3as project - unit 1 ( egypt, land of history and civilizati
TRANSCRIPT
Unit One : Exploring the Past
Theme : Ancient Civilizations
Project : Making the profile of an Ancient Civilization
Topic :
Egypt, Land of History and Civilizations
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Teacher :
School Year :
Egypt, Land of History and Civilizations
Here, we will learn about Egypt's ancient past, as well as some of the most important rulers and
other people that made Egypt one of the world's most powerful countries thousands of years ago.
We can divide up Egypt's past into a number of parts, but it is important to remember that there is
history, and the time before history, called prehistory. History is the period of time when humans
made records by writing about events, while prehistory, is the time before people could write.
Overall, we can divide Egypt's long past as:
● Prehistory : The time before writing
● The Dynastic Period : The time of Egyptian Pharaohs or Kings
● The Greco-Roman Period : Egypt ruled by Greek Kings and Roman Emperors
● The Archaic Islamic Period : After the Arab Invasion
During every period of Egypt's past there were a number of people who stand out from others. Most
of them are kings or pharaohs, and the earliest ones that we know about were recorded to have ruled
more than 5000 years ago. Because of the way the country was split up during ancient historical
times, there could have been more than one king. We really do not know the exact number of kings
Egypt has had. The kings were able to acquire some great power, and records even show that a few
of the ancient pharaohs became Egyptian gods.
Egypt's Prehistory
The prehistoric times of Egypt were a very long time ago. It was the time before the
pharaohs, and before anyone knew how to write. Prehistory dates from as far back as
you can imagine, think millions of years, to about 3000 B.C. when the 1st Dynasty of
Egyptian pharaohs began their rule.
There is not much that is known about prehistoric Egyptians. Egypt was not one big
desert with a river giving it life such as it is now. The land was green and grassy and there was rain.
The people hunted with stone axes and bone spears, in search of fresh game to eat. They made their
clothing from the skins of these animals. These tribes of people lived in groups of about 8000 and
learned to grow crops to add to their diet of hunted meat. Over thousands of years it began to rain
less and less in Egypt, and the crops would no longer grow. The grasslands died out from lack of
water, and sand slowly replaced the plains, turning Egypt into the sandy desert that we know it as
today.
Timeline of Ancient Egyptian Civilizations History
A- Dynastic Period
Predynastic Period (5500 - 3100 BC):
In the Predynastic Period of Ancient Egypt, people evolved from hunters and gatherers using
stone weapons into an organized central society. Animals such as donkeys are tamed and used
in daily life, not just for food. Egyptians trace their roots back to a land they called Punt. At
first, Egypt is ruled by many kings, each one fighting with others to try to take over and rule
more kingdoms.
Early Dynastic Period (2920 - 2650 BC):
Ancient writing came about during the Early Dynastic period in the form of hieroglyphs. By the
end of the Early Dynastic period, Egypt will be unified into one kingdom and ruled by a
pharaoh. The Early Dynastic period consists of dynasties 0 through 2 usually, and lasted about
300 years. There were at least 30 kings during the Early Dynastic period and some of the first
monuments and temples were built at Saqqara and Abydos during this time.
Old Kingdom (2650 - 2152 BC):
The Old Kingdom contained the 3rd through the 6th Dynasties, or about 500
years of rule. The capital was in Northern Egypt, in Memphis, and the rule was
held solidly by the pharaohs. During this time, some pharaohs were even
considered to be gods, and were worshipped as religious figures. The first
pyramids were built as step pyramids of mud bricks early in the Old Kingdom period. The true
pyramids were later constructed of stone blocks, forming the ancient monuments that we still
study today. Ancient doctors knew quite a lot about the body, antiseptics and surgery. Artists
were showing great talent in painting, carving and sculpting.
First Intermediate Period (2150 - 1986 BC):
All of the successes of the Old Kingdom began to fall apart during the First Intermediate
Period. The Nile River was flooding, causing trouble for those living off of the land there. Crops
were either being washed out from the floods, or not getting any water at all due to issues with
irrigation. There was widespread hunger and death. The pharaoh had lost control of the lands to
the local governments, some of which were corrupt.
Middle Kingdom - (1986 - 1759 BC):
Intef and Mentuhotep from Luxor were able to reunite the broken lands under
local rule into rule by one king again. This began the 11th Dynasty. While the
pharaoh never really regained power over the local governments, foreign trade
started to happen again. Irrigation projects were fixed and completed. In fact, it
could be dangerous to be the pharaoh. One of the Middle Kingdom kings was
killed by a group of local governors who wanted to keep their power. It was
well into the Middle Kingdom before power was restored to the pharaoh.
Egyptians enjoyed wealth again, and the population began to grow.
Second Intermediate Period (1759 - 1539 BC):
Immigration of people who weren't born as Egyptians eventually led to the Second
Intermediate Period. These people moved to Egypt from their countries and set up towns and
communities which followed their own rules. They did not live by the Egyptian laws, nor did
they recognize the rule of the pharaoh. During the Second Intermediate Period, Egypt was ruled
by a string of foreign kings. Amosis, a military general, set off wars against these foreigners and
the foreign rule, and eventually put Egypt back under Egyptian control, starting up the 18th
Dynasty.
New Kingdom (1539 - 1069 BC):
After the Second Intermediate Period, the kings of the 18th Dynasty vowed
that they would never want to see Egypt under a foreign king again. The kings
of the 18th Dynasty were fierce military generals, fighting to keep Egypt ruled
by Egyptians. They fortified the Egyptian borders to ward against foreign
attacks. Egypt became wealthy and powerful again, and the kings taxed all
foreigners and foreign trade heavily. Foreigners were treated badly. As the 19th Dynasty started,
Egypt began to fail again. Foreign relations were not good, and the foreign rulers were waging
war on Egypt. The strongest king of the time was Ramses II, but after his death there were many
weak kings, pushing Egypt back into political chaos and disorder.
