BBA VI SEMESTER

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (BBA 312)

3 YEARS- END-TERM PAPER SOLUTION (PAPER-2011, 2012, 2013)

QUESTIONS OF UNIT-1

PAPER 2011:

Q.I. Write short notes on any three of the following:

(a) Major WTO provisions relating to environment

Ans. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and

liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under

the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The

organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a

framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process

aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by

representatives of member governments.

There are several provisions in the WTO agreements dealing with environment. There is a

reference to sustainable development as one of the general objectives to be served by the WTO

in the Marrakech Agreement which established the WTO. There are provisions in the

Agreement on Agriculture and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). However

by far and away the most important provisions as far as environmental issues are concerned are

Article XX of the GATT and the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and the

Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.

1. Article XX of the GATT: Article XX specifies what activities are exempt from GATT

rules. These exemptions give members very wide latitude to control trade to protect the

environment. They include protection of national security, protection of morals,

preservation of national cultural heritage. Of particular importance is the right to waive

the rules in order to protect human, animal, plant, health and safety.

2. Preventing abuse – the role of the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

(SPS): Such provision stated that decisions be based on science and a process of risk

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assessment introduced transparency into decision-making by creating a visible check on

abuse of executive discretion. This not only protected the rights of members of the WTO,

it also gave assurance to consumers that governments were not abusing their powers.

3. Preventing abuse II – the role of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT):

The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). It was designed to reduce the

scope for countries to use technical standards as disguised barriers to trade. It obliges

members to ensure that national treatment and non-discrimination apply when technical

standards are adopted as mandatory regulations.

Sound regulation, standards and eco-labeling: There is large body of standards which aim

to improve the quality of goods and services and provide information to consumers. Most

of these are national standards and are set by national standard setting organizations. A

set of international standards is produced by the International Standards Organization.

Well-known quality standards developed by that organization include the ISO 9000

series (to improve quality in organizations) and ISO 14000 (to set quality standards to

improve environmental management.). Eco-labelling systems are applied by commercial

entities for the information of consumers, these are voluntary standards.

(b) Factors of land degradation

Rapid increase in industrialization, urbanization and other activities or

civilized man have exercised a tremendous impact on the soils and on

other components of the biosphere.

Deforestation or Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter has

brought about serious changes both in land and water.

The washing off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused

great soil erosion.

Soil erosion has resulted in a great increase in run-off, pollution

turbidity and mineralization in rivers and extensive silting in water

reservoirs

Water-logging

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Excessive use of chemicals

agricultural mismanagement

soil salinity

fuel wood consumption

Climatic factors such as rainfall, temperature, etc.

Over-exploitation of land for short-term gain

Overgrazing

Planting unsuitable crops

Poor crop rotation

poor soil and water management

Frequent use of heavy machinery such as tractors, etc.

Q.2. (I) What is Sustainable Development? Highlight the major concerns of sustainable development.

Ans. Concept of Sustainable Development: The concept of sustainable development was brought into focus by Brandtland Report.

The concept of Sustainable Development provides a framework for the integration of developmental strategies with environmental protection. This concept includes reducing excessive resource use and enhancing resource conservation, recycling & reuse of materials, waste minimization with proper technological input and scientific management of renewable resources.

In other words, sustainable development concept underscores that rate of consumption or use of natural resources should approximate the rate at which these resources can be substituted or replaced.

To maintain a balance between environment and development, it is necessary to strive sustainable development to meet the needs of present generation without closing option for future generation.

Sustainable Development maintains a balance between social and economic development along with protection of the environment. Thus, in order to prevent an ecological crisis and for a new sustainable society, the following strategies should be followed:

Conservation and reduction of excessive use of resources. Recycling and reuse of materials. More use of renewable resources (solar energy) than non-renewable resources (oil, coal)

for energy.

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Therefore, sustainable development means concerns for protecting environment and avoiding depletion of non-renewable resources. It refers to equity, i.e., equal access to resources.

Major Concerns or Issues to be resolved to achieve the sustainable development:

1. Transformation of Attitude: One of the best way to achieve sustainable development is through transformation of attitude. We must inculcate the habit of sufficiency. It requires thorough transformation at local, national & global level. We must consider it for the interest of future development.Earth’s Summit slogan for future growth: “Let us do something for the next generation”

2. Principle of Justice & Equity: The principle emphasize that injustice and inequity between developed and developing countries should be eliminated or minimized. For this, national leaders and international Institutions have responsibility for sound development of economies and environment.Slogan: “The Polluter must have to pay”

3. Eradication of Poverty: In order to achieve sustainable development, poverty in developing countries must be reduced. The poor people being poor cause more environmental degradation. It is rightly said by Ms. Indira Gandhi at UN Conference in 1972 at Stockholm, “Poverty & Needs are greatest pollutants”

4. Human Settlement Issues: Human settlement conditions especially in developing countries are deteriorating mainly as a result of low investment in sectors like housing & social welfare. The focus of human settlement programmes should be on:

Providing shelter to all Providing infrastructure such as water, managing sewage and solid waste Promoting land-use management Promoting energy & transport system, etc.

