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CHAPTER 2. BASE-ENRICHING WORD BUILDINGPROCESSES

Main issues:

A. Affixation;Prefixation

SuffixationB. CompoundingC. BlendingD. TelescopingE. Reduplication

Learning objectivesBy the end of this chapter you will be able to:

describe the word building mechanisms creating new words or lexical

formations through an addition of (a) letter(s) to already existing words; recognize types of affixes, classify them and distinguish between affixes

and possibly similar groups of phonemes;

distinguish compound from blended, telescoped or reduplicative wordsand use them knowledgeably;

IntroductionThis chapter describes the processes through which words enrich or

expand their stem or base so as to produce new words to unfold new meaningsand uses (seen from the grammatical perspective). These new patterns resultingfrom the various types of associations are the most numerous at the level of the

English lexicon. That is why, their description will be fairly detailed: aknowledgeable acquisition of prefixes and suffixes will provide both for a betterunderstanding of the meaning of words and for their correct use.

Words can become structurally richer by means of affixation or derivation,by way of compounding or composition, by blending and telescoping as well asby repetition or reduplication. This is a particular word creating patternwhereby lexical formations join one and the same word through lexicalrepetition with or without any phonetic change within the repeated elements ofthe compound. Its particularity lies in its being equally a sort of compoundingas well as a sort of phonetic alteration (where either vowels or consonants aresubstituted on account of rhyming purposes).

A. AFFIXATION

Affixation is the process by means of which new words are yielded byadding a prefix or a suffix to another word - named base from now on with orwithout a change of its word-class. This process was proven to have beenamong the solutions to which speakers resorted as early as the Old Englishperiod in order to express subtler shades of thought or feeling (Baugh and

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Cable 1991:64). The language of that period showed great flexibility and acapacity for bending old words to new uses. The previously mentioned twoauthors demonstrate how complicated things were as from the same root morethan a hundred words were formed by means of suffixes and prefixes (Baughand Cable 1991: 65).

Base word +prefix

Base word Base word + suffix Base word + infix +suffix

md (n) mdig (adj) mdiglic

spirit spirited mdignes

mind high-minded mdigian

pride arrogant

boldness bold

mdfull (adj)

mdleas (adj)

Unmddespondency

The single root md is shown to yield a variety of derivatives, whoserange is greatly extended by the ease with which compounds are formed. Thestem mdbecomes a base to which the suffix ig is added, thus forming a newbase to which a new suffix, -nes is added, thus producing the abstract nounmdignes.

The reapplication of the same patterns shows that even nowadays it ispossible to derive words of considerable morphological and semanticcomplexity. The productivity of the English vocabulary is almost unlimitedeither if the base takes all types of affixes or if one root accepts just prefixes,which will be shown, for a simple demonstration. For the former statement the

examples suggested by Quirk et al. (1978):

(1)friend noun(2)friend-ly noun adjective(3) un-[(friend)-ly] adjective adjective(4) {un-[(friend)-li]}-ness adjective noun

With the help of three affixes more than three new words, belonging todifferent lexical classes were created.

Wood (1969: 116), on the other hand, is interested in demonstrating theproductivity of one stem to which he adds as many different suffixes as

possible. Thus, the simple Latin root vert- (to turn), was recorded with thefollowing variants: convert,pervert, retrovert, controvert, introvert, extrovert, invert,revert, advert, subvert, divert, etc. The author emphasizes that many of thesuffixed words belong to the learned vocabulary since they represent thecreation of scholars, but in the course of time many of them have beenassimilated by the general word stock.

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Types of affixesAffixes mainly fall into two major groups, the prefixes and the suffixes,

with two minor categories of morphemes, the infixes and the interfixes. Out ofthese four specific terms, the last, interfix, is hardly used in lexicology, for thesimple reason that it has no semantic meaning; it more frequently known as alinking element, for example in galvanoscope < Galvani + the interfix o - +scope). Interfixes may be illustrated by a-, -i- and s-, in addition to thatalready presented.