Third Intermediate Period (1070 - 657 BC):
Upon the death of Ramses XI, a man from Tanis named Smendes assumed the throne of Egypt.
No one was really in charge at this point, and there was much chaos and confusion. The 22nd
Dynasty was made up of Chiefs from Libya, and they ruled at the same time as the pharaohs of
the 23rd Dynasty. This political strife lasted for several hundred years.
Late Kingdom - (664 - 332 BC):
Egypt was invaded by Nubia, as the southern Nubians rushed the northern Egyptians. The
Nubians won, and for a short while began to restore old Egyptian traditions and religious
practices. It was not long before the Assyrians conquered the Nubians. An Egyptian leader was
put on the throne and the 26th Dynasty began. Peace came about by the second or third
generation of kings, but Egypt never returned to the power and glory that it once had. Egypt was
then conquered by Persia, and the Egyptians suffered badly. During this time the Greeks
conquered Persia, and the rule of Egypt passed to Greece. Alexander the Great was welcomed
into Egypt and recognized as the liberator of Egypt from Persian rule. It would be 2000 years
before another Egyptian would hold the throne of Egypt again, in the 18th Century AD.
B- Greco-Roman Period
Alexander the Great's liberation of Egypt from Persian rule was the end of the
Egyptian kings for quite some time. He built a new capital in Egypt where the
Nile meets the Mediterranean sea, and called it Alexandria. After Alexander's
death the empire split into many parts, with the most powerful generals each
ruling a section. Egypt eventually fell under the reign of Ptolemy. The Greeks
did adopt some of the Egyptian customs and traditions, but they still spoke
Greek and held onto their Greek customs. "Egypt" is a Greek word that has
survived the centuries. The Egyptian word for "Egypt" is "kmt" or "kemet."
The Greek rulers and people thought that they were better than the lower class Egyptians. The
Romans became involved when Cleopatra VII argued with her half-brother as to who should
succeed the throne. She invited Julius Caesar and the Romans to step in to settle the dispute.
Cleopatra sided with Mark Antony and lost against Augustus Caesar and Rome took over Egypt's
rule. No foreigners were hated as much as the Romans were. Christianity in Egypt came about
because of Roman rule. The early Egyptian Christians were called Copts. It was the Copts who used
religion as a tool to stir up trouble in the Roman empire.
C- Archaic Islamic Period
Islam started in the Arabian Peninsula about the same time the Christians were being persecuted by
the Romans for their beliefs. Islam spread quickly, and it was not long before the Arab Islamic State
was able to free Egypt from the horrible reign of terror by Rome. Amr Bin Al Aas conquered the
Romans in 640 AD and Egypt was bound to Islam as its greatest supporter.
There were several different periods to the Islamic rule of Egypt:
● Abbasid Era
● Fatimid Era
● Ayyubid Era
● Mameluke Era
● Bahri Mameluke Era
● Burgi Mameluke Era
● Ottoman Turk Era
Timeline of Ancient Egypt’s Kings
Because ancient Egyptian history dates back more than 5000 years, the historians and egyptologists
(someone who studies Egypt) need a way to describe certain time periods. They call these time
periods a dynasty. A dynasty is a period of years in which a certain king or his family is in control
of the lands. A king's son was usually the next to inheirit the throne. If this power ever passed out of
the family, a new dynasty begun. In the paragraphs below, click on the names of the kings to see
more detailed information of their reign.
Early Dynastic Period - Not much is known about the pharaohs during the very early times. Their
monuments are well studied artifacts, however.
1st Dynasty: 3050-2890 BC:
Horus Aha:
Egyptologists are still not certain who Aha really is. Being such ancient history, finding the
information to complete the research has been very hard to do. Many of them think that Aha was
actually Menes, but they're not completely sure, as the records from so many years ago just aren't
clear. They have, however, found artifacts that could possibly link King Aha as being Menes, the
ruler who united Upper and Lower Egypt in the 1st Dynasty.
Old Kingdom:
Pyramids were building in Giza and Dahshur during this time period.
3rd Dynasty: 2650-2575 BC:
Sanakhte (Nebka):
Sanakhte, also known as Zanakht, Zanacht, Nebka or Nebkha is perhaps the founder of the 3rd
Dynasty of rulers. Some historians think that maybe Nebka and Sanakhte are not the same person,
and that Nebka founded the dynasty and Sanakhte ruled it later. There is not much known about this
king and there is no proof of his rule of Egypt yet. Archaeologists are not sure if they have found
his tomb yet or not, because if they have, it was not clearly marked as his.
4th Dynasty: 2575-2467 BC :
Snefru :
Snefru was likely the first pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty. There is some debate as to
whether or not he is the son of Huni, the king before him. Some think that was he
was not, and this is why the new dynasty began. Snefru is known for his pyramid
building techniques and probably transformed the pyramid into what it is today. His
sons, as part of the royal family, became Viziers (royal advisor), keeping the royal
power all within the family.
Khufu:
Khufu (also known as Cheops) is credited with the creation of the Great Pyramid at Giza. He had
three wives and several sons. Khufu probably reigned as king for as many as 24 years. He made life
miserable for the ancient Egyptians that lived under him. He closed the temples and would not
permit sacrifices to the gods. He made everyone work for him, and work very hard. It was said by
an ancient historian that Khufu even put his daughter into a brothel to earn more money for his
projects. There was much hate toward Khufu.
Khafre:
Khafre is the builder of the second pyramid in Giza. The first was made by
Khufu. Khafre had several wives, as most kings did back in those days. Most
historians think that Khafre is credited with building the great sphinx, and that it
is his face that the sphinx was patterened after. Khafre was known as a harsh and
mean leader like his father, Khufu.
