s t s at s o m e l e v e l b . b e h a v i o r w h i c h d o e s no t e x i s t a t a n y l e v e l c . b e h a v i o r w h i c h e x i s t s only a t a v e r y h i g h l e v e l d. n o n e of t h e a b o v e

8. T h e g o a l f o r b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s i s t o

a . m a k e t h e p e r f o r m e r f e e l b e t t e r b . e l i m i n a t e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n e x i s t i n g and d e s i r e d p e r f o r m a n c e c . g ive t h e p e r f o r m e r a c o n s c i e n c e d. e l i m i n a t e a n y e x i s t i n g i n a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r

9. T h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s c o n c e p t a n d o t h e r c o n c e p t s is

a . t h e b e h a v i o r in q u e s t i o n b, t h e s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e s u t i l i z e d c. t h e po in t of v i e w and e m p h a s i s d, t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e of t h e p e r f o r m e r

10. One a d v a n t a g e of a p o s i t i v e po in t of v i e w (and e m p h a s i s ) i n c h a n g i n g b e h a v i o r i s t h a t

a . p e o p l e h a v e s o m a n y f a u l t s it*s h a r d t o know w h e r e t o s t a r t b. s t r e n g t h s a r e s o e a s y t o f i n d c . one t e n d s t o o v e r l o o k s t r e n g t h s d. t h e r e a r e n o a d v a n t a g e s of f o c u s i n g on s t r e n g t h s

104

H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 131

C h a p t e r 9 F o r m C

1. If one u t i l i z e s a bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s f o c u s t h e n

a . one is m o r e l ike ly t o t e a c h wha t a p e r s o n a l r e a d y knows b. one is l e s s l ike ly t o t e a c h wha t a p e r s o n a l r e a d y knows c . t h e p e r s o n w i l l m o s t l ike ly be b o r e d d. t h e r e is a s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y of r e g r e s s i o n

2 . If one u t i l i z e s a bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s f o c u s t h e n

a. one is m o r e l ike ly to t e a c h what i s a l r e a d y known b. a l a r g e a m o u n t of change is l ike ly c. t h e p e r s o n w i l l not h a v e t o change at a l l d. t h e s m a l l a m o u n t of change is l ike ly

3. If one f o c u s e s on s t r e n g t h s t hen

a. r e s i s t a n c e is a m a j o r p r o b l e m b. a l a r g e a m o u n t of change is u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y c. none of t h e above d. t h e r e is u s u a l l y l e s s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e change

4 . E m p h a s i z i n g w e a k n e s s h a s s o m e p o s i t i v e m o t i v a t i o n a l v a l u e if

a . t he p e r s o n is u s u a l l y p o s i t i v e about o t h e r t h ings b. t he w e a k n e s s is s m a l l but d i f f i cu l t to o v e r c o m e c . t h e w e a k n e s s is l a r g e d. t h e w e a k n e s s is s m a l l or looks e a s y t o o v e r c o m e

5. T h e s t a t e m e n t " I t ' s a good i dea , but t ha t s y s t e m w i l l not w o r k in my a r e a " is an e x a m p l e of what B r e t h o w e r c a l l s

a . ex t i nc t i on b. r e s i s t a n c e c . h a r d h e a d e d n e s s d. r e i n f o r c i n g the n e g a t i v e

105

6. Adding t o what is a l r e a d y p r e s e n t is c a l l e d

a. r e i n f o r c e m e n t b. e x t i n c t i o n c. d i s c r i m i n a t i o n d. l e a r n i n g

7. B r e t h o w e r s a y s t h a t bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s h a s a snowba l l i ng e f f e c t , m e a n i n g t h a t

a . c h a n g e s b a s e d on bui ld ing on s t r e n g t h s get e a s i e r b. c h a n g e s b a s e d on bui ld ing on w e a k n e s s e s get e a s i e r c . t h e r e is e s s e n t i a l l y no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n bui ld ing on s t r e n g t h s

and bui ld ing on w e a k n e s s d. none of t h e above

8. T h e m a j o r r e a s o n f o r bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s a p p e a r s t o be t he

a . e f f o r t r e q u i r e d b. m o t i v a t i o n a l e f f e c t c . t i m e s p a n invo lved d. c o n t r o l of e x t r a n e o u s v a r i a b l e s

9. T h e r e a s o n , a c c o r d i n g to B r e t h o w e r , t o k e e p looking if you c a n ' t f ind s t r e n g t h s is t ha t

a . s t r e n g t h s w i l l b e c o m e s e l f - e v i d e n t if we look at t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s b e h a v i o r

b. peop le t e n d t o b e c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t in t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e c. peop le w i l l a lways t e l l you wha t t h e i r s t r e n g t h s a r e d. peop le a r e n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t in t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e

10, A c c o r d i n g to B r e t h o w e r , t he f o c u s of w o r k i n g on s t r e n g t h s t e n d s to be t h e b e s t s t r a t e g y f o r

a . people who have low m o t i v a t i o n b. only t h e s t r o n g c. e v e r y o n e d. only s tup id peop le

106

H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 131

C h a p t e r 9 F o r m D

1. A c c o r d i n g t o B r e t h o w e r t h e f o c u s of w o r k i n g on s t r e n g t h s pays off b e s t w i th

a, t he peop le who l ike it b. t he v e r y w e a k and the v e r y s t r o n g c. only peop le in b e t w e e n v e r y w e a k and v e r y s t r o n g d, only w e a k w i th a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e

2. T h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e of hav ing p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r c o u r s e s in co l l ege is a l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n of

a . bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s b. bu i ld ing on what is a l r e a d y known c. l e a r n i n g d. a l l of t he above

3. Any b e h a v i o r change p r o j e c t shou ld be bui l t on

a . d e f i c i e n c i e s b. wha t is a l r e a d y known c . wha t the p e r f o r m e r would l ike t o know o r do d. wha t t h e p e r f o r m e r cannot do

4 . T h e e m p h a s i z i n g of the p o s i t i v e point of v iew h a s two a d v a n t a g e s , inc lud ing

a . e x t i n c t i o n b. if we wa i t t h e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r m a y o c c u r c . l e s s r e s i s t a n c e t o change d. r e i n f o r c e m e n t

5. If we bu i ld new b e h a v i o r s f r o m a s t r o n g founda t ion , t h e n we o f t en f ind t h a t t he a m o u n t of change is

a. s m a l l but d i f f i cu l t b . l a r g e but e a s y c. s m a l l d. l a r g e and d i f f i cu l t

107

6. In g e n e r a l a m a n a g e r who f o c u s e s on w o r k e r s ' s t r e n g t h s h a s

f i n d i n g a way of doing s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r to wha t is a l r e a d y known.

a . l e s s c h a n c e of b. no c h a n c e of c . about e q u a l c h a n c e of d. m o r e c h a n c e of

7. When a b e h a v i o r change p r o j e c t i s bui l t on p r i o r l e a r n i n g it u s u a l l y

a . is e f f i c i e n t b. t a k e s l o n g e r t han one bui l t on d e f i c i e n c i e s c . is h a r d e r d. is a w a s t e of t i m e as t he w o r k e r a l r e a d y knows the b e h a v i o r

8. If you want b e t t e r f e e d b a c k b e t w e e n g r o u p s it i s u s u a l l y m o r e e f f i c i e n t t o

a . s c r a p t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m and s t a r t ove r b. a s k t h e two g r o u p s f o r c h a n g e s c . f i nd out wha t i s be ing done and e n c o u r a g e m o r e of it d. f o r g e t about b e t t e r f e e d b a c k a s once a p a t t e r n of b e h a v i o r

deve lops it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o change

9. It t a k e s l o n g e r t o bui ld on s t r e n g t h s t h a n r e p a i r w e a k n e s s e s w h e n

a. s t r e n g t h s a r e v e r y l a r g e b. w e a k n e s s e s a r e v e r y l a r g e c. w e a k n e s s e s a r e v e r y s m a l l d. none of t h e above

10. Which of t he f o l l o w i n g is not an a d v a n t a g e of bu i ld ing on s t r e n g t h s ?

a . b e t t e r m o t i v a t i o n a l e f f e c t b. t a k e s l e s s t i m e when w e a k n e s s e s a r e v e r y s m a l l c . avo ids m a k i n g big c h a n g e s w h e r e s m a l l ones w i l l w o r k a s

w e l l d. t e n d s t o s t a r t f r o m a f i r m e r b a s e

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C h a p t e r 10 F o r m A

1. B a s i c a l l y , what is t he p r o c e d u r e u s e d to guide g o a l - s e t t i n g e f f o r t s ?

a, once a g r e a t no t ion ; now a g r e a t i dea b, c o n v e r t i n g i d e a s into i m p o s s i b l e d r e a m s c. c o n v e r t i n g vague no t ions into p r e c i s e goa l s d. p u n i s h m e n t

2. T h e m a j o r p i t f a l l t o be avo ided in s e t t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e goa l s i s

a. t o m a k e t h e m too e a s y b. t o m a k e t h e m t o o s p e c i f i c c. t o m a k e t h e m a l w a y s a c h i e v a b l e d. t o s e t con f l i c t i ng goa l s wi thout a d e q u a t e l y r e s o l v i n g the

conf l i c t b e t w e e n t h e m

3. P e r f o r m a n c e goa l s shou ld not be

a . a c c e p t e d by only t h o s e who se t t h e m up b. m e a s u r a b l e c . r e l a t e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e d. low enough to be r e a l i s t i c

4 . Which one of t he fo l lowing is one of t h e r e a s o n s f o r s e t t i n g p e r -f o r m a n c e g o a l s ?

a . t o k e e p peop le in l ine b. t o s a t i s f y our s o u l s c . t o give t he m a n a g e r s s o m e t h i n g to do d. t o p r o v i d e a s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t wh ich o p e r a t i o n s can be

e v a l u a t e d

5. How can a qua l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e goa l be s t a t e d f o r a c l e r i c a l s k i l l ?

a. r e f e r to the s e c r e t a r y wi th t h e m o s t e x p e r i e n c e t o d e t e r m i n e what qua l i t y is

b. the s a m e w a y t h a t a quan t i t y p e r f o r m a n c e goa l would be s t a t e d , in m e a s u r a b l e t e r m s

c. t h e m o s t p r o d u c t i o n in the q u i c k e s t t i m e is a lways t he b e s t qua l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e

d« t h e b e s t d e f e n s e is a good o f f e n s e

109

6. How would " t ak ing p r i d e in one ! s w o r k " be s t a t e d as a good goa l? (Use B r e t h o w e r ' s de f in i t ion of a 1 ,good g o a l n ) . P i c k the b e s t s i ng l e a n s w e r .