Infixes are those meaningful letters or groups of letters found in themiddle of a word (inserted within the root).

Due to our highly practical purposes only prefixes and suffixes will beconsidered. The literature of specialty frequently describe affixes to providegeneral information, as Bill Bryson (1980: 74) does it, when he refers to theaffixal flexibility of English: English has more than one hundred commonprefixes and suffixespre-, dis-, anti-, -able, -ness, -ment, and with these it can formand re-form words with a facility that yet again sets it apart from otherlanguages. Take, for example, the French word mutin (rebellion) and turn it intomutiny, mutinous(ly), mutineer, and many others, while the French have still justone form, mutin.

1. PrefixationPrefixes are defined as (Richards, Platt, Platt, 1993: 286) a letter or

sound or group of letters or sounds which are added to the beginning of aword, and which change the meaning or the function of the verb.

Wood (1969: 116) mentions that beginning with second half of the 19 thcentury, prefixes have been employed much more extensively than suffixes. Aclassification of prefixes may be based on their origin, as well as on the meaningor the impact (or the effect they exercise) on the base they are added to.

In point of their origin, present-day English prefixes may be of Greek,Germanic, Latin or Anglo-Saxon extraction.

Prefixesof Latin origininclude, among others:- ambi- both : ambivalence, ambidextrous,- ante- 1. a) prior: antedate; b) anterior: anteroom; 2. a) prior to: earlier than:

antediluvian; b) in front of: antechoir- pre- 1. earlier than, prior to; 2. in advance, beforehand; 3.in front of,

anterior to,prehistoric, premedical, premodern, premodification, preaxial- post- 1. after, subsequent, later; 2. subsequent to, later than ; 3. posterior to

postcolonial, postdate, postatomic, postorbital,precaution, preliminary, prerequisite- ex- 1. out of, outside ; 2. not ; 3. former : exclave, exstipulate, ex-president- con- with, together, jointly (com- before b, p, m and col before l)

concentrate, collaborate, commingle- per- 1. throughout, thoroughly: 2. a: containing the largest possible or a

relatively large proportion of a (specified) chemical element b: containing anelement in its highest or a high oxidation state:perchloroethylene, perchloric acid- inter- 1:between : among : in the midst:intercrop, interpenetrate, interstellar;

2: reciprocal interrelation, 3: located between: interface, 4: carried on between

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international, 5: occurring between interborough, 6: shared by, involving, orderived from two or moreinterfaith; 7: between the limits of: withinintertropical,8: existing between: intercommunal- extra- outside, beyondextrajudicial- super- 1 a (1): over and above: higher in quantity, quality, or degree than :

more than superhuman (2): in addition: extra supertax b (1): exceeding or so as toexceed a norm superheat; (2): in or to an extreme or excessive degree or intensitysupersubtle c: surpassing all or most others of its kind superhighway; 2 a: situatedor placed above, on, or at the top of superlunary; specifically : situated on thedorsal side of b: next above or higher supertonic; 3: having the (specified)ingredient present in a large or unusually large proportion superphosphate; 4:constituting a more inclusive category than that specified superfamily; 5:superior in status, title, or position superpower; superabsorbent, superactiv- sub- 1: under: beneath: below: subsoil, subaqueous; 2 a: subordinate:

secondary: next lower than or inferior to substation, subeditor; b: subordinateportion of: subdivision of subcommittee, subspecies; c: with repetition (as of aprocess) so as to form, stress, or deal with subordinate parts or relationssublet,subcontract; 3: less than completely, perfectly, or normally: somewhatsubacute,subclinical; 4a: almost: nearly suberect; b :falling nearly in the category of andoften adjoining bordering onsubarctic- circum- around, about circumpolar- a-, ab-, abs-, from: abuse, abnormal- bi- twice: bilingual, bipartition- co-, com-, con- with: co-ordinate, commute, connect- de- down, separation, depriving of: depend, depart, deform- non- negative meaning: non-sense- sub- under: subdue, support, subject, sub-technical