Menkaure:
Menkaure was the son of Khafre, and was thought to be much nicer of a king than his father and
grandfather. He built the third pyramid at Giza, and it is not nearly as big as the other Giza
landmarks. His reign was probably about 28 years, and it is thought that his son probably finished
the construction of Menkaure's valley temple, once again proving that the commoners enjoyed this
king's reign much more than the ones before him. His cult (worship) continued on for some time
after his death.
5th Dynasty: 2575-2467 BC:
Sahure:
Sahure was the second king of the king of the 5th dynasty. His reign started the
decline of pyramid building, and his pyramid was not of as good a quality as
those kings who died before him. Economic trade was strong during his reign,
more than combat, and the Egyptians likely dealt with other foreign cultures for
trade as well.
6th Dynasty: 2345-2184 BC:
Teti:
Although his reign was likely only about 12 years, Teti was the first king of the 6th Dynasty. Teti's
wife was Queen Iput I, who was probably the daughter of the last king of the 5th Dynasty. There is
very little known about Teti's reign, other than the fact that he may have been murdered.
Middle Kingdom:
Times were good, and foreign trade was booming. Jewelrymaking techniques are refined during
this period.
11th Dynasty: 2055-1987 BC:
Mentuhotep II:
Mentuhotep II is credited with uniting Egypt under one leader after the despair of
the First Intermediate Period. Upper and Lower Egypt were now being ruled by
just one king again. While his rule started off peaceful, it didn't stay that way
forever, as there were some bloody battles fought while Mentuhotep II was king.
12th Dynasty: 1991-1759 BC:
Amenemhet I:
Although he was not of royal blood, Amenemhet I was the first king of the 12th
Dynasty. He was the vizier of the king before him, Mentuhotep IV. Either
Mentuhotep IV had no heirs, or he was just a weak king, and upon his death the
throne was up for grabs. Amenemhet, when he worked as the vizier, would
prophesize of a great leader coming to power to lead the people to good fortune.
Amenemhet was forseeing himself, and his reign lasted for 30 years.
Senusret III:
Senruset III ruled over Egypt for about 37 years as the 12th Dynasty's 5th pharaoh. His statues
showed him with very humanistic features, rather than the uptight looking god type statues of
previous kings. He was likely very large, at over 6'6", and was a great warrior and active military
leader. He restructured Egypt's local governments, taking a lot of power away from the high nobles,
and giving some power to the middle class citizens. In Nubia, Senusret III was worshipped as a god.
New Kingdom:
There is extreme prosperity and new trends in art and architecture (buildings). Toward the end of
the 19th Dynasty, the priesthood gains a lot of power and corrupts the government, sending it into
ruin. Tombs were robbed in the 20th Dynasty by head officials. The priesthood gains even more
power.
18th Dynasty: 1539-1295 BC:
Ahmose:
Ahmose I most likely became leader of Egypt at the tender young age of 10. His
father and brother had both died, and that left him in line for the throne. His
mother, Queen Ashotep was a powerful woman and probably shared in the ruling
power until he was older. By age 20, he had led battles to help keep invaders out of
Egypt, he lived to be about 35, and his mummy was found, though his pyramid
never has been.
Thutmose I:
Thutmose I came into power because he married the daughter of Ahmose I and Queen Ahmose
Nefertary. This gave him rights to the throne. He was a successful military leader, but a commoner
by birth. He campaigned against the Syrians, opening the route for trade and diplomacy in later
times. His military campaigns and battles brought a sense of security to the Egyptians.
Thutmose II:
Quite possibly a very weak man, Thutmose II took the throne after Thutmose I's (his father) death.
He only ascended to the throne due to his two older brothers having died before him. He married
Hatshepsut (his sister and cousin) to help establish his hold on Egypt as king, because she was
powerful and well known. She was Thutmose I's daughter. Thutmose II declared his son, Thutmose
III as his successor, but Hatshepsut took the throne upon his death, and is more of a well known
pharaoh than her husband, Thutmose II ever was. Thutmose II's burial chamber has never been
found, but his mummy was recovered from the royal cache of mummies at Deir al-Bahari.
Hatshepsut:
Hatshepsut was the first female pharaoh of Egypt, and the 5th pharaoh of the
18th Dynasty. Until now, the women who were of royalty would marry a man,
and the man would become Pharaoh. It is said that Hatshepsut made her
appearance more masculine after she took the throne from Thutmose III. She also wore the male
pharaoh's clothing. Mostly a peaceful pharaoh, she did lead a few expeditions and even participated
in war to prove to the people of Egypt that she too, like the rest of her family, was a warrior
pharaoh. When Thutmose III came to power and regained the throne, Hatshepsut all but disappeared
from history. Thutmose III was bitter about Hatshepsut and tried to remove all traces of her from
the monuments. Her body has never been found, but her temples are beautiful.
Thutmose III:
Thutmose III was heir to the throne when his father, Thutmose II died. His regent
was Hatshepsut, Thutmose II's wife. Hatshepsut took the throne from Thutmose III
and declared herself pharaoh until she died, at which time Thutmose III took his
rightful position as pharaoh. He was likely a military man under Hatshepsut's rule.
There must have been much bitterness and anger toward Hatshepsut, because when
she died, Thutmose III destroyed all of the monuments to her, trying to erase her name from history.
Thutmosis III's battles were recorded in lots of detail by his historian, marking him as a great
pharaoh.
Amenhotep II:
An athletic young man, Amenhotep II probably reigned for most of his time as
pharaoh pretty peacefully. In his early years, he led military battles to guarantee
the peace for the later years. He built more temples and expanded on the
monuments that were already there. There were likely many children that he fathered, but they are
difficult to trace because he did not make his wives public. He also finished trying to wipe
Hapshetsut's name from any monuments, to finish what his father, Thutmose III had started.
Amenhotep III:
Amenhotep III likely ruled for about 40 years as the 9th king of the 18th
Dynasty. Egypt was very stable and properous during his reign. Egypt was
pretty peaceful at this time too, and there weren't many military battles waged.