a, t a k i n g the i n i t i a t i v e b, doing t h e l i t t l e t h i n g s t ha t m a n a g e r s l ike c, w o r k i n g ove r t i m e once in a wh i l e d, doing s p e c i f i e d j o b s in s p e c i f i e d t i m e s

7. T h e u l t i m a t e c r i t e r i o n f o r s e t t i n g up p e r f o r m a n c e goa l s is

a . goa ls shou ld m a k e people happy b. goa l s shou ld func t ion t o m a i n t a i n or i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e c . goa l s shou ld func t i on to u n d e r m i n e a u t h o r i t y d. goa l s should f u n c t i o n f o r m a n a g e m e n t only

8. Which of t h e fo l lowing is a r e a s o n f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s ?

a . t o k e e p peop le in l ine b. goals p r o v i d e t a r g e t s t o w a r d wh ich e f f o r t s can be d i r e c t e d c . goa l s s a t i s f y our ego n e e d s d. t o p r o v i d e a r e i n f o r c e m e n t s y s t e m

9. T h e p r o c e s s of goa l s e t t i n g p r o v i d e s

a . new r e i n f o r c e r s b. new ego n e e d s c. a m e a n s of keep ing peop le in l ine d. an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e v i e w o p e r a t i o n s , e v a l u a t e a c c o m p l i s h -

m e n t s , and d i s c u s s p r o b l e m s

10, Which of the fo l lowing is not a r e a s o n f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s ?

a. p r o v i d e new r e i n f o r c e r s b, p r o v i d e a s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t which o p e r a t i o n s can be e v a l u a t e d c, p r o v i d e t a r g e t s t o w a r d wh ich e f f o r t s can be d i r e c t e d d. p r o v i d e a m e c h a n i s m and an oppo r tun i t y f o r r e l a y i n g c u r r e n t

o p e r a t i o n s to long r a n g e p l ans

110

H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 131

C h a p t e r 10 F o r m B

1. B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s t h e q u e s t i o n of w h o i s t o s e t g o a l s

a . i s i r r e l e v a n t b . i s s e m a n t i c r a t h e r t h a n r e a l c . i s u p t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l d. i s s t r i c t l y t o p m a n a g e m e n t ' s t a s k

2 . In p r a c t i c e t h e f i n a l a u t h o r i t y f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s i s

a . u p t o t h e p e r f o r m e r b . t h e r e i s n e v e r a f i n a l a u t h o r i t y f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s c . u p t o b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r m e r a n d t o p m a n a g e m e n t d. d e t e r m i n e d b y s t r u c t u r e and p h i l o s o p h y of t h e p a r t i c u l a r

o r g a n i z a t i o n

3. B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s t h a t

a . t h o s e w h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e c o n t r i b u t e s t o a t t a i n i n g a g o a l s h o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s e t t i n g of t h e g o a l s

b. g o a l s s h o u l d b e s e t b y t h e p e r f o r m e r only c . g o a l s s h o u l d b e s e t by m a n a g e m e n t only d. t h o s e w h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e c o n t r i b u t e s t o a t t a i n i n g a g o a l

s h o u l d no t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s e t t i n g of t h e g o a l s

4 . W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s a r e a s o n t o s e t g o a l s ?

a . t o p r o v i d e f o r a r e i n f o r c e m e n t s y s t e m b . t o g ive m a n a g e m e n t s o m e t h i n g t o e v a l u a t e c . g o a l s p r o v i d e a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e v i e w o p e r a t i o n s , e v a l u a t e

a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s and d i s c u s s p r o b l e m s d. t o p r o v i d e t h e p e r f o r m e r w i t h a new n e e d s y s t e m

5. B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s

a . i s up t o t h e p e r f o r m e r b . a l s o i n c l u d e s d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h o s e w h o s e p e r -

f o r m a n c e i s r e l a t e d t o t h e g o a l c . i s up t o m a n a g e m e n t d. i s u p t o God

I l l

6. Which of the fo l lowing is a s t r a t e g y f o r t h e s e t t i n g of goa ls m e n t i o n e d by B r e t h o w e r

a. t h e w h a t ' s - i t - t a k e - t o - p l e a s e - t h e - b o s s s t r a t e g y b. w h a t ' s - t h e - v e r y - b e s t - w e - c a n - d o s t r a t e g y c. w h a t ' s - t h e - v e r y - w o r s t - w e - c a n - d o s t r a t e g y d. w h a t ' s - i n - i t - f o r - m e s t r a t e g y

7. When m a k i n g a g r a p h it i s i m p o r t a n t t o

a . s t a r t w i t h an odd unit at t he b o t t o m of t h e v e r t i c a l ax i s b. s t a r t w i t h an even unit at t he b o t t o m of the v e r t i c a l ax i s c . s t a r t w i th 0 at t h e bo t t om of t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s d. s t a r t w i t h any unit at t h e b o t t o m of t h e v e r t i c a l ax i s

8. When m a k i n g a g r a p h the h o r i z o n t a l ax i s of t h e g r a p h shou ld

a . m a r k off i n t e r v a l s of t h ings you count b. m a r k off i n t e r v a l s of t i m e c . m a r k off i n t e r v a l s of t i m e or t h i n g s you count d. m a r k off t h e n a m e of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n

9. T h e 2 / 3 r u l e s t a t e s t h a t

a . t h e h o r i z o n t a l ax i s of a g r a p h shou ld be 2 / 3 t h e length of t h e v e r t i c a l ax i s

b. you shou ld only r e i n f o r c e 2 / 3 of t h e t i m e c. t h e v e r t i c a l ax i s of a g r a p h shou ld be 2 / 3 of t h e l eng th of the

h o r i z o n t a l ax i s d. you shou ld only p u n i s h f o r 2 / 3 of t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of i n f r a c -

t i o n s

10. Which of the fo l lowing is a s t r a t e g y f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s ?

a . t he p u t - i t - o n - a - g r a p h s t r a t e g y b. t h e w h a ' s - i t - t a k e - t o - g e t - o n e - a - p r o m o t i o n s t r a t e g y c. t h e w h a ' s - t h e - l e a s t - w e - c a n - d o s t r a t e g y d. t h e w h a t ' s - t h e - b e s t - w e - c a n - d o s t r a t e g y

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C h a p t e r 10 F o r m C

1. T h e v e r t i c a l a x i s of a g r a p h s h o u l d c o n t a i n

a . t i m e i n t e r v a l s b . t h i n g s y o u c o u n t c . e i t h e r t i m e i n t e r v a l s o r t h i n g s y o u c o u n t d. n o n e of t h e a b o v e

2 . T h e 2 / 3 r u l e a p p l i e s t o

a . g o a l s b . r e i n f o r c e r s c . p u n i s h m e n t d. g r a p h s

3. B r e t h o w e r s t a t e s t h a t w h e n y o u e m p l o y t h e p u t - i t - o n - a - g r a p h s t r a t e g y y o u s h o u l d

a . s t a t e y o u r g o a l s in v e r y c a r e f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d t e r m s b. s t a t e y o u r g o a l s a n y w a y you c a n c . s t a t e y o u r g o a l s in on ly v e r y p o s i t i v e t e r m s d. s t a t e y o u r g o a l s i n on ly v e r y n e g a t i v e t e r m s

4 . In p r a c t i c e t h e s t r a t e g y f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s i s

a . l e f t t o t o p m a n a g e m e n t b . l e f t t o t h e p e r f o r m e r c . l e f t t o God d. u s u a l l y w h a t s e e m s m o s t c o n g e n i a l t o o u r s e l v e s and w h o e v e r

e l s e i s i n v o l v e d

5 . B r e t h o w e r s t a t e s t h a t t h e m o s t u s e f u l s t r a t e g y f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s i s

a . t h e w h a ^ s - i t - t a k e - t o - p l e a s e - t h e - b o s s s t r a t e g y b . t h e p u t - i t - o n - a - g r a p h s t r a t e g y c . t h e p r o d u c t s - o f - p e r f o r m a n c e s t r a t e g y d. B r e t h o w e r d o e s not s t a t e w h i c h of t h e s t r a t e g i e s i s m o s t

u s e f u l

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6. It i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t g o a l s

a . t h e a c c e p t a n c e of g o a l s i s u n i m p o r t a n t b . be a c c e p t e d b y m a n a g e m e n t on ly c . b e a c c e p t e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r on ly d. be a c c e p t e d by a l l i n v o l v e d

7. In g e n e r a l g o a l s s h o u l d be

a . c o n c l u s i v e b. v a g u e c . m e a s u r a b l e d. r i g i d

8 . W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s no t a c r i t e r i o n t o a i d in good g o a l s e t t i n g ?

a . g o a l s s h o u l d not be s t a t e d in e c o n o m i c t e r m s a s i t c o n f u s e s t h e i s s u e

b . g o a l s s h o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e

c . g o a l s s h o u l d be s t a t e d in e c o n o m i c t e r m s in m a n y c a s e s

9. S u b g o a l s a r e a c t u a l l y

a . g o a l s t o u s e if p r i m a r y g o a l s do no t w o r k

b . g o a l s y o u t e l l p e r f o r m e r s a b o u t s o t h e y w o n ' t p a n i c c . a n o t h e r n a m e f o r l o n g - t e r m g o a l s d. s h o r t - t e r m g o a l s

10, In t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of g o a l s

a . a c t i o n s p e a k s l o u d e r t h a n w o r d s b. w o r d s s p e a k l o u d e r t h a n a c t i o n c . a c t i o n a n d w o r d s a r e t h e s a m e d. w o r d s a r e m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n a c t i o n

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C h a p t e r 10 F o r m D

1. Sho r t t e r m goa l s a r e u t i l i z ed f o r

a . r e i n f o r c e m e n t v a l u e b. c o m m u n i c a t i o n v a l u e c . b e n c h m a r k s f o r m e a s u r i n g p r o g r e s s d. c h e c k s on the c r e a t i v i t y of the goa l s e t t e r

2. Making s u r e goa ls a r e m e a s u r e a b l e e n s u r e s

a. t h e y w i l l be m e t b. t h e y w i l l be a c c e p t e d c. e v e r y o n e w i l l a g r e e on the va lue of t he goa l d. a g r e e m e n t a s to w h e t h e r or not t h e y h a v e b e e n a t t a i n e d

3. In g e n e r a l goa l s shou ld be se t

a . low enough t o be r e a l i s t i c b. so low anyone can r e a c h t h e m c. v e r y h igh t o i n c r e a s e a s p i r a t i o n s d. h igh enough so t ha t only m o t i v a t e d p e r f o r m e r s can r e a c h

t h e m

4 . T h e q u e s t i o n "Do you want it done qu ick ly or do you want it done r i g h t ? " r e f e r s t o

a . u n r e s o l v e d goa l s b. m a i n t e n a n c e c o n f l i c t s c . c o n f l i c t i n g goa l s d. c o u n s e l i n g goa l s