Prefixes of Germanic origin:-a- on, in, off, from ashore, away, asleep-be- about, over in besprinkle; thoroughly in bewitch; denominative in behead,

belittle, cover with in besnow-for- off, away:forget, forbid, forsake-mis- badly: mistake, mislead-out- out of: outcome outrun, more than, exceed: outnumber, outlive-with- against: withdraw, withstand

Prefixes of Greek origin:-

a-, an- (not): anarchy,-di- twice: diphthong, dilemma; (two): bicycle, bifocal, bilingual, dichotomy, diode,

dioxide-ec- (out from): eccentric, ecstatic-poly-, multi- (many): polychomotous, polygyny, polysulfide, polyethylene,

polymer-semi-, 1. a) precisely half of semidiameter; b) half in quantity or value

semiannual, semiliterate, semimonthly; 2. to some extent, partly, incompletely semi-independent, semidry. 3. a) partial, incomplete, semidarkness, b) having some of

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the characteristics of semiporcelain; c) quasi: semigovernmental, semimonastic.-demi-, (less productive hemi-, chiefly scientific) (half): demijohn-tri- (three) : trimester, triangle, tripod-uni-, mono-, (one): unilateral, unisex,monolith-extra- (exceptionally): extraordinary-extra- (outside, beyond): extrajudicial, extracurricular-neo- (new, revived): neo-classical, neonatology

-paleo-/pale- a) involving/dealing with ancient forms/conditionspaleobotany; b) early, primitive, archaicpaleolithic

-pan- (all, worldwide)pan-Slavic,pan-orthodox-proto- (first, original) :proto-language,prototype-syn-(with, along with, together): synclinal, syntax-tele- (distant): telephone, television,-vice- (deputy): vice-president, vice-king

Some of the Greek and Latin prefixes are extensively used in thescientific and technical terminologies: inter(action), super(vision), auto(matic),macro(molecule), micro(structure), mono(cellular), poly(chrom), syn(chronic).

Prefixes of Anglo-Saxon origin are very few and they include un- whichmeans in, or non, as in the cases of unambitious, unskilled, undressed andcontrary to, as in unconstitutional ; the intensive for-, which at one time wasattached to a fairly large number of words, has now disappeared almostcompletely, surviving only in a few cases like forlorn (=completely lost), forbid,

forgive,forget, forgo, the last of which sometimes appears asforego, a misspellingdue to confusion, false etymology or mistaken analogy.

The prefixes of Anglo-Saxon include:

Prefix Meaning Examples

- from, out of, away beran (to bear), risen (to arise), settan (to pace),wakan (to awake)galan (to sing)

for- an intensifier whichusually indicatesdestruction

forbrnan (to burn up), fordn (to fordo, to kill, todestroy),forsettan (to obstruct),forheard (very hard)

of- reinforcing meaning ofslan (to stike off, to slay), ofton (to take away)

mis- negative meaning mislcian (to dislike)

on- negative meaning onbindan (to unbind), onlcan (to unlock),

or- deprivative ormd (without courage), oreald (of great age),orieldu (extremely old age)

t- separation tbrecan (to break to pieces), tdrfan (to drive apart,

to scatter),un- negative/pejorative

meaninguncrrft (evil practice, guile), unhold (unfriendly),unweder(bad weather)

wan- deprivative/negativemeaning

wanhl (unhealthy), wanhoga (thoughtless man)

ymb- around ymbgang (circuit, circumference)

Many of the Old English prefixes lose their force and they cease to createnew combinations in Middle English. Out of the few active Old English prefixes

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in Middle English for- forhang = to put to death by hanging, forcleave=to cut topieces, forshake= to shake off.