Amenhotep III was likely a young boy when he was given the throne, and it is unknown who was
acting as regent in charge during his early years. The kingdom propsered due to trade with other
countries, and the royal family lived in luxury.
Amenhotep IV:
Amenhotep IV was better known as Akhenaten. He married Nerfertiti who was a commoner, but
the daughter of a vizier. They had several daughters, but their most famous child was their son,
Tutenkhamen. Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten when he began to follow the worship
of Aten rather than worshipping Amun like everyone else typically did. He died after about 16 years
of reign as king, but his mummy has not been located. Experts are not sure if it was destroyed or
hasnt been found yet.
Tutankhamun:
Quite possibly born to Akhenaten, Tutankhamun was not as popular of a pharaoh
as he seems to be today. He still is not very well known to the Egyptologists.
King Tut was probably crowned king about age 9 so that Horemheb and Ay who
were likely his caretakers, could take the rule. Scientists are not exactly sure why Tutenkhamun
died at a young age either, though they think it might have been from a blow to the head or a deadly
infection. He was buried in a small pyramid that was not well decorated like many who had passed
on before him, though somehow, through the media hype, we still think of King Tut as a very
popular Egyptian king.
Horemheb:
As the last king of the 18th Dynasty, little is known about who Horemheb's parents
were. He became a strong military leader during the reign of Akhenaten. Horemheb
was a very ambitious man, and when Ay died, he declared himself king, taking the
throne. It is possible that Ay and Horemheb had Tutankhamen murdered before
reaching adulthood so they could rule the kingdom themselves. Horemheb is credited
with the restoration of tombs that had been ruined and robbed during his rule, and the
leaders of the 19th Dynasty give him credit as their founder.
19th Dynasty: 1295-1187 BC:
Seti I:
Seti I was the son of Ramesses I and Queen Sitre. Seti I is known for his great
building accomplishments in various temples. He was also a good military leader,
leading expeditions to Syria. Seti I also led an attack on Syria and Lebanon to
fight the Hittites. Seti I's mummy is one of the best preserved mummies to date.
It was not located in his tomb, but in the royal cache at Deir al-Bahari.
Ramesses II:
Seti I and Queen Tuya's heir to the throne was Ramesses II. He was the third king
of the 19th Dynasty. He was called Ramesses the Great because he lived to be 96
years old and had 200 wives, 96 sons and 60 daughters. After his father died, he
continued with the wars against Syria. The battles are shown as paintings in his
temples. Ramesses II was buried in his own tomb when he died, but the priests
systematically moved his body several times to keep common thieves from
looting and destroying it.
Merenptah:
Merenptah was the thirteenth son of Ramesses II. The first twelve heirs to the
throne had already died by the time Ramesses II had passed on, because he
lived to be so old. It is likely that Merenptah was in his sixties when he started
his reign as king, and it likely didn't last for more than 10 years or so. Most of
his reign was peaceful, but there were a few military battles between Syria and
Lebanon, where he finished what his father had started against the Hittites. Merenptah's mummy
was found in the royal cache at Deir al-Bahari.
Seti II:
Seti II is either the 5th or 6th ruler of the 19th Dynasty. His father was Merenptah and
he took over reign when Merenptah, who was older when becoming king, died. Seti II
may have ruled along with Amenemesses at the beginning of his reign, as
Amenemesses tried to steal the throne for himself. Once Seti II had kicked
Amenemesses out of power, Seti II's rule was likely a fairly peaceful one.
20th Dynasty: 1186-1069 BC:
Ramesses III:
Ramesses III was the second king of the 20th Dynasty. He was one of the last great
pharaohs of ancient Egyptian times. During his reign there was some economic
trouble and Ramesses III also had to deal with a failed consipiracy to kill him. His
harem of wives and others close to him went to trial and were accused of trying to
murder the king. Many of them were put to death because of this. Ramesses III
wife, Queen Tiy was put to death as a result of the trial. It was likely during the
conspiracy trial that Ramesses III died himself, though its unknown what caused
his death. The death of Ramsses III was the sign of the New Kingdom time period
coming to an end.
Ancient Life:
Families :
Ancient Egypt has always fascinated people, because of the way that they lived
more so than the way that they died. Ancient Egyptians were also devoted to
their families, which were apparent in the activities that they enjoyed with
friends, music, parties, swimming, fishing, hunting, sailing, and especially their
children.
The traditional family was the fundamental social unit of ancient Egypt. The father was responsible
for the economic well-being of the family. Upper-class men often became scribes or priests, while
lower-class men often were farmers, hunters, potters, or other craftsmen. The mother supervised the
household, including servants, and cared for the upbringing of the children. Upper-class women
could become priestesses, and all women could become musicians or professional mourners.
Most objects that we use everyday become worn and fall apart. Do you think that your sneakers,
back packs, or dishes will last 3000 years? Because the ancient Egyptians included objects that they
needed everyday and scenes of daily life in their tombs, we can get an idea of how they lived.
Where did they live? Most Egyptians built their homes out of mud bricks made from the mud
along the Nile River mixed with straw and pebbles. Wealthy homes were decorated with wall
paintings on the inside. Furnishings were simple. They included stools for seating, chests to store
things. They slept on wooden beds and used headrests instead of pillows
What did they wear? Linen woven from the flax plant was the most common fabric for clothing.
Men usually wore a simple kilt tied at the waist, and women wore sheath dresses.
Egyptian clothes were often decorated with pleats as we see in this carving of a court official on the
left. Notice that he is also wearing a wig, which would have been made from human hair. Egyptians
usually kept their own hair short or their heads shaved. Both men and women also wore make-up.
Palettes, like the one on the right, were used to grind mineral pigments for make-up.
The ground powder was probably mixed with animal fat and then applied to the face. Black and
green eye make-up were especially popular. They also adorned themselves with jewelry, including
necklaces, earrings, armlets, bracelets, anklets, and rings.