5. Biodiversity: Biodiversity helps in achieving sustainable development as the country which is rich in biodiversity can generate more revenues than other countries. It is unfortunate that human activities cause decline in the biodiversity. Thus, we can prevent or increase biodiversity by conserving our flora & fauna.

6. Business & Industry: Business & Industry play a very important role in achieving sustainable development since, they can change production process. They can check the level of emission of pollutants.

7. Conservation of resources using several techniques: Various methods should be adapted to conserve natural resources as well as the environment.

Adopting Integrated approach for planning & management of land resources Adopting rational approach for the management of forest and forest lands-

dealing with the issues of environmental problems such as deforestation. Sustainable forest development, afforestation, production of forest products and

forest services should be focused upon. Recycling and reuse of materials Alternative for fossil fuels

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8. Agriculture: Adjustments are required in agricultural policy for increasing food production and farm products. To achieve the sustainable development, it is necessary to understand environmental implications arising out of the fertilizers, pesticides and methods used in agriculture.

9. Prevention of resources from degradation: Natural resources can be prevented from degradation through:(a) Watershed Development/ Rain-water harvesting(b) Treatment of Affected Areas in terms of air, water and soil by discouraging those

practices that can further degrade those areas. Fir this, Govt. initiative is required.For example: (1) Govt. banned on the construction of tubewells without the permission of MCD in Delhi; (2) Delhi Govt. has shifted many industries from residential location to its outskirts.

(c) Transfer of technology: Further degradation can be prevented by transfer of technology from low efficient o high efficient devices. For example: Use of CNG vehicle on place of Diesel.

(d) Biomass Production: Use of Animal waste, domestic waste, sewage from which energy can be derived is a great source. Manure is the best way of handling waste. This gives clean fuel and reduces further depletion of soil & water.

(e) Remote-sensing: Remote-Sensing is done for survey of affected areas, with the help of Remote-sensing satellites.

10. Using appropriate technology: is one which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly, resource-efficient and culturally suitable. It mostly involves local resources and local labour. Indigenous technologies are more useful, cost-effective and sustainable. We should use that technology which uses less of resources and should produce minimum waste.

11. Resource utilization as per carrying capacity: Sustainability of a system depends largely upon the carrying capacity of the system. If the carrying capacity of a system is crossed, environmental degradation starts and continues till it reaches a point of no return.

12. Prompting environmental education and awareness: Making environmental education the centre of all learning process will greatly help in changing the thinking and attitude of people towards our earth and the environment.

13. Reduce, reuse, recycle approach: The 3-R approach advocating minimization of resource use, using them again and again instead of passing it to the waste stream and recycling the materials goes a long way in achieving the goals of sustainability. It reduces pressure on our resources as well as reduces wastage of resources and pollution.

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Q.2. (II) Explain the major provisions of Kyoto Protocol. What are the market-based

emission trading mechanisms provided under the Protocol?

Ans.   The Kyoto Protocol has the same ultimate objective as the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is the stabilization of atmospheric

concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic

interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame

sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food

production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable

manner.

  At the first United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Conference of the

Parties in Berlin in 1995, the Contracting Parties reviewed the commitments by the developed

countries under the Convention and decided that the commitment to aim at returning their

emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000 was inadequate for achieving the Convention's long-

term objective. The Conference adopted the "Berlin Mandate" and launched a new round of

negotiations on strengthening the commitments of the Contracting Parties from developed

countries. At the third Conference of the Parties in Kyoto in 1997, the Parties adopted the Kyoto

Protocol.

 Key Provisions

In accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, Contracting Parties from developed

countries are committed to reducing their combined greenhouse gas

emissions by at least 5 per cent from 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012.

The targets cover the six main greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide

(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),

perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), along with some

activities in the land-use change and forestry sector that remove carbon

dioxide from the atmosphere (carbon "sinks"). Each Contracting Party from

developed countries is required to have made demonstrable progress in

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implementing its emission reduction commitments by 2005.