5. M a x i m i z i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y of one p e r f o r m e r or p e r f o r m a n c e s y s t e m of ten l e a d s t o

a . o the r p e r f o r m e r s fo l lowing sui t wi thout i n t e r v e n t i o n b . f o r c i n g i n e f f i c i e n c y upon a n o t h e r p e r f o r m e r c. ego c o n f l i c t s d. i n c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y in a l l o the r r e l a t e d a r e a s

115

6. W h e n t w o g o a l s h a v e t h e s a m e a t t r a c t i o n v a l u e s w e c a l l t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n f l i c t

a . a v o i d a n c e - a v o i d a n c e b. a p p r o a c h - a v o i d a n c e c . a v o i d a n c e - a p p r o a c h d. a p p r o a c h - a p p r o a c h

7. W h e n a c o n f l i c t w h i c h t h e p e r f o r m e r h a s a s i n g l e g o a l w i t h b o t h d e s i r a b l e a n d u n d e s i r a b l e a s p e c t s o c c u r s , w e c a l l i t

a . a p p r o a c h - a p p r o a c h c o n f l i c t b . a p p r o a c h - a v o i d a n c e c o n f l i c t c . a v o i d a n c e - a v o i d a n c e c o n f l i c t d . an u n r e s o l v e d e g o c o n f l i c t

8 . A c o n f l i c t in w h i c h t h e r e a r e t w o a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r t h e s a m e d e s i r a b l e g o a l , b o t h of w h i c h a r e u n d e s i r a b l e i s c a l l e d

a . a p p r o a c h - a p p r o a c h b . a v o i d a n c e - a v o i d a n c e c . a p p r o a c h - a v o i d a n c e d. an u n r e s o l v e d e g o c o n f l i c t

9. A s i d e f r o m t h e s e t t i n g of c o n f l i c t i n g g o a l s a m a j o r p i t f a l l e x i s t s in s e t t i n g

a . g o a l s t o o low b. t h e w r o n g g o a l s c . g o a l s t o o h i g h d. i n c o n s i s t e n t g o a l s

10. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s no t a r e a s o n f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s ?

a . t h e s e t t i n g of g o a l s p r o v i d e s a c r i t e r i o n f o r m a n a g e m e n t t o e v a l u a t e p e r f o r m e r c o n c e p t u a l b i a s e s

b . g o a l s p r o v i d e a s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t w h i c h o p e r a t i o n s c a n be e v a l u a t e d

c . g o a l s p r o v i d e t a r g e t s t o w a r d w h i c h e f f o r t s c a n be d i r e c t e d d. a f f o r d s o p p o r t u n i t y t o e v a l u a t e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s a n d d i s c u s s

p r o b l e m s

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C h a p t e r 11 F o r m A

1. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s a key t o a c h i e v i n g p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s ?

a . p u n i s h a n y i n f r a c t i o n b . r e i n f o r c e p r o g r e s s t o w a r d g o a l s c . s e t g o a l s s o low t h e y a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y a c h i e v e d , d. a l low s o m e r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r f a i l u r e

2. If we bu i l t on s t r e n g t h s t h e n we

a . p u n i s h w e a k n e s s e s b. r e i n f o r c e i m p r o v e m e n t s c . r e i n f o r c e any b e h a v i o r s t h a t o c c u r d. a l w a y s h a v e c o n f l i c t s

3. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s not a key t o a c h i e v i n g p e r f o r m a n c e ?

a . r e i n f o r c e p r o g r e s s t o w a r d g o a l s b. r e i n f o r c e d e s i r a b l e b e h a v i o r s c . p r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e f o r p r o g r e s s d. p r o v i d e p u n i s h m e n t f o r l a c k of p r o g r e s s

4 . T h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l a n s w e r f o r who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m e e t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s i s

a . w h o e v e r i s h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e b . t h e t o p m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l c . t h e p e r f o r m e r d. t h e s u p e r v i s o r

5. B r e t h o w e r s t a t e s t h a t t h e b e s t t e x t b o o k a n s w e r f o r t h e q u e s t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r m e e t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s is

a . t h e t o p m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l b . who is h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e c. t h e p e r f o r m e r h i m s e l f d. h e a d of t h e T o t a l P e r f o r m a n c e S y s t e m

117

6. A "no-no" in achieving performance goals is

a. rewarding small bits of progress toward goals b. reinforcing lack of progress c. building on strengths d. providing incentive for progress

7. In general goals tend to be set in accordance with

a, personal needs of the performer b, personal needs of a manager c. organizational needs and practices d. both performer and the supe rv i so r^ needs

8. The goals set in accordance with the demands of a particular situation and capacities of a particular per former are called

a. temporary goals b. unit goals c. minigoals d. sub goals

9. Which of the following statements about goals is t rue according to Brethower?

a. it is impossible to delegate the responsibility for achieving performance goals

b. it is necessary to delegate the responsibility for achieving performance goals

c. it is easy to delegate the responsibility for achieving per -formance goals

d. it is completely possible but not easy to delegate the responsibility for achieving performance goals

10. The most satisfactory answer to the question of responsibility for performance goals is

a. only the top performer is responsible for performance goals b. only shagnasty is responsible for performance goals c. only top management is responsible for performance goals d. all the per formers are responsible for performance goals

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C h a p t e r 11 F o r m B

1. T h e t i m e s p a n f o r p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s m a y b e s t b e s e t w i t h

r e s p e c t t o

a . a n y t i m e on a r a n d o m s c h e d u l e b . r e g u l a r f o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e r e v i e w s c . on ly u n s p e c i f i e d t i m e s d. t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s c h o i c e of t i m e s

2 . Sub g o a l s a r e s e t t o

a . p u n i s h t h e p e r f o r m e r b . g ive m a n a g e m e n t s o m e t h i n g t o do c . b r i d g e t h e t i m e s p a n c o v e r e d by l o n g - t e r m g o a l s d. p r o d u c e a lo t of i m p r e s s i v e g r a p h s

3. W h e n t h e t i m e s p a n c o v e r e d by g o a l s i s t o o l a r g e , B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s w e s h o u l d u s e

a . c o n s t a n t r e i n f o r c e r s b. d i s c r e e t r e i n f o r c e r s c . a l a r g e r r e i n f o r c e r d. s u b g o a l s

4 . Sub g o a l s a r e a c t u a l l y d e s i g n e d t o

a . i n c r e a s e r e i n f o r c e m e n t b . d e c r e a s e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c . l i m i t r e i n f o r c e m e n t d. l e a r n t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e

5 . Sub g o a l s h a v e a n a d v a n t a g e o v e r l o n g - t e r m g o a l s in t h a t

a . t h e y a r e a l w a y s s e t by m a n a g e m e n t b . t h e y c a n b e s e t in on ly m e a n i n g f u l t e r m s t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c . t h e y c a n b e s e t in m e a n i n g f u l t e r m s t o t h e p e r f o r m e r d. t h e y a r e a l w a y s s e t b y t h e p e r f o r m e r

119

6. Goals which are used as guides toward final performance are

called

a, shor t - term goals b. low reinforcing goals c. subgoals d, mini goals

7. Sub goals should be set

a. so high that only sustained effort will reach them b. high enough to be worth achieving c. so low that the lack achieving them is not reinforcing d. none of the above

8. Your instructor says that the setting of sub goals is essentially

a. targetting b. maintenance c. shaping d. extinction

9. A method of reaching long-term goals discussed in class is

a. successive approximation b. discrimination c. eliminating the blocks d. extinction

10. When we use successive approximation, we begin

a. reinforcing performance comparable to the final per form-

ance b. with very large re inforcers c. anywhere d. where the per former is at

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C h a p t e r 11 F o r m C

1. is one m e t h o d of s h a p i n g .

a . e a s y e l i m i n a t i o n b. s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n c . r e i n f o r c e m e n t t i m i n g d. s t i m u l u s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n

2 . T h e m o s t b a s i c r e a s o n f o r s e t t i n g a sub goa l i s t o

a . m a k e w o r k e r s h a p p y b . p r o v i d e m o r e r e w a r d s c. m a k e o r g a n i z a t i o n m e a n i n g f u l in guiding d a y - t o - d a y p e r f o r m -

a n c e

d. e l i m i n a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r c o n s t a n t f e e d b a c k

3. T h e b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a d e a d l i n e and a t a r g e t da te i s

a. r e w a r d s

b. r e i n f o r c e r s c. d e s i r a b i l i t y d. e x p e c t a t i o n

4 . A dead l ine is

a . a da te t h e goa l m u s t be c o m p l e t e d b. a da t e t h a t t h e a t t a i n m e n t of a goa l can be r e a s o n a b l y

e x p e c t e d c . a p r o g r a m of p u n i s h m e n t d. none of t h e above

5. In t h i s c o u r s e t h e d o o m s d a y m e n t i o n e d in t h e s y l l a b u s i s a

a . t a r g e t da te b . t h i s c o u r s e does not e m p l o y d o o m s d a y s c . r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e d. dead l ine

121

6. A good m e a n s of s e t t i n g sub goa ls is

a. a g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s a m o n g the w o r k e r s b. t h e laws of n a t u r e c. a good p e r f o r m a n c e f e e d b a c k s y s t e m d. a g e n e r a l p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n

7. Not t a k i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c t i o n s and f a i l u r e t o m e e t c r i t e r i a i s t e r m e d

a. f a i l u r e b. buck p a s s i n g c . be ing a " t u r k e y " d. e l i m i n a t i o n of g o a l s

8. A p e r f o r m a n c e f e e d b a c k s y s t e m c a n p r o v i d e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r

a . d i r e c t i o n of l o n g - t e r m n e e d s b. p u n i s h m e n t s c h e d u l e s c . p e r f o r m a n c e n e e d s s y s t e m s d. sub goa ls

9. T h e t e r m " p a s s i n g t h e b u c k " m e a n s s o m e o n e is not

a , t a k i n g h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b. t a k i n g e v a l u a t i o n s e r i o u s l y c, t a k i n g h i s a l t e r n a t i v e d. t a k i n g h i s m e d i c i n e

10. A good s u p e r v i s o r w i l l g e n e r a l l y p r a i s e e a c h c r e w m e m b e r when

a. he e x c e e d s t h e m a x i m u m a c c e p t a b l e sub goa l b. he u s e s h i s n a m e in v a i n c. he b e g i n s t o l o w e r h i s p e r f o r m a n c e d. he e x c e e d s the m i n i m u m a c c e p t a b l e sub goa l

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C h a p t e r 11 F o r m D

1. Sub goa l s shou ld be s e t

a . h igh enough to be a r e a l c h a l l e n g e b. h igh enough t o guide t o w a r d m a j o r goa l s c . oppos i t e of t h e m a j o r goa l s d. low enough to b e a u t o m a t i c a l l y a t t a i n a b l e