Work:
Much of what has been learned of the types of work done by ancient
Egyptians has been gathered from the collections of the artifacts
found inside their burial chambers. What is known is that there were
several classes of workers, both an upper and lower class. The upper
class workers consisted of the scribes and priests. The lower class
usually consisted of the merchants and farmers
You may already know about several people who lived in ancient
Egypt. For example, King Tutankhamen (Tut for short) is famous for
the riches found in his tomb. Cleopatra , the ambitious queen who ruled Egypt, is known for her
tragic death. These two people were pharaohs - the most important and powerful people in Egyptian
society.
Ancient Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was a god. The pharaoh communicated with the gods
for the Egyptian people by performing special rituals and ceremonies in the temples. Therefore, the
pharaoh was at the top of a social pyramid that looked something like this:
People usually married within their social group and continued in the same job as their parents. We
find people from all social groups represented in Egyptian art. Nobles & Priests, Soldiers, Scribes,
Merchants, Artisans, Farmers, and even Slaves & Servants are depicted in sculpture
Nobles:
The noble class of Ancient Egypt typically worked for the pharoahs or the royal family in
some way.
The man in this relief is Maya , the "Overseer of the Royal Treasurer" under three
Egyptian pharaohs, including King Tutankhamen. Maya's job was to make sure that taxes
were collected. He also supervised the preparation of the king's tomb in the Valley of the
Kings.
We can tell that Maya is important because he wears a fancy pleated kilt and apron. He must have
done a good job because the two gold necklaces that he wears were probably a gift from the
pharaoh.
Priests:
Because the pharaoh could not perform ceremonies at all the temples throughout
Egypt, he appointed high priests to carry out the sacred rituals at each temple. Priests
often passed down their positions from father to son. They enjoyed great power and
wealth in Egyptian society.
This picture of a priest is a detail from "The Book of the Dead." Priests were often
represented bald, as we see here, because they had to shave their heads to ensure
cleanliness.
Farmers:
Peasant farmers worked lands belonging to the pharaoh, the government,
a temple, or a rich landowner. Their pay barely covered their living
expenses. In addition to plowing, planting, and harvesting, they
maintained the irrigation canals that brought water to their fields and were
required to work on the pharaoh's tomb construction project each year.
Artisans:
The Egyptian objects that we see in museums today were created by
anonymous artists employed by the pharaoh, the government, or temples.
Artists worked in large workshops rather than in individual studios as they
often do today. Carpentry, metalwork, jewellery making, pottery, sculpture,
wall painting, glass making, and weaving are some of the crafts they
practiced.
Merchants:
Egypt was one of the wealthiest countries in the ancient world. Egyptian
merchants (actually, they were more like traders) carried products such as
gold, papyrus made into writing paper or twisted into rope, linen cloth, and jewellery to other
countries. In exchange, they brought back cedar and ebony wood, elephant tusks, panther skins,
giraffe tails for fly whisks, and animals such as baboons and lions for the temples or palaces.
Scribes:
Scribes were highly valued members of Egyptian society. They studied for
many years to learn to read and write. Scribes had great opportunities as
accountants, priests, doctors, and government officials of all sorts. One
scribe, Horemhab , even became pharaoh!
Soldiers:
The Egyptian army was well organized and included infantry and chariot
troops. The infantry, or foot soldiers, carried spears, shields, and battle axes. The chariot troops
were archers and shot arrows from the platform of the chariot. During peace time, soldiers worked
on government projects such as digging irrigation canals for farming, or transporting stone for the
king's tomb.
Servants and Slaves:
The lowest class of Egyptian society, these workers were often foreigners. They
worked in the household or in the fields. Slaves could be bought and sold like
property. People could also sell themselves into slavery and buy themselves out
of it.
Education:
Education, of course, covers both the general upbringing of a child and its training for a particular
skill. The upbringing of males was left largely in the hands of their fathers, that of females was
entrusted to their mothers. Parents acquainted their children with their thoughts about the world,
with their religious outlook, with their ethical principles, with correct behavior toward others and
toward the super-natural beings in whom everyone believed. They taught them concerning folk
rituals and so forth
Right now you are sitting at a computer - you probably use it to write homework assignments and
other projects. If you lived in ancient Egypt, you probably wouldn't know how to read or write! If
you did, it would take you many years to learn! Ancient Picture Writing . . . Hieroglyphs , one of
the oldest forms of writing, are found on monuments almost 5000 years old! There were around 700
different hieroglyphic signs -- no wonder only about 1% of the population knew how to read and
write! Some signs, or pictures, stand for words; others simply stand for a sound and are joined with
other signs to make a word. Hieroglyphs were carved on buildings and written on papyrus
documents. For letters, business contracts, and other documents, scribes used another form of
writing called Hieratic . Later, an even quicker form of writing developed called Demotic
Art and Culture.
Ancient Egypt is perhaps the most fascinating of the ancient civilizations. Even the Ancient Greeks
looked at themselves as a young and unknowing society compared to the Egyptians. Indeed, the
Ancient Egyptian civilization was one of the most extended in the west, beginning in approximately
3000 B.C., and lasting until nearly 300 B.C. What is amazing about the Egyptian's culture is not
their rapid growth and development, but their ability to retain the past and prevail with relatively
little change. For example, today in the United States we drastically change the style of our clothing
each decade, while Egyptian attire did not vary over the thousands of years. Theirs was a
civilization where ancient was still modern. Find out more about the ancient Egypt art and culture.
Why is King Tut So Famous? Archaeology!
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One of King Tutankhamen's Nobles is now in Rochester, New York
This relief depicts Maya, an important official during the reign of three
pharaohs: Tutankhamen, Ay, and Horemhab. He supervised the
preparation of the tombs of these pharaohs, collected taxes for them, and
performed other tasks to serve the king.
The Memorial Art Gallery bought this carving in 1942. It originally decorated the inside wall of
Maya's tomb in Saqqara, the necropolis of the ancient city of Memphis, southwest of Cairo. How
did it get to Rochester?