Combined with words borrowed from French (such as: forbar, forcover,fortravail), none of these formations lived long and the prefix has becomeobsolete. With- (against) was productive in Middle English: withdraw, withgo,withsake. Withdraw and withhold have survived together with the Old Englishwithstand, but other formations were replaced by later borrowings from Latin,as withsay was replaced by renounece, withspeak by contradict and withset byresist.

Semantically, prefixes may be classified into several classes, suggesting:

a) negative meaning

prefix meaning example

a- lacking in-of amoral, atemporal, agnostic

an- lacking in/of (chiefly usedin learned and scientificlexicon)

anion, anhydrous

dis- not, the converse of disclose, discover, disregard

in- inconsistent, inconvenient

il- (before /l/) illiterate, illegal, illegitimate

im- (before labialconsonants)

immeasurable, immature, immaculate

ir-(before /r/)

not, the converse of

irresponsible, irreparable

b) reversative or privative meanings

prefix meaning example(i)reversing the action + verbs/deverbal nouns decentralize, defreezede-

(ii)depriving of + verbs/deverbal nouns decapitate, deforestate,

(i)reversing the action disconnect, disinfectdis-

(ii) lacking discolour

(i) reversing the action undo, unzip, uncoverun-

(ii) depriving of, releasing from unseat, unhorse,

c) locative meaning

prefix meaning examplefore- front part of, front forepick, forewordinter- between, among interrelate, internationalintra- in, within intraorganizational,sub- under subway, subcontract, subclynicalsuper- above superordinate, superstructuretrans- across transatlantic, transorient

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d) orientation and attitude

prefix meaning example

anti- against + denominal adjectives/nouns anti-unionist, anti-semite

counter- against, in opposition to counterpart, counterexample

pro- for, in favour of, on the side of proactive, pro-American

e) time and order

prefix meaning exampleex- former ex-communist, ex-kingfore- before forego, forearm, foretop, forelegre- again, back rewrite, reread

f) pejorative meaning

prefix meaning examplemal- bad, badly malfunctionmis- wrongly mislead, misjudgepseudo- false, imitation pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-scientific

g) degree or sizeprefix meaning examplearch- most, supreme archbishop /archangel

may have a pejorative effect archenemy, archfascistco- on equal footing co-editor, co-authorhyper- extreme, beyond, excessive

sometimes with a pejorative meaninghypermarket, hyperaesthetic,hyperacute, hyperendemic

mini- little (combines freely and especiallyinformally)

mini-skirt, minicourse,minibus,

out- surpassing + nouns/verbs outnumber, outlive, outcastover- excessive (hence pejorative) + verb overdo, overflowsuper- more than, very special, on top,

hierarchically superiorsupervisor, superintendent

Finally, some prefixes are productively limited and are mainly used inliterature:

prefix Prefix meaning example

a- + predicative adjectives: asleep, aloud, afloat

(i) along with ed: wearing, surrounded by bespectacled, bespattered

(ii) intensifies the force of verbs berate, bedevil

be-

(iii) + nounstransitive verbs bewitch, befriend, belittle,

en- + nouns verb to put into endanger

em-(beforeb, p, m)

+ nouns verb to put into embitter, empower

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Exercises1. Consider the following text:

Like her father, she caused her intimates untold pain; unlike him, shefully intended to this inability to put up with imperfection and unresponsivenessfrom a theatre manager, a critic, an audience or a lover surelyderived from her fathers obstinate energy.

(TLS, January 11, 2002, p. 17)a) translate the text into Romanianb) give two examples of prefixes expressing direction and quantity;

2.From the list below select your examples to fill in the table:Semi-, per-, inter-, extra-, pan-, proto-, super-, sub-, paleo-, intra-, di-, dis-,un-, fore-, mini-, co-, dys-, en-, re-, trans-

Prefixes

With one meaning With two meanings With more meanings

3.Anti- is a prefix with two meanings, (a) opposed to and (b) preventingfrom happening. Read the sentences below and write A or B, depending onthe meaning the prefix has in its context.