2 . Which of t h e fo l lowing s t a t e m e n t s about sub goa l s is f a l s e ?

a . sub goa l s shou ld be s e t h igh enough t o be w o r t h a c h i e v i n g b . sub goa l s shou ld be se t a s low as p o s s i b l e in r e g a r d to

m a j o r goa l s c. sub goa l s shou ld be s e t as low as p o s s i b l e r e g a r d l e s s of

m a j o r goa l s d. sub goa ls shou ld n e v e r be c r i t e r i o n r e f e r e n c e d

3. What can be u s e d t o p r o v i d e gu idance in sub g o a l s ?

a. f e e d b a c k s y s t e m s b. p e r f o r m e r ' s c o m m e n t s c. p r o d u c t i o n quo ta da ta d. a l l of t h e above

4 . F e e d b a c k can b e s t r e l a t e sub goa l s t o wh ich of t he fo l lowing

a . d a y - t o - d a y p e r f o r m a n c e b. f e e l i n g of d i s c o n t e n t c . f e e l i n g of a d e q u a c y d. ex t i nc t i on s c h e d u l e s

5. A p e r f o r m a n c e f e e d b a c k s y s t e m is c a p a b l e of r e l a t i n g sub goa l s to l o n g e r r a n g e goa l s by

a . p r o v i d i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n b . keep ing t h e p e r f o r m e r busy c. b r i d g i n g t h e t i m e gap d. i n c r e a s i n g s e n s i t i v i t y t o goa ls

123

6. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g in a r e a l s e n s e it is

a. n e c e s s a r y t o d e l e g a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c h i e v i n g goa ls b. i m p o s s i b l e t o d e l e g a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c h i e v i n g goa l s c. e a s y t o d e l e g a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c h i e v i n g goa ls d. none of the above

7. Sub goa l s shou ld be s e t in m e a n i n g f u l t e r m s to the

a . b o a r d b. m a n a g e r c. p e r f o r m e r d. o r g a n i z a t i o n

8. Goals a r e u s u a l l y s e t in a c c o r d a n c e wi th t h e n e e d s of

a . t h e p e r f o r m e r b. t h e d i r e c t o r c . t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n d. t h e e n v i r o n m e n t

9. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g we shou ld a lways

a . r e w a r d p r o g r e s s t o w a r d goa ls b. p r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e s t o be u sed f o r l a c k of p r o g r e s s c . bu i ld on w e a k n e s s e s d. r e i n f o r c e f a i l u r e t o change it

10. Which of the fo l lowing is not a p i t f a l l t o avoid in s e t t i n g sub g o a l s ?

a . s e t t i n g t h e m too h igh b. s e t t i n g con f l i c t i ng sub goa l s c. s e t t i n g sub goa l s wh ich t h e p e r f o r m e r cannot s e e how h i s

d a y - t o - d a y p e r f o r m a n c e r e l a t e s t o t h e m d. m o n i t o r i n g s u b g o a l s c l o s e l y

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C h a p t e r 12 F o r m A

1. T h e two b e n e f i t s of not r e i n f o r c i n g e v e r y t i m e a r e s p o n s e o c c u r s a r e e c o n o m y of e f f o r t and

a . e a s i e r m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m b . f e w e r a v e r s i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s c . h i g h e r l e v e l of p e r f o r m a n c e d. g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y of p e r f o r m a n c e

2 . In c l a s s we a l s o de f ined a con t ingency as t he r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

a, s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e b, s t i m u l u s - b e h a v i o r c. s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e - c o n s e q u e n c e d. s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e - s t i m u l u s

3. A con t ingency c a n a l s o be thought of as

a. c o n s e q u e n c e s of b e h a v i o r b. Mnow-ifM r e l a t i o n s h i p c. b e h a v i o r a l a n a l y s i s d. an n i f - t h e n , ! r e l a t i o n s h i p

4. S u p e r v i s o r s shou ld o c c a s i o n a l l y s a y p e r f o r m a n c e i s good in o r d e r to

a. give t h e m e s s a g e t h a t it i s good b. c o n f i r m t h a t good p e r f o r m a n c e is s t i l l v a l u e d c. k e e p w o r k e r s in l ine d. k e e p p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s c l i m b i n g

5. can be a v e r y v a l u a b l e r e i n f o r c e r .

a . m o n e y b . o p p o r t u n i t y c . i n c e n t i v e d. p u n i s h m e n t

125

6 . If y o u c a n ' t f i n d r e i n f o r c e r s , t h e t h r e e b a s i c a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e : G ive up a n d a c c e p t p e r f o r m a n c e a s it i s ; L o o k f o r s o m e o t h e r p e r f o r m a n c e y o u c a n r e i n f o r c e t h a t w i l l l e a d t o t h e s a m e g o a l ; o r

a . s p e a k t o e m p l o y e e s , m a n t o m a n b. c r e a t e new r e i n f o r c e r s c. u s e a v e r s i v e c o n t r o l , s u c h a s p u n i s h m e n t d. none of t h e a b o v e

7. B r e t h o w e r s a y s a r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t w o e v e n t s . O n e of t h e e v e n t s i s

a . p r e s e n t a t i o n of a r e i n f o r c e r b. p r e s e n t a t i o n of a p u n i s h e r c . p r e s e n t a t i o n of c o m p e t i n g s t i m u l i d. n o n e of t h e a b o v e

8. W h e n p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t o o h i g h , p e r f o r m a n c e

a . b e c o m e s a v e r s i v e b . b e c o m e s e r r a t i c c . a s s u m e s g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e d. a l l of t h e a b o v e

9. You know t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s " s o o n e n o u g h " if t h e r e i n f o r c e r i s e f f e c t i v e

a . f o r long p e r i o d s b . in m a i n t a i n i n g o r i m p r o v i n g p e r f o r m a n c e c . in r e d u c i n g b e h a v i o r p r o b l e m s d. n o n e of t h e a b o v e

10. At l e a s t 90 p e r c e n t of m o t i v a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s c o u l d be s o l v e d by u s i n g one of t h e s e r e i n f o r c e r s .

a . r e g u l a r f e e d b a c k on J o b P e r f o r m a n c e b . r e g u l a r f e e d b a c k on P e r f o r m a n c e I m p r o v e m e n t c . r e g u l a r f e e d b a c k on P r o g r e s s t o w a r d G o a l s d. a l l of t h e a b o v e

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H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 131

C h a p t e r 12 F o r m B

1. R e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s shou ld be s t a t e d e x p l i c i t l y , e s p e c i a l l y if

a . i t i s a s h o r t - t e r m con t ingency b. it is a l o n g - t e r m con t ingency c . it i s a o n e - s h o t con t ingency d. none of t he above

2 . When t o r e i n f o r c e can be a p r o b l e m ; t h e s a f e s t p r o c e d u r e i s t o r e i n f o r c e

a . a l l t he t i m e b. when p e r f o r m a n c e is i m p r o v i n g c. b e f o r e t he p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e s d. a f t e r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e s

3. By r e i n f o r c i n g on s o m e s c h e d u l e o the r t h a n c o n t i n u o u s , we t e n d t o

a. d e c r e a s e p e r f o r m a n c e b. u s e m o r e r e i n f o r c e r s c. p r o d u c e e r r a t i c p e r f o r m a n c e s d. be m o r e e c o n o m i c a l in c o s t and e f f o r t

4. B r e t h o w e r s a y s a r e i n f o r c e m e n t con t ingency i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n two e v e n t s : Which of t he fo l lowing is one of t he e v e n t s ?

a. d i s c r i m i n a t i n g s t i m u l u s b* c o m p e t i n g s t i m u l u s c . r e s p o n s e

d, a lpha even t

5. A c o n t i n g e n c y is a l w a y s a

a . n o w - t h e n

b. i f - t h e n c . c a n - b e d. i f - m a y b e

127

6. B r e t h o w e r e s t i m a t e s t h a t p e r cen t of m o t i v a t i o n p r o b l e m s in b u s i n e s s could be s o l v e d us ing one or m o r e of p o s s i b l e r e i n f o r c e r s .

a, 50 b. 90 c. 70 d. 100

7. Which of the f o l l o w i n g is one of the f i ve p o t e n t i a l r e i n f o r c e r s t h a t B r e t h o w e r l i s t s ?

a. r e g u l a r f e e d b a c k on p r o g r e s s t o w a r d goa ls b. n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k on p r o g r e s s c. p u n i s h m e n t f o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e goa l s e t t i n g d. p o s i t i v e s u p e r v i s o r c o m m e n t s f o r good p e r f o r m a n c e

8. An e x a m p l e of an a v e r s i v e c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e is

a . r e w a r d s b. p u n i s h m e n t c. M & M ' s d. i n c e n t i v e s

9. A r e i n f o r c e m e n t con t i ngency

a . i s not r e l a t e d t o qua l i ty of p e r f o r m a n c e b. i s s o m e t i m e s an i f - t h e n r e l a t i o n s h i p c . i s r e l a t e d t o qua l i t y of p e r f o r m a n c e d. a g r a d u a l t e c h n i q u e f o r chang ing b e h a v i o r

10. An a v e r s i v e s t i m u l i i s

a . i f - t h e n r e l a t i o n s h i p b. an even t p r e s e n t e d t o i n c r e a s e p e r f o r m a n c e c. a r e s p o n s e c l a s s d. an even t w h i c h one w i l l w o r k to e s c a p e f r o m

128

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C h a p t e r 12 F o r m C

1. A b a s e l i n e is

a . a g r a d u a l t e c h n i q u e f o r chang ing b e h a v i o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t of a s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n

b. a s t i m u l u s w h i c h s i g n a l s a r e s p o n s e w i l l be f o l l o w e d by a r e i n f o r c e r . A b b r e v i a t e d by t h e t e r m nSDH

c . i n f o r m a t i o n about p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h i s u s e d t o guide f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e

d. t h e m e a s u r e d p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l at o r b e f o r e an a t t e m p t t o change b e h a v i o r

2 . F e e d b a c k is

a . an even t , when p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , d e c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

b . i n f o r m a t i o n about p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h i s u s e d t o guide f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e

c. an even t , when t e r m i n a t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

d. an even t , when p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s the p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

3. A d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l u s is

a . t he p r e s e n t a t i o n of a r e i n f o r c e r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a r e s p o n s e b. a r e s p o n s e c l a s s de f ined by a t h r e e - t e r m c o n t i n g e n c y c. guided by d a t a - - a look and s e e a p p r o a c h d. a s t i m u l u s w h i c h s i g n a l s a r e s p o n s e w i l l be f o l l o w e d by a

r e i n f o r c e r and a b b r e v i a t e d by the t e r m n S D n

4 . E m p i r i c a l m e a n s

a . an even t , w h e n t e r m i n a t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

b. a g r a d u a l t e c h n i q u e f o r chang ing b e h a v i o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t of a s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n of a d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r

c . guided by d a t a - - a look and s e e a p p r o a c h d. t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a r e i n f o r c e r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a r e s p o n s e