Here Today, Gone Tomorrow....The Discovery of Maya's Tomb
Maya's tomb was excavated in 1843 by an archaeologist named Richard Lepsius. Like many 19th-
century archaeologists, he was sent to Egypt by a European ruler -- the Prussian king, Friedrich
Wilhelm IV. Lepsius was supposed to record and bring back Egyptian art, and he did remove some
limestone reliefs from the tomb and send them back to the Berlin Museum. In those days it was not
difficult to get permission from the Egyptian authorities to dismantle parts of tombs and temples
and ship them out of the country. Today strict laws govern the export of ancient art from Egypt and
other countries. We don't know exactly when the Gallery's Maya relief was taken from the tomb,
but it was probably in the second half of the 19th century.
Lepsius made drawings of the sculptures that decorated the tomb. These drawings record what the
decoration of the tomb looked like when the Memorial Art Gallery relief was in place. Over time
the tomb was covered over by sand and its location lost!.
It's Back.....The rediscovery of Maya's Tomb
In 1975, more than a century after Lepsius' excavations at Saqqara, a joint expedition of
archaeologists from the Egypt Exploration Society in London and the National Museum of
Antiquities in Leiden, Netherlands, began to look for Maya's tomb. In 1986, the tomb was
rediscovered! Soon we'll have activites for you to explore the mysteries surrounding Maya..
Religion
The Religion of the ancient Egyptians is a very difficult topic to learn about. Even modern religion
is hard to completely understand, even though we have modern teachers and books. But there are no
teachers left from ancient to tell us exactly how their religion worked, and while we do have some
books left from ancient times, they are not very easy to read or understand.
When we study ancient Egyptian religion, we normally learn about some very specific subjects.
These include the "gods", the stories about the "gods", and about other religious topics known as
mythology, and the cult centres (temples) where they were "worshipped".
The Gods of Ancient Egypt:
There is really a problem with the word "Gods" when we talk about many ancient religions. Today,
most people who think about "God" belong to one of three major religions, consisting of
Christianity, Islam or Judaism. All of them believe in only one, all powerful God.
Yet, in each of these religions, there are also other supernatural beings. We do not refer to them as
gods. They have specific names, such as angels, demons, etc.
However, when we refer to supernatural beings of ancient religions, we usually call all of them
gods, even though almost none of them can be thought of as all powerful, such as our modern God.
In fact, what we call gods in the ancient Egyptian religion could usually die, be hurt, had mothers,
fathers and children and many could even make very bad mistakes. Some of these supernatural
beings could be mostly good, or mostly evil, but sometimes the evil ones could be good, and
sometimes the good ones could be evil.
It was also very rare that one ancient Egyptian "God" was more powerful than all the others, though
there were exceptions. However, much of the time, some of the most important "gods" were said to
gather in a council to make decisions.
It also seems like the ancient Egyptian "Gods" were more involved with humans, and even
depended on them. People, and particularly the King, did things for the "Gods", but in return, the
"Gods" were expected to help humans.
Amun and Amun-Re - The King of the Gods:
Amun-Re was associated with the pharaohs of Egypt, and instead of causing trouble for
the rulers, Amun-Re helped them out. The pharaoh got power from the god, and the
god was able to influence the pharaoh's people. The king supported the temples and the
worship of Amun. Amun-Re could even turn himself into a human man and get the
pharaoh's wife pregnant, so that a son would be born to the pharaoh that would keep the
worship of Amun-Re alive. According to official history, Egypt was actually ruled by
Amun-Re through the pharaohs, with the god revealing his will through oracles.
Anubis - God of Embalming
Anubis, as the God of Embalming, watches over the process of preserving
dead bodies as mummies. He is usually shown in the form of a man, with the
head of a jackal. His head is black, and this connects him with being a god of
the dead. Anubis escorts the souls through the underworld, testing their
knowledge of the gods and their faith. He places their heart on the Scales of Justice during the
Judging of the Heart, and he feeds the souls of wicked people to Ammit.
Aten - The Sun Disk and later God
Aten is the ancient Egyptian term for a circular disk. This was used when talking about the sun, and
the life it gave to people and crops. Sun worship predates ancient Egyptian
times, but was continued on through Egyptian history.
Atum - The All-Father
Creating himself, or rising out of nothing, all other gods and pharaohs were
created by Atum.
Bast - Beautiful Cat Goddess
Bast was a wild goddess, usually depicted as a desert cat, or a woman with the
head of a cat. Because she was wild, her powers were great. To be in her favor
would get you great blessings, to be ill willed would receive serious wrath.
Bes - Protector of Childbirth
Bes is depicted as an ugly dwarven god, usually holding a rattle. Being the protector of childbirth,
he would dance around the room shaking his rattle to scare off any demons that might curse the new
baby.
Geb - God of the Earth
Geb is sometimes represented as a goose, or a man who wears a white crown. Geb was an
extremely important god and could be closely associated with nature. His parents were the god of
air, and the goddess of moisture, all descended from high level gods.
Hathor - Goddess of Music and Dance
Tributes to Hathor were for inspiration and creativity. Her clerics were artisans, musicians and
dancers who would use their talents to create rituals for honoring their goddess.
Horus - King of the Gods on Earth
It is nearly impossible to distinguish a "true" Horus from all his many forms. In fact, Horus is
mostly a general term for a great number of falcon gods, some of which were worshipped all over
Egypt, others simply had local cults. Yet in all of his forms he is regarded as the prince of the gods.
Isis - Queen of the Gods
Isis may be the oldest deity in Egypt. She may also be the most important, because
Isis was worshipped by almost all Egyptians. She was revered as the great protector,
prayed to for guidance, and begged to for peace in the world. Temples to Isis are
found everywhere in Egypt, some of them from ancient times, and many houses had
shrines to her devotion.