Drivers use antifreeze in their radiators to prevent the water from freezing incolder seasons. [ _ ]

None of the anti-government manifestations has been successful so far. [ _ ]Avon produces an impressive number of antiaging products. [ _ ]The General took control of the army at the height of the anti-Ceausescuprotests.

(CollisCobuilt English Guides Word Formation, 1991: 197) [ _ ]

An antibiotic is a semisynthetic substance derived from a microorganism andable to inhibit or kill a microorganism. [ _ ]

4. Out- is a prefix with two meanings, (a) out of and (b) more than,exceed. Read the sentences below and write A or B, depending on the

meaning the prefix has in its context.

Common output formats are printed paper, sound, video and on-screendocuments. They let the computer communicate with the user. The mostcommon output device is the monitor or VDU (or Video Display Unit).(http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/ict/hardware/0inputandoutputdevicesrev4.shtml, accessed April 2013)

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If you outdo someone, you are a lot more successful than they are at aparticular activity.(http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/outdo, accessedApril 2013)

Max Lucados newest book Outlive Your Life is an attempt to answer some of

these concerns.http://blog.prodigalpaul.com/2010/11/11/review-outlive-your-life-by-max-lucado/ accessed April 2013)

5. Several prefixes have a negative meaning. Look at the words in the listand match them with their appropriate prefixes: dis-, il-, non-, un-, in-,im-

Secure, capacity, happy, polite, do, sense, obey, like, regard, legitimate,friendliness, reliable, compressible, possible, smoker

6.Pre- is a prefix with two meanings, (a) one thing happens before anotherand (b) something has already been done. Pre- may also appear in wordswithout being a prefix. Read the sentences below and write A, B or C,depending on the meaning the prefix has in its context.

Pre-Christmas is my favourite time of the year. [ _ ]I have rarely used the print preview function, whenever printing mydocuments. [ _ ]Prefixes may be of help in learning new words. [ _ ]The jury were supposed to decide, on the provided evidence, whether themurder was premeditated in his actions. [ _ ]

His family wanted him to be a preacher. [ _ ]Preparations ready, hey headed for the taxi. [ _ ]Papers were requested to include a preamble. [ _ ]

7. Select the prefixes which express pejorative overtones:1. a. fore- b. inter- c. intra-

2. a. anti- b. counter- c. pro-

3. a. mal- b. mis- c. pseudo-

8. Select the prefixes which express locative meanings:1. a. fore- b. inter- c. intra-

2. a. ex- b. pre- c. post-

3. a. dis- b. dys- c. hypo-

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2. SuffixationThe force of a language is given by its capacity to form new words and

meanings on the basis of internal resources and patterns. Use of traditionalword creation patterns is of prime importance for the encoder and decoder of amessage to recognize and use many terms without having to learn themseparately, one by one. Suffixation is nearly as old as the English language, forthe Anglo-Saxons made fairly extensive use of it, taking a simple root-word(usually a noun or an adjective) and adding a suffix to express a related idea.Wood (1969: 115)

Suffixes may be represented by one or more letters or sounds which areadded to the end of a word, and which result in a change of the meaning or ofthe function of the word. Since two purposes are assigned to suffixes meaningchange and function change they may be divided into meaning-changing orlexical suffixes and function-changing or grammatical suffixes. Grammaticalsuffixes are also known as inflections, which are those letters or groups ofletters conveying morphological information. In the table below you will findexamples of lexical and grammatical suffixes:

Lexical/derivational suffixes Grammatical/inflexional suffixes

worker: -er (noun-forming suffix) He works here. (-s: 3rd person singularending for present tense indicative ofmain verbs)

organize: -ize (verb-forming suffix) He asked for water. (-ed past tense)

Upwards: -wards (adverb-formingsuffix)

He had his works published in q newedition last year. (-s: plural inflection)

mountaineer: -eer (noun-forming suffix) He is working now. (-ing present

participle + be = progressivity)cupful: -ful (noun-forming suffix) Johns (possession)

Ibsenism: -ism (noun-forming suffix) children (irregular plural inflection)

The parenthetical explanation is familiar in grammar books whererules dealing with (regular or irregular) plural of nouns, tense or aspect forms,possession relationships exemplify such suffixes. They will hardly be relevantto lexicological approaches.