129

5. A p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e r i s

a . an even t , when t e r m i n a t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

b . an even t , w h e n p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s the p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

c. an even t , w h e n p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , d e c r e a s e s t he p r o b a b i l i t y of t ha t r e s p o n s e

d. i n f o r m a t i o n about p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h is u s e d t o guide f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e

6. A n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e r is

a, an even t , w h e n p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , d e c r e a s e s the p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

b, an even t , when t e r m i n a t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s the p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

c, an even t , when p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s t he p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

d, a s t i m u l u s w h i c h s i g n a l s a r e s p o n s e w i l l be f o l l o w e d by a r e i n f o r c e r , and is a b b r e v i a t e d by the t e r m n S D n

7. P u n i s h m e n t is

a . an even t , when p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , d e c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

b. an even t , when p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

c . an e v e n t , when t e r m i n a t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s the p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

d. a r e s p o n s e c l a s s de f ined by a t h r e e - t e r m c o n t i n g e n c y

8. S u p e r s t i t i o u s b e h a v i o r is

a . a r e s p o n s e c l a s s de f ined by a t h r e e - t e r m r e i n f o r c e m e n t b . b e h a v i o r s h a p e d or m a i n t a i n e d by a c c i d e n t a l o r change r e i n -

f o r c e m e n t c. an even t , w h e n t e r m i n a t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y of t ha t r e s p o n s e d. t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a r e i n f o r c e r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a r e s p o n s e

130

9. Shaping is

a . t he m e a s u r e d p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l at o r b e f o r e an a t t e m p t t o change b e h a v i o r

b . an even t , w h e n p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s the p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

c. a g r a d u a l t e c h n i q u e f o r chang ing b e h a v i o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t of a s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n of a d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r

d* b e h a v i o r s h a p e d or m a i n t a i n e d by a c c i d e n t a l or c h a n g e r e i n -f o r c e m e n t

10. O p e r a n t is

a . t he m e a s u r e d p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l a t or b e f o r e an a t t e m p t t o change b e h a v i o r

b . e v e n t s w h i c h one w i l l w o r k t o e s c a p e or avoid c . guided by da ta — a look and s e e a p p r o a c h d. a r e s p o n s e c l a s s de f ined by a t h r e e - t e r m con t i ngency

131

H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 131

C h a p t e r 12 F o r m D

1, R e i n f o r c e m e n t i s

a . a nSDM

b. an " i f - t h e n 1 1 r e l a t i o n s h i p

c. an e v e n t , w h e n p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , d e c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e

d. t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a n a v e r s i v e f o l l o w i n g a r e s p o n s e

2 , W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s not an a l t e r n a t i v e t o u s e if y o u c a n ! t f i n d a r e i n f o r c e r

a . a c c e p t p e r f o r m a n c e a s i t i s b . h a v e a long t a l k w i t h t h e p e r f o r m e r c . u s e a v e r s i v e s d. l o o k f o r o t h e r p e r f o r m a n c e you c a n r e i n f o r c e

3, R e i n f o r c e m e n t s h o u l d be d e l i v e r e d

a . a t l e a s t o n c e a d a y b . a s l ong a f t e r t h e r e s p o n s e a s p o s s i b l e c . a s s l o w l y a s p o s s i b l e d. a s s o o n a f t e r t h e r e s p o n s e a s p o s s i b l e

4 , You know if t h e d e l i v e r y of t h e r e i n f o r c e r w a s s o o n e n o u g h if

a , t h e p e r f o r m e r s e e m s s a t i s f i e d b . t h e r e i n f o r c e r i s e f f e c t i v e in m a i n t a i n i n g o r i m p r o v i n g

p e r f o r m a n c e c . t h e p e r f o r m e r t a k e s i t d, n o n e of t h e a b o v e

5, In s e t t i n g u p t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t , t h e s a f e s t p r o c e -d u r e i s t o

a . a s k t h e p e r f o r m e r b. u s e i m p r o v e m e n t a s y o u r c r i t e r i o n c . u s e n e x t y e a r * s d a t a s h e e t s a s y o u r c r i t e r i o n d. u s e a n a r b i t r a r y c r i t e r i o n

132

6. You s h o u l d r e i n f o r c e b e h a v i o r

a . b e f o r e c r i t e r i a a r e d e v e l o p e d b. a f t e r a s h o r t d e l a y c . i m m e d i a t e l y o r a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e a f t e r c r i t e r i a a r e m e t d. w h e n a t l e a s t p a r t of t h e c r i t e r i a h a s b e e n m e t

7. If y o u c a n ' t f i n d r e i n f o r c e r s f o r a g i v e n p e r f o r m a n c e y o u c a n

a . l ook f o r s o m e o t h e r p e r f o r m a n c e y o u c a n r e i n f o r c e w h i c h w i l l l e a d t o t h e s a m e g o a l

b . u s e t o k e n s , t h e y a r e a l w a y s e f f e c t i v e c . k e e p t r y i n g t h e s a m e c o n s e q u e n c e s u n t i l t h e w o r k e r i s

f o r c e d t o t h i n k t h a t t h e y a r e r e i n f o r c e r s d. a l w a y s do j u s t a s w e l l w i t h o u t

8. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s not a r e i n f o r c e r a v a i l a b l e t o u s e in p r a c t i c a l b u s i n e s s s e t t i n g s ?

a . r e g u l a r f e e d b a c k on j o b p e r f o r m a n c e b. p o s i t i v e s u p e r v i s o r y c o m m e n t s on l a c k of i m p r o v e m e n t in

p e r f o r m a n c e c . r e g u l a r f e e d b a c k on p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e m e n t d. p o s i t i v e s u p e r v i s o r y c o m m e n t s on good p e r f o r m a n c e

9. W h e n t h e q u a l i t y o r q u a n t i t y c r i t e r i a a r e no t m e t , one s h o u l d

a . r e i n f o r c e on ly in s m a l l a m o u n t s b. no t r e i n f o r c e a t a l l c . u s e l a r g e r r e i n f o r c e r s d. r e i n f o r c e m o r e o f t e n

10. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s a n a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g a p a r t i a l r e i n -f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e ?

a . t h e p e r f o r m a n c e b e c o m e s e r r a t i c and we s o m e t i m e s s e e l a r g e i m p r o v e m e n t s

b . t h e p e r f o r m e r l i k e s t h e p a r t i a l s y s t e m b e t t e r c . t h e v a l u e of t h e r e i n f o r c e r m a y i n c r e a s e d. t h e p e r f o r m a n c e b e c o m e s s t a b l e

133

H u m a n R e l a t i o n s 131

Uni t III C h a p t e r s 9, 10, 11, 12

1- L e a r n i n g i n v o l v e s

a . c h a n g i n g w h a t h a p p e n e d in t h e p a s t b . s t r i v i n g f o r t h e f u t u r e c . e x t i n g u i s h i n g p a s t b e h a v i o r d. a d d i n g t o w h a t i s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t

2 , W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s a n a d v a n t a g e of " b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s 1 1

r a t h e r t h a n " r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s 1 1 ?

a . you look a t w e a k n e s s e s and e m p h a s i z e how f a r t h e p e r s o n i s f r o m t h e g o a l

b. i t i s e a s i e r c . t h e m a n a g e r of i n s t r u c t o r w h o looks f o r s t r e n g t h s c a n f i n d a

s u r p r i s i n g n u m b e r of t h e m w h i c h w o u l d p r o b a b l y be o v e r -l o o k e d if h e w e r e f o c u s i n g on w e a k n e s s e s

d. t h e s t r e n g t h i s i n h e r e n t l y e a s i e r t o i d e n t i f y t h a n t h e w e a k n e s s

3 . If y o u c a n ' t s e e m t o f i n d a n y s t r e n g t h s t o b u i l d on, y o u

a . k e e p l o o k i n g b. s t o p l o o k i n g c . w o r k w i t h a n o t h e r p r o b l e m d. s t a r t r e p a i r i n g w e a k n e s s e s

4 . In r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t t h e b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s p r o c e d u r e h a s , i t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t

a . i t h a s a d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t b . i t h a s a t e m p o r a l e f f e c t c . t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a s n o w b a l l i n g e f f e c t d. t h e r e is no l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t

5, T h e b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s s t r a t e g y w o r k s w i t h

a . on ly v e r y s t r o n g b e h a v i o r s b. on ly v e r y w e a k b e h a v i o r s c . a n y b e h a v i o r d. b e h a v i o r s w h i c h o c c u r a b o v e t h e o p e r a n t l e v e l

134

6. The strategy of "building on strengths11 is essentially for

a. building self concept b. changing behavior c. developing self esteem d. raising children

7. The goal for building on strengths is to

a. make the per former feel better b. eliminate disparity between existing and desired performance c. give the performer a conscience d. eliminate any existing inappropriate behavior

8. If one utilizes a building on strengths focus then

a. one is more likely to teach what a person already knows b. one is less likely to teach what a person already knows c. the person will most likely be bored d. there is a strong possibility of regression

9. Emphasizing weakness has some positive motivational value if

a. the person is usually positive about other things b. the weakness is small but difficult to overcome c. the weakness is large d. the weakness is small or looks easy to overcome

10. The major reason for building on strengths appears to be the

a. effort required b. motivational effect c. time span involved d. control of extraneous variables

11. The major pitfall to be avoided in setting performance goals is

a. to make them too easy b. to make them too specific c. to make them always achievable d. to set conflicting goals without adequately resolving the con-

flict between them

135

12. How c a n a qua l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e goa l be s t a t e d f o r a c l e r i c a l s k i l l ?

a . r e f e r to t h e s e c r e t a r y wi th t he m o s t e x p e r i e n c e t o d e t e r m i n e what qua l i t y is

b . t h e s a m e w a y tha t a quan t i t y p e r f o r m a n c e goa l would be s t a t e d , in m e a s u r a b l e t e r m s

c. t he m o s t p r o d u c t i o n in the q u i c k e s t t i m e is a l w a y s t he b e s t qua l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e

d. t h e b e s t d e f e n s e is a good o f f e n s e

13. T h e u l t i m a t e c r i t e r i o n f o r s e t t i n g up p e r f o r m a n c e goa l s is

a . goa l s shou ld m a k e peop le happy b. goa l s shou ld f u n c t i o n t o m a i n t a i n o r i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e c. goa ls shou ld f u n c t i o n to u n d e r m i n e a u t h o r i t y d. goa l s shou ld f u n c t i o n f o r m a n a g e m e n t only