 

Implementation of the legally binding Protocol commitments promises to

produce an historic reversal of the upward trend in emissions from

developed countries.

 

The Kyoto Protocol also establishes three innovative mechanisms, known

as joint implementation, emissions trading and the clean development

mechanism, which are designed to help Contracting Parties included in

Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

to reduce the costs of meeting their emission targets. The clean

development mechanism also aims to promote sustainable development in

developing countries. The operational details of these mechanisms are now

being fleshed out by the Contracting Parties.

 

The procedure for the communication and review of information is

established in the Kyoto Protocol. Contracting Parties from developed

countries are required to incorporate in their national communications the

supplementary information necessary to demonstrate compliance with their

commitments under the Protocol in accordance with guidelines to be

developed. The information submitted shall be reviewed by expert review

teams, pursuant to guidelines established by the Conference of the Parties,

which is the supreme body that shall regularly review and promote

effective implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol.

 

The Protocol provides that the Contracting Parties shall periodically review

the Protocol in the light of the best available scientific information and

assessment on climate change and its impacts. The first review will take

place at the second session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the

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meeting of the Parties to the Protocol. Further reviews shall take place at

regular intervals and in a timely manner. A framework for a compliance

system is required to be developed under the Protocol.

 

Market-based trading mechanisms provided under Kyoto Protocol:

Three mechanisms have been established under the Kyoto Protocol: ET, the clean development

mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation (JI).

1. Emissions trading

Emissions trading is established by Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol. Annex I Parties may

participate in ET for the purposes of fulfilling their commitments under Article 3. ET is closely

related to the accounting of assigned amounts under the Kyoto Protocol, the modalities of which

are defined under the following Articles of the Kyoto Protocol:

(a) Article 3: paragraphs 7 and 8 deal with the establishment of assigned amounts;

(b) Article 3: paragraphs 10, 11 and 12 deal with the transfer and acquisition of some types of

units;

(c) Article 7: paragraph 4 deals with the modalities for accounting assigned amounts.

A summary of decisions by the CMP relating to the above Articles is presented in the annex,

table 1.

2. Clean development mechanism

The CDM is established by Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol to assist non-Annex I Parties in

achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the

Convention, and to assist Annex I Parties in achieving compliance with their quantified emission

limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3.

The CDM is supervised by the Executive Board which, inter alia, recommends modalities and

procedures for the CDM to the CMP and performs operational functions under the authority and

guidance of the CMP.

3.Joint implementation

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Joint implementation is established by Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol to assist Annex I Parties

in meeting their commitments under Article 3.

A host Party of an Article 6 project that meets all the eligibility requirements for participation

may verify its own emission reductions by sources or enhancements of removals by sinks from

JI projects and issue the resulting emission reduction units (so-called Track 1). If a Party does

not meet those requirements, such verification takes place through the verification procedure

under the Joint

Implementation Supervisory Committee (JISC) (so-called Track 2). The JISC operates under the

authority and guidance of the CMP.

Q3 a) What are different types of natural resources? How can the resources be economised

in the process of economic development?

Ans: Natural Resources

Natural resources occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by

humanity, in a natural form. Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of them

are essential for our survival while most are used for satisfying our wants. Natural resources may

be further classified in different ways.

There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage

of development, and by their renewability.

1. On the basis of Origin:

(i) Biotic – These are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such

as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such

as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from

decayed organic matter.

(ii) Abiotic – These are those that come from non-living, non-organic material. Examples of

abiotic resources include land, fresh water, airand heavy metals including ores such

as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.

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2. On the bases of their stage of development:

(i) Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used

in the future. For example petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, but

until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.

(ii) Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and

quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual

resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost

involved.

(iii) Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in

the future is called a reserve resource.

(iv)Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used

by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.

3. On the bases of Renewability:

(i) Renewable resources – Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these

resources, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not

noticeably affected by human consumption.

(ii) Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not

naturally form in the environment. Minerals are the most common resource included in this

category. By the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of

consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil

fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow

(potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable.

4. On the basis of their Distribution:

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(i) National Resources - National resources are those resources that are available within the

national boundaries of a country. In this respect, a few examples would be the minerals and lands

available in profusion in the country.

 

(ii) Multinational Resources - Multinational resources are those that are shared by more

than one country between two geographical boundaries. Rivers, migratory animals and lakes are

definite examples.

 

(iii) International Resources - These resources are shared by all nations and are provided in

bounty to all the countries in the earth. Oceans, air, solar energy and precipitation are a few

examples of international resources.