The suffix function of interest to lexicology is that of changing thegrammatical function of the base. Thus, according to the word class that results

after suffixation, there exist noun forming suffixes, verb forming suffixes, etc.Unlike prefixation, suffixation may also produce stress shifts, like in

/simultaneous/, /simultaneity/.In terms of their productivity, suffixes may be divided into productive or

living ones (-less, -ish, -y, -ling, -ness, -ate, -ous, -mentist/-ism, -ette), and non-productive or obsolete (-dom, -ship, -th), which are either very rarely or nolonger used to make new words. Many of the living suffixes are of Frenchorigin, though by analogy they are often attached to Saxon roots.

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The most frequently used of all at the present time is probably ee, fromthe French past participle termination, -.Employee and nominee are two of theearlier examples, but others are being made almost daily and not always withstrict regard to the grammatical significance of the termination. Examples mayalso include referee, refugee, evacuee, internee, examinee, consignee, payee, drawee,devotee.

Unlike prefixes, suffixes may carry on several meanings which accountsfor their polysemantic character. This is the case with ate which is pronouncedeither [eit]or[t]

noun: 1. product (of a specified process), distillate, condensate, 2.chemical, compound or complex ANION:ferrate, phenolate noun of 1. office, function or rank of consulate, doctorate; 2. group ofpeople holding a specified office or rank) or having (a specified function)electorate adjective 1. being in or brought to (a specified state) passionate,inanimate; marked by, having craniate; resembling, having the shape of

foliate, primate verb1. act (in a specified way) pontificate; 2. act (in a specified way)upon: insulate, assassinate; cause to become; cause to be modified oraffected by: activate,pollinate; provide with: substantiate, aerateOne and the same word may be pronounced differently, depending on

the position it holds at sentence level:John is a good advocate. [it]John advocates for the cause of the dismissed. [eit]

Other examples of this type includegraduate, candidate and estimate.

In terms of parts of speech they form, suffixes are:

i. Noun-forming suffixesIn Old English noun-forming suffixes were closely connected to gender,

some of them being used in the creation of masculine nouns ( -ere to expressoccupations fiscere=fisher, wrtere=writer, scribe), some others beprodicungfeminine nouns to describe occupations (-estre: spinnestre=woman who spins,bcestre=woman who bakes). The suffix hd (present-day hood) producesmasculine nouns: childhd. A few present-day suffixes were initiallyindependent words, such as dm (judgment, law) and lc (gift) in wedlc(wedlock).

a. denominal nouns: abstract.This category of suffixes provides the noun bases a value of uncountableabstract nouns, or aggregate nouns of status or activity.

suffix meaning Example(s)

-age state of bondage, butlerage

-age action of, instance of leverage

-al action/result of removal, acquittal, arrival

-ate condition of a vicarate, emirate, khanate

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-ation (i) the process or state of exploration, starvation,translation

(ii) the product of foundation, translation

-dom state of, condition of stardom, freedom

-ery, -ry (i) the condition, behaviour associatedwith

slavery

(ii) location of bakery, nunnery, stationery(iii) uncountable concrete aggregatenouns

cutlery, machinery

-ful the amount contained in cupful, bottleful, glassful

-hood the condition associated with spinsterhood, womanhood,childhood

(i) abstract count nouns referring to theoccasion of the activity expressed by thebase verb

wedding, christening

(ii) activity connected with farming, cricketing, bowling

-ing

(iii) abstraction referring to a position Innings (durata unui mandat)