14. In p r a c t i c e t h e f i n a l a u t h o r i t y f o r s e t t i n g goa l s is

a . up t o the p e r f o r m e r b. t h e r e is n e v e r a f i n a l a u t h o r i t y f o r s e t t i n g goa ls c . up t o bo th t h e i nd iv idua l p e r f o r m e r and t o p m a n a g e m e n t d. d e t e r m i n e d by s t r u c t u r e and ph i lo sophy of t h e p a r t i c u l a r

o r g a n i z a t i o n

15. Which of t h e fo l lowing i s a r e a s o n to s e t g o a l s ?

a . t o p r o v i d e f o r a r e i n f o r c e m e n t s y s t e m b. t o give m a n a g e m e n t s o m e t h i n g t o e v a l u a t e c . goa l s p r o v i d e an oppor tun i ty t o r e v i e w o p e r a t i o n s , e v a l u a t e

a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s , and d i s c u s s p r o b l e m s d. t o p r o v i d e t he p e r f o r m e r a new n e e d s s y s t e m

16. T h e 2 / 3 r u l e s t a t e s t ha t

a . t h e h o r i z o n t a l ax i s of a g r a p h shou ld be 2 / 3 t h e l eng th of the v e r t i c a l ax i s

b. you shou ld only r e i n f o r c e 2 / 3 of the t i m e c. t h e v e r t i c a l ax i s of a g r a p h shou ld be 2 / 3 of t he l eng th of

t he h o r i z o n t a l ax i s d. you shou ld only p u n i s h f o r 2 / 3 of t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of i n f r a c -

t i o n s

136

17. B r e t h o w e r s t a t e s t h a t t h e m o s t u s e f u l s t r a t e g y f o r s e t t i n g g o a l s

i s

a . t h e w h a t ' s - i t - t a k e - t o - p l e a s e - t h e - b o s s s t r a t e g y b. t h e p u t - i t - o n - a - g r a p h s t r a t e g y c . t h e p r o d u c t s - o f - p e r f o r m a n c e s t r a t e g y d. B r e t h o w e r d o e s no t s t a t e w h i c h of t h e s t r a t e g i e s i s m o s t

u s e f u l

18. In g e n e r a l g o a l s s h o u l d be

a , c o n c l u s i v e b . v a g u e c . m e a s u r e a b l e d. r i g i d

19. S h o r t t e r m g o a l s a r e u t i l i z e d f o r

a . r e i n f o r c e m e n t v a l u e b . c o m m u n i c a t i o n v a l u e c . b e n c h m a r k s f o r m e a s u r i n g p r o g r e s s d. c h e c k s on t h e c r e a t i v i t y of t h e g o a l s e t t e r

20 . A s i d e f r o m t h e s e t t i n g of c o n f l i c t i n g g o a l s a m a j o r p i t f a l l e x i s t s in s e t t i n g

a . g o a l s t o o low b. t h e w r o n g g o a l s c . g o a l s t o o h i g h d. an u n r e s o l v e d e g o c o n f l i c t

21 . T h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l a n s w e r f o r w h o is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m e e t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s i s

a . w h o e v e r i s h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e b. t h e t o p m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l c . t h e p e r f o r m e r d. t h e s u p e r v i s o r

2 2 . T h e g o a l s s e t in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d e m a n d s of a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n a n d c a p a c i t i e s of a p a r t i c u l a r p e r f o r m e r a r e c a l l e d

a . t e m p o r a r y g o a l s b . un i t g o a l s c . m i n i g o a l s d. s u b g o a l s

137

2 3 . T h e m o s t s a t i s f a c t o r y a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s i s

a . on ly t h e t o p p e r f o r m e r i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s b . on ly s h a g n a s t y i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s c . on ly t o p m a n a g e m e n t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s d. a l l t h e p e r f o r m e r s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s

2 4 . W h e n t h e t i m e s p a n c o v e r e d by g o a l s i s t o o l a r g e , B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s w e s h o u l d u s e

a . c o n s t a n t r e i n f o r c e r s b. d i s c r e e t r e i n f o r c e r s c, a l a r g e r r e i n f o r c e r d. s u b g o a l s

25 . Sub g o a l s s h o u l d be s e t

a . s o h i g h t h a t on ly s u s t a i n e d e f f o r t w i l l r e a c h t h e m b. h i g h e n o u g h t o b e w o r t h a c h i e v i n g c . s o low t h a t t h e l a c k a c h i e v i n g t h e m i s no t r e i n f o r c i n g d. n o n e of t h e a b o v e

2 6 . W h e n we u s e s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n , w e b e g i n

a . r e i n f o r c i n g p e r f o r m a n c e c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e f i n a l p e r f o r m a n c e b . w i t h v e r y l a r g e r e i n f o r c e r s c . a n y w h e r e d. w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m e r i s a t

2 7 . T h e m o s t b a s i c r e a s o n f o r s e t t i n g a s u b g o a l i s t o

a . m a k e w o r k e r s h a p p y b . p r o v i d e m o r e r e w a r d s c . m a k e o r g a n i z a t i o n m e a n i n g f u l in g u i d i n g d a y - t o - d a y p e r -

f o r m a n c e d. e l i m i n a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r c o n s t a n t f e e d b a c k

2 8 . A d e a d l i n e i s

a . a d a t e t h e g o a l m u s t b e c o m p l e t e d b . a d a t e t h a t t h e a t t a i n m e n t of a g o a l c a n be r e a s o n a b l y

e x p e c t e d c . a p r o g r a m of p u n i s h m e n t d. n o n e of t h e a b o v e

138

29 . A c c o r d i n g t o B r e t h o w e r , a p e r f o r m a n c e f e e d b a c k s y s t e m c a n p r o v i d e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r

a . a d i r e c t i o n of l o n g - t e r m g o a l s b . p u n i s h m e n t s c h e d u l e s c . p e r f o r m a n c e n e e d s s y s t e m s d. s u b g o a l s

30 . A p e r f o r m a n c e f e e d b a c k s y s t e m is c a p a b l e of r e l a t i n g s u b g o a l s t o l o n g e r r a n g e g o a l s by

a , p r o v i d i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n b . k e e p i n g t h e p e r f o r m e r b u s y c . b r i d g i n g t h e t i m e g a p d. i n c r e a s i n g s e n s i t i v i t y t o g o a l s

31 . A c o n t i n g e n c y c a n a l s o be t h o u g h t of a s

a . c o n s e q u e n c e s of b e h a v i o r b . M n o w - i f n r e l a t i o n s h i p c . b e h a v i o r a l a n a l y s i s d. an " i f - t h e n ! 1 r e l a t i o n s h i p

32 . c a n b e a v e r y v a l u a b l e r e i n f o r c e r a c c o r d i n g t o B r e -t h o w e r

a . m o n e y b . o p p o r t u n i t y c . i n c e n t i v e d. p u n i s h m e n t

33 . B r e t h o w e r s a y s a r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t w o e v e n t s . One of t h e e v e n t s i s

a . p r e s e n t a t i o n of a r e i n f o r c e r b, p r e s e n t a t i o n of a p u n i s h e r c . p r e s e n t a t i o n of c o m p e t i n g s t i m u l i d, n o n e of t h e a b o v e

34 . W h e n t o r e i n f o r c e c a n be a p r o b l e m , t h e s a f e s t p r o c e d u r e i s t o r e i n f o r c e

a . a l l t h e t i m e b. w h e n p e r f o r m a n c e i s i m p r o v i n g c . b e f o r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e s d. a f t e r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e s

35 . B r e t h o w e r e s t i m a t e s t h a t p e r c e n t of m o t i v a t i o n p r o b l e m s in b u s i n e s s c o u l d be s o l v e d u s i n g one o r m o r e of p o s s i b l e r e i n f o r c e r s .

a . 50 b. 90 c . 70 d. 100

139

36. An aversive stimuli is

a, if-then relationship b, an event presented to increase performance c, a response class d, an event which one will work to escape from

37. Reinforcement should be delivered

a. at least once a day b. as long after the response as possible c. as slowly as possible d. as soon after the response as possible

38. If you canlt find reinforcers for a given performance you can

a. look for some other performance you can reinforce which will lead to the same goal

b. use tokens, they are always effective c. keep trying the same reinforcers until the worker is forced

to think that they are reinforcers d. always do just as well without

39. Which of the following is not a reinforcer available to use in practical business settings?

a. regular feedback on job performance b. positive supervisory comments on lack of improvement in

performance c. regular feedback on performance improvement d. positive supervisory comments of good performance

40. Which of the following is an advantage of using a partial reinforce-ment schedule?

a. the performance becomes errat ic and we sometimes see large improvements

b. the performer likes the partial system better c. the value of the reinforcer may increase d. the performance becomes stable

A P P E N D I X C

F I N A L A C H I E V E M E N T T E S T

141

1. An a d a p t i v e s y s t e m

a , i s g u i d e d b y f e e d b a c k b, h a s r i g i d g o a l s c , i s h e t e r o g e n e o u s in o r i e n t a t i o n d, i s no t g u i d e d by f e e d b a c k

2 . An a n t e c e d e n t s t i m u l u s i s

a . t e c h n i c a l l y e l i m i n a t i n g b e h a v i o r t h r o u g h p u n i s h m e n t

b . s u p p o r t s p r o v i d e d by o u t p u t s c . a S d . a c u e

3. a b a s e l i n e i s

a . a n if t h e n r e l a t i o n s h i p b. a k i n d of f l ow c h a r t c . t h e m e a s u r e d p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l a t o r b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g

of a n a t t e m p t t o c h a n g e b e h a v i o r d. a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of an a r e a of c o n c e r n

4 . A b e h a v i o r i s

a . a s p e c i a l k i n d of f low c h a r t u s e d t o d e s c r i b e s e q u e n c e s of b e h a v i o r

b . a s e q u e n c e of r e s p o n s e s h e l d t o g e t h e r by t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t i n g e n c y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t

c . a c u e d. a n a c t i v i t y w e c a n s e e o r m e a s u r e

5. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s a d e c i s i o n - a c t i o n s e q u e n c e ?

a . s e q u e n c e of r e s p o n s e s d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s of d e c i s i o n s m a d e a n d a c t i o n t a k e n

b. a t a b u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s t e p s i n v o l v e d in r e a c h i n g a d e c i s i o n

c . t h e p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l t o be m a i n t a i n e d a n d / o r o b t a i n e d by a b e h a v i o r m a n a g e m e n t p r o j e c t

d . s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d f o r t h e o u t p u t s of a s y s t e m a f t e r t h e y l e a v e t h e s y s t e m