Khenmu - The Great Potter
Being the Great Potter, Khenmu created statues of people out of the clay of the Nile River and then
held them up to the sky for Ra to shine his life-giving rays on them, then put them into a mother's
womb to be born as babies to the people.
Kephri - The Great Scarab
The word kheper means scarab, and as the animal was associated with life and rebirth, so was
Khephri. The scarab lays its eggs in a ball of dung and rolls it to hide in a safe place. From this
animal waste, the Egyptians observed new life emerging. They believed that Khephri, in the form of
a gigantic scarab, rolled the sun like a huge ball through the sky, then rolled it through the
underworld to the eastern horizon. Each morning Khephri would renew the sun so that it could give
life to all the world.
Khonsu - God of the Moon
He was believed to influence the creation and birth of both humans and animals, and was even
connected to stories and myths about creation.
Maat - Lady of Truth and Order
Maat was the personification of the fundamental order of the universe, without which all of creation
would perish. The primary duty of the pharaoh was to uphold this order by maintaining the law and
administering justice. To reflect this, many pharaohs took the title "Beloved of Maat," emphasizing
their focus on justice and truth.
Min - God of Fertility
Min was honored with a variety of ceremonies, some involving the harvest, others praying for a
male heir to the pharaoh. Lettuce was his sacred plant, for it was believed by the Egyptians to be an
aphrodisiac. An aphrodisiac is something that makes people want to have babies. Fertile plants
made lots of food for the people, and fertility in people assured that the Egyptians would not
become extinct. Min is usually depicted as a man with a large erect penis, and is sometimes shown
dressed in pharaoh's clothing.
Mut - Grandmother of the Gods
Mut is usually seen as a vulture headed woman or a woman wearing a vulture like a crown. The
very word Mut means "mother" and Mut was the great mother goddess of Egypt, even outranking
Isis. Often Mut was believed to be a sort of grandmother figure, as Isis was the mother figure for the
world.
Nefertem - Lord of the Sunrise
Nefertem was the god of the sunrise who helped to bring the sun into the sky where Ra was.
According to myth, he had no father and no mother, instead being born from a lotus blossom. He
wore a crown of lotus flowers on his head.
Nekhbet - Goddess of the Power of Kings
In her form representing the king's power, she is shown wearing a white crown and carrying the
symbols of life and power in her talons. Ancient pharaohs would pray to Nekhbet for power to rule
the people, and the power to withhold any opposition to the throne.
Neith - Goddess of War and Funerals
When someone died and they were mummified and buried in a tomb, a lot of times there would be
weapons buried with the deceased. These weapons were blessed to Neith (also known as Nit) who
would use them to guard the spirit of the person who had passed on from evil spirits and those who
would do the body harm and keep the soul from resting peacefully. Neith worked with other gods
and goddesses to protect those who had moved on to the afterlife. Because of this, she was often
depicted holding a shield and arrows.
Nephthys - Lady of the Wings
Nephthys is usually shown riding in the funeral boat with the dead into the Blessed Land. She is not
exactly the personification of death, but she is the closest thing to it in Egyptian belief.
Nun and Naunet - Gods of Chaos and Water
The Egyptians believed that before the world was formed, there was a watery mass of dark chaos.
Nun and Naunet were a set of dieties that lived in that chaos. Nun was shown as either a frog-
headed man, or as a bearded blue or green man. Naunet, his wife, was thought to be a snake-headed
woman who ruled over the watery chaos with Nun. The stories say that Nun and Naunet were
mother and father to Ra, the sun god. Nun and Naunet were two halves (male and female) of a
whole, rather than individual dieties in themselves.
Osiris - Lord of the Dead
In the underworld, Osiris sits on a great throne, where he is praised by the "good" souls of those
who have died. All those who pass the tests of the underworld become worthy to enter The Blessed
Land, that part of the underworld that is like the land of the living, but without sorrow or pain.
Osiris is traditionally shown as a green skinned or mummified man, wearing the clothing of a
pharaoh.
Ptah - The Creator
Ptah did not exist as a child from anyone else, he just was. He gave hand in the creation of the
world, of the heavens and of the earth. Ptah also was known to have built the boats used in the
underworld, to aid the souls of the dead on their journey to the Blessed Land.
Re (Ra) - The Sun God
The early Egyptians believed that Re was the creator of the world. The sun rising every morning
was a symbol of creation, as well as depending on the sunlight for survival. The pattern of the sun
rising and setting each day, only to have it rise again the next morning stood for renewal in ancient
times.
Set - God of Evil
At first, Set was worshipped as the god of wind and desert storms. The ancient Egyptians would
pray to him in hopes that they would gain favor and be blessed with the strength of a desert storm.
Set's personality was dark and moody, but in the beginning he was not an evil god. As time
progressed, the way Set was viewed changed. He was associated with the other evil gods, and
became the Egyptians' image of evil. After Set became the god of evil, he really was not
worshipped as a main diety.
Shu - God of the Air and Sky
Shu is the creator of wind, and is responsible for that which separates the earth from the sky. Being
the lord of the sky and cool air, he is usually shown with his hands above his head as if he's holding
something heavy.
Sobek - Guard of the Gods
Sobek was a bodyguard to the gods, protecting them. He did the same for the pharaohs, giving them
the strength to overcome any obstacles and evil magic. Sobek was usually portrayed as a man with
the head of a crocodile, wearing a crown made of feathers.
Taweret - Demoness of Birth
She was a fierce demoness, the protector of mothers and newborn babies. Taweret was a
combination of a pregnant hippo, a lion and a crocodile. All of these animals are known to kill to
protect their young. She was also a goddess of fertility.
Tefnut - Goddess of Moisture
As dry as Ancient Egypt was, Tefnut was still the goddess of moisture, and of the warm, moist air
near the Nile River that nourished the crops.