(i) (result of an) act or process validation, installation-tion

(ii) state or condition hydration, inflation-ism doctrine of, practice of Hinduism, Taoism

-ity + (i) adjective of neoclassical or Frenchorigin

rapidity, cupidity

+ (ii) adjective ending in able, -al, -ar variability

borrowed with the word eternity, humility

-ment result of equipment, development,

-ness state, condition, quality, degree happiness, correctness,completeness, abstractness,goodness

-ocracy governed by meritocracy, khakiocracy

-ship the condition associated with partnership, leadership,

b. denominal nouns: concrete.


-age a collection of baggage, prissage

-ant one that performs a specified action claimant,

-ard having as dominant characteristic braggard, coward, sluggard,

skilled in, engaged in puppeteer, charioteer, engineer-eer

* exception to commandeer

-ee absentee, guarantee, trustee

having as dominant characteristic teenager

person occupationally concerned with lawyer, hatter, furrier

person or thing belonging to or associatedwith

header, old-timer

one that does or performs (a specifiedaction)

reporter, film-maker

-er

native of, resident of cottager, New Yorker

-ette (i) compact kitchenette

(ii) imitation leatherette

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(iii) feminine marker suffragette, usherette

-ist of the type communist, economist

*exceptions: insist, resist, exist, desist, jurist

-let small, unimportant leaflet, starlet

-ling minor, offspring of princeling, weanling

-or one that performs a specified action actor, activator

-ster involved in gangster, gamester, mobster* avocat clandestin (SUA) shyster

-ing (i) concrete noun referring to what resultsfrom the action of the base verb

filling (in tooth), opening,building

(ii) concrete nouns in the plural only earnings, savings, outgoings

(iii) uncountable concrete aggregate nouns tubing, piping

(iv) occasional uncountable nouns clothing

When a suffix is added to a verb, countable concrete nouns may beproduced and they usually have a personal reference. Few examples ofproductive suffixes will be considered under this heading, and these are: ant, -

ee, -er/or. Informant andparticipant will illustrate the first suffix, while addresseeand addresser, examinee and examiner, testee and tester, trustee and truster willexemplify the next two formations. Both the suffixes or and er are used toproduce animate and inanimate nouns: governor, actor, visitor, administrator,radiator, ventilator, and teacher, heater, dryer, mixer, etc.

ii.Noun/adjective-forming suffixesSome suffixes which are active in English may produce both nouns and

adjectives


-ese (i) member of(nationality / race) Panamese, Burmese(ii) n the language/style of officialese, legalese, Johnsonese

-(i)an (i) adherent to Darwinian

(ii) relating to Shakespearean

(iii) citizen of Parisian

(iv) n the language of Armenian, Koreean

-ist skilled in, practising cyclist, stylist, economist,

-ite adherent to, member of Luddite, shamanite, toxophilite

iii. Adjective-forming suffixesA number of suffixes were used to form adjectives from nouns as early

as Old English: -ede (hocede

= hooked), -ihte (stnihte

= stony,dyrnihte

=thorny)),-en wyllen=woolen), -isc (mennisc= human, natural, folcisc=popular,Welisc=Welsh), -full (carfull, synnfull=sinful).

The suffix able/-ible usually suggests a passive meaning (a portable CDplayer is a kind of player which can be carried or moved about); in some casesit may involve an active or a quasi-active meaning as in perishable able toperish, variable able to vary, comfortable able to comfort; in even fewer casethe suffix may suggest both active and passive senses, as is the case withsurvival, meaning able to be survived a survivable war and able to survive a

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survivable military installation.The suffix able is used both with Anglo-Saxon words readable,drinkable,

and with Latin words demonstrable, questionable. The suffix ible, allomorph ofthe preceding suffix, occurs with words borrowed from or based on Latin, suchas audible, credible, edible (< Latin edere to eat), legible (< Late Latin legibilis,

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