142

6. A c o n s e q u e n t s t i m u l u s i s

a . and i f - t h e n a r r a n g e m e n t b e t w e e n a r e s p o n s e and a r e i n -f o r c e r or p u n i s h e r

b, an even t wh ich i m m e d i a t e l y fo l lows a r e s p o n s e c, a s t i m u l u s w h i c h s i g n a l s w h e t h e r a r e s p o n s e w i l l be f o l -

lowed by a r e i n f o r c e r , a p u n i s h e r , o r a n e u t r a l event d. e v e n t s w h i c h one w i l l w o r k to e s c a p e f r o m or avoid

7. A v e r s i v e c o n t r o l is

a. t e c h n i c a l l y , e l i m i n a t i n g b e h a v i o r by p u n i s h m e n t b. an event wh ich i m m e d i a t e l y fo l l ows a r e s p o n s e c. t he m e a s u r e d p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l at o r b e f o r e t h e beg inn ing

of an a t t e m p t t o change b e h a v i o r d. even t s w h i c h one w i l l w o r k to e s c a p e f r o m or avoid

8. T h e e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h

a . is d o m i n a t e d by t h e o r y b. i s guided by da ta c . is an i f - t h e n r e l a t i o n s h i p d. is a t a b u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s t e p s t a k e n in r e a c h i n g a

d e c i s i o n

9. F o l l o w - u p m e a n s

a . s y s t e m a t i c p lan f o r chang ing b e h a v i o r b. a s e q u e n c e of r e s p o n s e s he ld t o g e t h e r by t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p

t o a p a r t i c u l a r con t ingency of r e i n f o r c e m e n t c . a d i a g r a m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n ' o f t h e s t e p s involved in r e a c h i n g

a d e c i s i o n d. in p r a c t i c e , t h e p r o c e s s e s of ob ta in ing f e e d b a c k and p r o v i d -

ing s u p p o r t a r e o f ten a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e s a m e a c t i v i t i e s

10, A d e s i r e d p e r f o r m a n c e m e a n s

a . a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of an a r e a of c o n c e r n b. a s e q u e n c e of r e s p o n s e s he ld t o g e t h e r by t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p

t o a p a r t i c u l a r con t ingency of r e i n f o r c e m e n t c. t he p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l t o be ob ta ined a n d / o r m a i n t a i n e d by

a b e h a v i o r m a n a g e m e n t p r o j e c t d* i n f o r m a t i o n about p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h is u s e d t o guide

f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e

143

11. A b e h a v i o r t e c h n o l o g y i s

a, a g r o w i n g body of c o n c e p t s and t e c h n i q u e s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s , d e s i g n , and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of s y s t e m s w h i c h i m p r o v e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of h u m a n p e r f o r m a n c e

b, t h e p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l t o be o b t a i n e d a n d / o r m a i n t a i n e d by a b e h a v i o r m a n a g e m e n t p r o j e c t

c . a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of an a r e a of c o n c e r n d. in p r a c t i c e , t h e p r o c e s s e s of o b t a i n i n g f e e d b a c k and p r o v i d -

ing s u p p o r t a r e o f t e n a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e s a m e a c t i v i t i e s

12. F e e d b a c k i s

a , s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d f o r t h e o u t p u t s of a s y s t e m a f t e r t h e y l e a v e t h e s y s t e m

b, a s p e c i a l k ind of f low c h a r t u s e d t o d e s c r i b e s e q u e n c e s of b e h a v i o r

c , an i f - t h e n a r r a n g e m e n t b e t w e e n a r e s p o n s e and a r e i n f o r c e r o r p u n i s h e r

d, i n f o r m a t i o n abou t p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h is u s e d t o gu ide f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e

13. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n an e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h and a t h e o r e t i c a l o r t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h is

a . one of s h a r p l y d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n c e s b. one of d e g r e e c . one of p r a c t i c e d. one of g o a l s

14. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s is t r u e ?

a . T h e p r o c e s s e s of ob t a in ing f e e d b a c k and p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t a r e o f t e n a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e s a m e a c t i v i t i e s .

b. T h e p r o c e s s e s of ob t a in ing f e e d b a c k and p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t c a n n o t be a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e s a m e a c t i v i t i e s .

c . P o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k i n d i c a t e s a n e e d f o r c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n . d. N e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k i n d i c a t e s p r o g r e s s t o w a r d g o a l s .

15. A S d i s

a . a s i g n a l f o r r e i n f o r c e r b . a s i g n a l f o r a p u n i s h e r s c . a b a s e l i n e n o t a t i o n d. a t a b u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n of s t e p s i n v o l v e d in r e a c h i n g a d e c i s i o n

144

16. I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e i s c a l l e d

a . f o l l o w - u p b . f e e d b a c k c . e m p i r i c a l d. a c o n t i n g e n c y

17. A s p e c i a l k i n d of f l ow c h a r t u s e d t o d e s c r i b e s e q u e n c e s of

b e h a v i o r i s c a l l e d

a . a d e c i s i o n t a b l e b . a d e c i s i o n t r e e c . a d e c i s i o n - a c t i o n f low c h a r t d. a d o m a i n s t a t e m e n t

18. A s i g n a l f o r a p u n i s h e r i s c a l l e d

a . S - D e e b . S - D e l t a c . S - e n d. S - s i n

19- An e v e n t w h i c h , w h e n o c c u r r i n g i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , d e c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e i s a

a . r e i n f o r c e r b. S D e e c . p u n i s h e r d. p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k

2 0 . A g o a l w i t h i n a g o a l i s c a l l e d

a . a s u b s y s t e m b. a s u b g o a l c . a un i t g o a l d. a p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k p r o c e d u r e

2 1 . B e h a v i o r w h i c h m a y be s h a p e d by a c c i d e n t a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s

c a l l e d

a . p o s i t i v e b e h a v i o r b . s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e h a v i o r c . n e g a t i v e b e h a v i o r d. c h a n c e b e h a v i o r

2 2 . A i s a g e n e r a l t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a s p e c i f i c e n v i r o n -m e n t a l e v e n t r e l e v a n t t o m a n a g i n g b e h a v i o r .

a . p u n i s h e r b . r e i n f o r c e r c . s t i m u l u s d. c o n t i n g e n c y

2 3 . W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g c a n b e u t i l i z e d a s a v e r y v a l u a b l e r e i n -f o r c e r in b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y ?

a . s e x b. o p p o r t u n i t y c.. r e d u c t i o n in s a l a r y d. m o n e y

145

24 . In g e n e r a l w e c a n p r o d u c e a h i g h , s t a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e if

a . w e r e i n f o r c e e v e r y r e s p o n s e b. w e r e i n f o r c e on a v a r i a b l e s c h e d u l e c . w e r e i n f o r c e on a f i x e d s c h e d u l e d. w e n e v e r r e i n f o r c e

2 5 . A p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e r

a . i n c r e a s e s p e r f o r m a n c e b . d e c r e a s e s p e r f o r m a n c e c . m a y i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e p e r f o r m a n c e d. i s u n r e l a t e d t o p e r f o r m a n c e

2 6 . W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g m a y be a p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e r ?

a . a u g m e n t a t i o n in s a l a r y b . m o n e y c . f r e e t i m e d. a l l of t h e a b o v e

2 7 . An ! 1 i f - t h e n n r e l a t i o n s h i p is c a l l e d a

a , r e i n f o r c e r b . c o n t i n g e n c y c . s t i m u l u s d. r e s p o n s e

28 . B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s t h a t p e r c e n t of m o t i v a t i o n p r o b l e m s c o u l d b e s o l v e d t h r o u g h t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of f e e d b a c k .

a . 10 b . 50 c . 90 d. 100

2 9 . P u n i s h m e n t i s a c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e .

a . i n c e n t i v e b, a v e r s i v e c . s h a p i n g d. n e u t r a l

30 . On M a s l o w ' s " H i e r a r c h y of Needs 1 1 w h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s t h e h i g h e s t , o r l e s s b a s i c .

a . b e l o n g i n g n e s s and love b. e s t e e m c . s a f e t y d. s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n

31 . M o n e y is a r e i n f o r c e r .

a . p r i m a r y b . s e c o n d a r y c . p a r t i a l d. c o n t i n u o u s

146

32. Which of the following reinforcement schedules employed during acquisition will probably result in the slowest extinction of learned responses?

a. fixed interval b. fixed ratio c. variable interval d. continuous

33. Punishment is

a. almost always less effective than reward b. more effective if given occasionally c. more effective for children but less effective for adults d. quite effective if not too severe

34. Which of the following is not a part of a contingency?

a. stimulus b. response c. generalization d. re inforcer

35. The removal of a positive reinforcer is

a. negative reinforcement b. positive reinforcement c. a neutral event d. punishment

36. Operant conditioning is a type of conditioning.

a. c lassical b. higher order c. instrumental d. respondent

37. Which of the following is an example of a pr imary re inforcer?

a. money b. poker chips c, food d. M & M js

38. Performance related events which occur at or very near the time of performance are called

a. schedules of reinforcement b. shor t - te rm consequences b. shor t - te rm events d. contingencies

39. A stimulus which signals or sets the occasion for reinforcement or punishment of responses is called

a. antecedent stimulus b. a consequent stimulus c. an aversive stimulus d. a neutral stimulus

147

4 0 . T h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t in t e r m s of t i m e and c o s t s i s

a , c o n t i n u o u s b. p a r t i a l c . a f t e r e v e r y r e s p o n s e d. n e v e r

4 1 . W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t is b e s t t o t e a c h a new b e h a v i o r ?

a . F R 3 b . c o n t i n u o u s c . v a r i a b l e d. p a r t i a l

42 . I n f o r m a t i o n abou t p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h i s u s e d t o gu ide f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e s i s c a l l e d

a . g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s b . a v e r s i v e s c . f e e d b a c k d. S ^ ! s

4 3 . W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g m a y be a s e c o n d a r y r e i n f o r c e r ?

a . l ove b . s a f e t y c . s e x d. s l e e p

4 4 . An e x a m p l e of a r e s p o n s e c l a s s i s a

a . a v e r s i v e s t i m u l u s b . g r a f t

c . c o n t i n g e n c y d. a n e v e n t w h i c h i n c r e a s e s p e r f o r m a n c e

4 5 . An e v e n t , w h e n p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a -b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e i s a

a . n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e r b . p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e r c . p u n i s h e r d. a v e r s i v e

4 6 . An a p p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s o l v i n g w h i c h i s g u i d e d b y d a t a , L e . , a look a n d s e e a p p r o a c h is

a , t r a d i t i o n a l b . n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l c . e m p i r i c a l d. e l e m e n t a l

148

47 . A t e c h n i q u e f o r c h a n g i n g b e h a v i o r i s l e a r n i n g new b e h a v i o r s w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t of a s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a -t i o n of d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r s i s c a l l e d

a . d e s c r i m i n a t e b, a v a r i a b l e a p p r o x i m a t e c . m o d i f i c a t i o n d, s h a p i n g