Thoth - God of Wisdom
Thoth is usually shown with the head of an ibis (bird) and the body of a man. He is usually seen
carrying a tablet to write with because Thoth was a scribe to the gods, and a mediator (solver) of
problems. He was the one the other gods went to when they had problems or needed disputes
solved. He is the creator of magic, the inventor of writing, teacher of man, and the messenger of the
gods.
Wadjet - The Serpent Goddess
Wadjet is a usually seen as a cobra, and is the defender of the pharaohs. This is why the pharaoh
wore a headpiece with a cobra on top of it. She also became the goddess of heat and fire, giving her
even more powers to defend the pharaoh with.
Monuments:
There are many different types of ancient Egyptian sites. Some can be considered monuments,
while others are ancient towns that are more than a single monument. However, we can usually
describe ancient monuments as temples, tombs, including pyramids, huge statues, government
buildings, including palaces, and private property, such as houses.
Most of the best preserved monuments of ancient Egypt are Temples and tombs, because they were
built to last longer than such places as houses or palaces. In fact, many temples and tombs were
meant to last for a million years. Therefore, they built them out of tough stone, while they built
houses, palaces and other government buildings out of bricks made of mud.
Temples:
We can divide the types of Egyptian Temples into
three kinds, though all of them served ancient
Egyptian "Gods" in one form or another. The
largest and grandest of the temples were those
built by the Egyptian State for important national
"Gods". However, common people were usually
not allowed into much of these temples.
Therefore, a second type of temple, much smaller
and less grand, were sometimes built by common
people for their own worship of the gods. The
final kind of temple was the mortuary temples, built for kings, who were also considered gods.
In ancient Egypt, Temples were not built for the same reasons that we build Temples, Churches and
Mosques today. The gods were not so much worshipped in Egypt's ancient temples as they were
taken care of by the priests. Common people were usually not allowed into most of the temples,
where priests washed, clothed and delivered food to statues of the Gods.
Most of the temples of ancient Egypt were fairly similar in many ways. They often had one or more
open courtyards, one or more halls with columns that Egyptologists call hypostyle halls, in inner
chapel known as a sanctuary, where the god's statue was placed, and they were often surrounded by
a wall, with a large front part known as a pylon. However, some had many pylons separating many
open courtyards. Most temples also had other buildings for storage and houses for the priests.
Temples were given much farm land and sometimes treasures, mostly by the king, so that the
temple would have money to pay the priests and run the temple. Much of the time, the temples
were the largest land owners in ancient Egypt.
Pyramids and Tombs:
There are many types of tombs in Egypt.
However, throughout Egypt's past, the tombs of
kings and high officials, upper class artists and
craftsmen, and the very poor people were very
different. For very poor people, the types of
tombs they used stayed about the same, but the
tombs of kings and high officials changed a lot
over time, as did the location of their
cemeteries.
At first, the kings of Egypt were buried in what are known as mastabas in southern Egypt, mainly at
a place called Abydos. Mastaba is an Arabic word meaning bench, because these tombs looked like
a bench. They consisted of a pit where the dead were buried in the ground covered by stones above
ground. Later mastabas sometimes had many rooms below ground and many above ground for the
storage of items that the dead person wished to take with him or her into the afterlife.
Later, during a period known as the Old Kingdom, the kings
decided to be buried in a more northern location around the
capital of Egypt. This was a city called the White Walls, but the
Greeks called it Memphis. There were several cemeteries used
around Memphis. The first was a place called Saqqara, where the
earliest pyramids were built. These were not true pyramids,
because they had stepped sides rather than being smooth.
Later kings experimented with true pyramids at a place called
Dashure, where they finally built the first true pyramid tomb.
However, the largest and grandest pyramids where later built at a place called the Giza Plateau,
which is now just outside of the modern city of Cairo, Egypt. However, there were a number of
other locations where the kings of Egypt built pyramids, but almost all of these were built near
Memphis in the north, or only as far south as a place called the
Fayoum.
By a period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom, the
Egyptian kings stopped building pyramids, choosing instead to to
build hidden tombs in Southern Egypt near a new capital that we
usually call Thebes. Tombs robbers often stole the rich items
from the tombs that the kings wanted to take to the afterlife with
them, so at Thebes, the tombs were dug into the rocks and the
entrances were then hidden.
Though there are exceptions, most of the time all of the tombs
were built on the west side of the Nile River, while the living cities were built on the eastern side.
This is because the sun rises to begin the day from the east and sets to end the day on the west.
Other Ancient Pharaonic Sites:
Today, we have discovered many other ancient sites in
Egypt. Some are palaces, while others are entire towns,
including public buildings, agricultural buildings,
common houses and other buildings. Some of the most
famous are the worker's villages, where the craftsmen,
artists and laborers who build the tombs (including
pyramids) lived. Others include famous forts and huge
statues.
Unfortunately, many of these buildings were not built as
well as ancient tombs and temples. The Egyptians used bricks made out of mud to build these types
of buildings. Temples and tombs were usually built out of stone which lasts much longer.
After the Pharaohs in Egypt:
Egypt's history is very long, and even after the
pharaohs there are many important ancient sites.
For example, there are Roman fortresses, ancient
Christian monasteries and churches, and more
recently, famous old Mosques (where Muslims
pray) and Mausoleums, which are Islamic tombs.
Unlike Christian monuments, which often are
decorated with religious paintings, the Mosques and
Mausoleums are decorated with designs, but no
pictures or paintings. We can usually tell that a
building is a Mosque because it has a minaret, a tall
tower. We can tell that a building is a Mausoleum because they usually have big domes.
The ancient Christian monasteries are some of the oldest in the world, and are very famous. In fact,
the first Christian monasteries were built in Egypt. Some monasteries no longer have monks that
live in them, but other's still do. Most of the monasteries are built like forts because in ancient times
they were sometimes attacked. The oldest monastery in the world that has always had monks living
in it is St. Catherine's Monastery in Egypt. There are also many old churches throughout Egypt,
many of which are still used today.