4 8 . An e v e n t , w h e n p r e s e n t e d a f t e r a r e s p o n s e , d e c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h a t r e s p o n s e i s c a l l e d

a . n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t b . p u n i s h m e n t c . s h a p i n g d. t h o u g h t s t o p p i n g

4 9 . A r e s p o n s e c l a s s d e f i n e d by a t h r e e - t e r m c o n t i n g e n c y i s a

a . r e i n f o r c e r B . c . p u n i s h e r d. o p e r a n t

50 . If a r e i n f o r c e r i s e f f e c t i v e in m a i n t a i n i n g o r i m p r o v i n g p e r -f o r m a n c e t h e n y o u know

a . t h e d e l i v e r y of t h e r e i n f o r c e r w a s s o o n e n o u g h b . T h e d e l i v e r y of t h e r e i n f o r c e r s h o u l d be s l o w e d d o w n c . t h e d e l i v e r y of t h e r e i n f o r c e r s h o u l d be s p e e d e d up d. y o u s h o u l d c h a n g e r e i n f o r c e r s

51. Sub g o a l s a r e

a . p a r t of a c o n t i n g e n c y b . a t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a s p e c i f i c e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v e n t c . a g o a l w i t h i n a g o a l d. an a n t e c e d e n t e v e n t o r s t i m u l i

52. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s t h e s y m b o l i c n o t a t i o n of a c o n t i n g e n c y ?

a . S d : R S - R b . S : S - R R c . S R d. S O R

53. A c o n v e n i e n t uni t f o r d e s c r i b i n g p e r f o r m a n c e u s e d by B r e t h o w e r i s

a , s t i m u l u s b . r e s p o n s e c . r e i n f o r c e r d. e v e n t

149

54. R e i n f o r c e m e n t of s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s is

a . bu i ld ing b. s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e h a v i o r c . s h a p i n g d. a s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t

55. P e r f o r m a n c e t e n d s t o b e c o m e v e r y e r r a t i c when

a . t h e r e a r e no p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s b. p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t o o h igh c . p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t o o low d. p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s v a r y

56. We t e n d t o get a v e r y s t a b l e and h igh p e r f o r m a n c e w h e n

a. we r e i n f o r c e a f t e r e a c h r e s p o n s e b. we r e i n f o r c e con t inuous ly c. we r e i n f o r c e on s o m e s c h e d u l e o the r t h a n con t inuous d. we do not r e i n f o r c e at a l l

57. A is u s u a l l y u s e d t o r e l a t e m o n e t a r y or d a y - t o - d a y p e r f o r m a n c e t o l a r g e r g o a l s .

a . m i n i - g o a l b. s u b g o a l c . uni t goa l s d. s h a p i n g

58. Goals w h i c h a r e s e t in m e a n i n g f u l t e r m s t o t h e p e r f o r m e r a r e

a . long r a n g e goa l s b. sub goa l s c . a l l goa l s a r e s e t f o r the p e r f o r m e r d. t h e r e a r e no goa ls s e t f o r the p e r f o r m e r s

59. A conven i en t m e t h o d of b r i d g i n g t h e t i m e gap b e t w e e n s u b g o a l s and l o n g e r r a n g e t o a l s is

a . an a n n u a l r e v i e w of p e r f o r m a n c e b. a d i f f e r e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e c . s u b g o a l c r i t e r i a e v a l u a t i o n d. p e r f o r m a n c e f e e d b a c k s y s t e m

150

60 . B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s t h a t s u b g o a l s s h o u l d b e e m p l o y e d w h e n

a . t h e t i m e s p a n c o v e r e d by l o n g - r a n g e g o a l s i s t o o long b . t h e e m p l o y e e s f o r t h e m c . n o o t h e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s a v a i l a b l e , d. f e e d b a c k h a s b e e n d e l i v e r e d in a c o n s i s t e n t m a n n e r

61. W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g i s no t a m e t h o d of d e t e r m i n i n g s t r e n g t h s ?

a . t e s t b, a s k h i s n e i g h b o r c, w a t c h w h a t h e d o e s d, a s k h i m

62 . B r e t h o w e r b e l i e v e s t h a t m o s t f a i l u r e o c c u r s b e c a u s e of

a . t o o m u c h p u n i s h m e n t b . t o o l i t t l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c . t o o m u c h p r e s s u r e d. t h e p e r f o r m e r d i d n f t w a n t t o do i t a n y w a y .

6 3 . T h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n e x i s t i n g b e h a v i o r and d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r i s t h e g o a l of

a . d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g b . g e n e r a l i z a t i o n g r a d i e n t s c . b u i l d i n g on w e a k n e s s e s d . b u i l d i n g on s t r e n g t h s

64 . W h e n u t i l i z i n g a " o n e shot1 1 c o n t i n g e n c y , w e s h o u l d

a . t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s h o u l d be e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d b . t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s h o u l d no t be m e n t i o n e d at a l l c . t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d bu t n e v e r e x p l i -

c i t l y d. t h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g a s a one s h o t c o n t i n g e n c y .

65 . In p r a c t i c e t h e p r o c e s s of o b t a i n i n g f e e d b a c k i s a t y p e of

a . p u n i s h e r b . n e u t r a l e v e n t c . a v e r s i v e d. r e i n f o r c e r

66 . B e h a v i o r w h i c h i s s h a p e d t h r o u g h i s c a l l e d s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e h a v i o r .

a . a s p e c i a l p r o g r a m b . f i x e d r a t i o c , a v a r i a b l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t d. a c h a n c e r e i n f o r c e m e n t

151

67. T h e r e s u l t of s h a p i n g is a change of b e h a v i o r t o w a r d a goa l b e h a v i o r .

a . s h a r p b. c o n s t a n t c . g r a d u a l d. e a s y

68. When the i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d about a p r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e i nd i -c a t e s a n e e d f o r c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n , t he i n f o r m a t i o n is t e c h n i c a l l y c a l l e d

a . p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k b. n e g a t i v e f e e d b a c k c . n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t d. n i t - p i c k i n g

69. When you a r e e m p l o y i n g a shap ing t e c h n i q u e you beg in t o s h a p e

a . at t he goa l b e h a v i o r and w o r k b a c k w a r d s b. at t he b a s e l i n e and w o r k t o w a r d the goa l b e h a v i o r c. b e t w e e n the b a s e l i n e and goa l b e h a v i o r but mov ing f i r s t

t o w a r d t h e b a s e l i n e d. b e t w e e n the b a s e l i n e b e h a v i o r and t h e goa l b e h a v i o r and

w o r k bo th w a y s

70. In a f i xed r a t i o 8 (FR8) s c h e d u l e the p e r f o r m e r is r e i n f o r c e d

a, an a v e r a g e of 8 t i m e s b. a f t e r 8 m i n u t e s c, a f t e r 8 r e s p o n s e s d. a f t e r 8 m i n u t e s , but only if a r e s p o n s e h a s o c c u r r e d

71. When we u t i l i ze an i n t e r v a l s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t s u c h a s (F I 3), t h e n the o r g a n i s m is r e i n f o r c e d

a . a f t e r e v e r y 3 r e s p o n s e s b. a f t e r e v e r y 3 m i n u t e s w h e t h e r a r e s p o n s e h a s o c c u r r e d or not c . a f t e r e v e r y 3 m i n u t e s only if a r e s p o n s e h a s o c c u r r e d d. only wi th in t h e 3 m i n u t e cyc le

72. A t e c h n i q u e f o r changing b e h a v i o r or f o r ob ta in ing new f o r m s of b e h a v i o r w h i c h invo lves r e i n f o r c i n g only b e h a v i o r s wh ich a r e c l o s e r t o the d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r i s c a l l e d

a . f ad ing b. d i s c r i m i n a t i n g c . s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s d, p o s i t i f e r e i n f o r c i n g

152

73 . A n a m e g i v e n t o s o m e of t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e t h e l e v e l a t w h i c h p e r f o r m a n c e o c c u r s i s r e f e r r e d t o a s

a . m o d i f i c a t i o n b . m o t i v a t i o n c . l e a r n i n g d. p r o c e s s i n g

74 . T h e j o k e , " W h y do y o u k e e p h i t t i n g y o u r h e a d a g a i n s t t h e w a l l ? n

- - " B e c a u s e it f e e l s s o good w h e n I s t o p ! " i l l u s t r a t e s

a . a v e r s i v e c o n t r o l b . p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c . n e g a t i f e r e i n f o r c e m e n t d. p u n i s h m e n t

75. On a v a r i a b l e r a t i o 8 (VR8) s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h e p e r -f o r m e r is r e i n f o r c e d

a . on an a v e r a g e of 8 t i m e s p e r m i n u t e b . on an a v e r a g e of 8 t i m e s p e r h o u r c . on an a v e r a g e of 8 r e s p o n s e s d. e v e r y 8 th r e s p o n s e

76. d e a l s w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s of b e h a v i o r in t e r m s of r e i n -f o r c e m e n t a n d p u n i s h m e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s .

a . o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g b . c l a s s i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g c . r e s p o n d e n t c o n d i t i o n i n g d. e l e m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g

77 . In g e n e r a l a t t e m p t s t o o v e r c o m e r e s i s t a n c e t o c h a n g e a r e m o r e e f f e c t i v e w h e n

a . w e b u i l d on s t r e n g t h s b . we b u i l d f r o m w e a k n e s s e s c . we t e a c h an e n t i r e l y new b e h a v i o r d . w e u s e a v e r s i v e c o n t r o l

78. W h e n it c o m e s t o m a i n t a i n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e r e i n f o r c e -m e n t i s s u p e r i o r t o r e i n f o r c e m e n t

a . no , g r a d u a l b. n e g a t i v e , p o s i t i v e c . v e r y f r e q u e n t , o c c a s i o n a l d. o c c a s i o n a l , v e r y f r e q u e n t

153

79. If a s u p e r v i s o r e x p e c t s a r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y t o h a v e a n y e f f e c t t h e n

a . he h a s t o m a k e s u r e h i s b o s s knows a b o u t it b. h e h a s t o m a k e s u r e it i s r e l e v a n t t o p e r f o r m a n c e c . h e h a s t o m a k e s u r e t h a t it i s no t r e l e v a n t t o p e r f o r m a n c e d. h e h a s t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e c o n t i n g e n c y i s p o s i t i v e

80. S a y i n g n t h a n k you , you did a n i c e job11 i s an e x a m p l e of a

a . p r i m a r y r e i n f o r c e r b . s o c i a l r e i n f o r c e r c . n e u t r a l e v e n t d. n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e r

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, T h e B e h a v i o r of O r g a n i s m s , New Y o r k , A p p l e t o n -C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1938.

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T h o m p s o n , W. , C o r r e l a t e s of Self C o n c e p t , N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , C o u n s e l o r R e c o r d i n g s and T e s t s , 1972.

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