There are two fundamental facts that constitute the economising problem. Society’s material

wants, that is, the material wants of its citizens and institutions, are virtually unlimited, or

insatiable and another is Economic resources which means of producing goods and services—are

limited or scarce.

1. Unlimited wants

At any given time, the individuals and institutions that constitute society have innumerable

material wants unfulfilled. Some of these material wants—food, clothing and shelter—have

biological roots. The social and cultural environment in which we live influence our material

wants as well. As a group, our material wants are unlimited and are incapable of ever being

completely satisfied.

2. Scarce resources

All the natural, human and manufactured resources that go into the production of goods and

services which require innumerable types of labour; and land and mineral resources of all kinds

If our resources are scarce, we cannot satisfy all of society’s material wants.

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Society wishes to use its limited resources efficiently; that is, it wants to obtain the maximum

amount of desired goods and services producible with its available resources. To achieve this, it

must achieve both full employment and full production. Economics is a science of efficiency—

efficiency in the use of scarce resources.

a. Full employment

Full employment means that all available resources should be employed: no workers

should be involuntarily out of work; no capital equipment or arable land should sit idle. For

example, legislation and custom provide that children and the very aged should not be employed.

Further, it is desirable for productivity to allow land to lie fallow periodically. Along with this,

some resources will need to be conserved for the future.

b. Full production

The employment of all available resources is, however, insufficient to achieve efficiency. Full

production means that all employed resources should be used to make the most valued

contributions to output. If we fail to achieve full production, economists say that our resources

are underemployed.

Full production implies that two kinds of efficiency—allocative and productive efficiency are

achieved.

i. Allocative efficiency means that resources are devoted to the combination of goods and

services most wanted by society. For example, society wants CDs rather than records. The most

desired combination of goods and services is known as optimum product mix.

ii. Productive efficiency occurs when the least costly production techniques are used to produce

the desired goods and service.

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PAPER 2012

Q.1. (d) PIL

Ans. Public Interest Litigation means a legal action initiated in a court of law regarding a matter

which relates to or is connected with the interest of the public. Its purpose is to provide justice to

the ordinary people. It has been devised for those people who are unable to approach the court on

their own because of their deprived conditions, i.e., illiteracy, poverty, social and economic

backwardness, lack of awareness.

The PIL can be filed by a third party if the constitutional rights of an individual or group of

individuals are violated. In such case the individual or groups of individuals is not able to move

court personally for justice because of poverty, helplessness, lack of awareness or socially and

economically disadvantaged conditions. The petitioner of the PIL does not file it for personal

gain or private profit. He/she does not file it for political or other oblique motivation.

The PlL can also be filed by a petitioner by writing a letter to the court.

The right of a person to file a suit or conduct a litigation in a court of law is known as 'Locus

Standi'.

There are two types of PILs :

i) Representative Social Action and

ii) Citizen Social Action

i) Representative Social Action:

This is a form of PIL whereby any member of the public can seek judicial redressal for a legal

wrong caused to a person or a determinate class of persons who by reason of poverty, or socially

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and economically disadvantaged position, is unable to approach the court. In such case, the

petitioner is ‘accorded locus standi’ to sue as the representative 'of other person or group.

ii) Citizen Social Action:

In a PIL, under this category a Petitioner sues not as a representative of a class, but as a member

of the public to whom a public duty is owed. hence, the aim of this category of PIL is not to

improve access to justice for the poor unlike a Representative Social Action, but to vindicate

rights that are diffused among the public to be enforced, though no traditional individual right

exists.

Advantages

The first and foremost advantage of PIL is access to a National Forum of decision

making and power by those who were until now voiceless and invisible.

The relaxation from long procedural formalities and thus, ensuring the poor people to

have access to justice.

The relaxation of the rule of locus standi has resulted in representative action where a

person or a group, with a sufficient interest in a particular cause, litigates on behalf of a

large number of others who cannot afford the cost of litigation.

PlL has also given the court an opportunity to address important issues in areas like

environmental protection, consumer protection etc., which affect a large number of

people.

The acceptance of even letters and telegrams by the courts, as PILs, reduces the cost of

such litigation and also encourages public spirited individuals and groups to bring to the

notice of the court any situation which requires the Courts interference.

The appointing of commissions by the courts as fact finding bodies to check into the

allegation made in the petition has established a new mode of proof. These commission

reports have formed the basis of direction of the court in cases complaining of violation

of rights.

The monitoring by the Court of the implementation of the directions at periodic intervals

to ensure compliance, enable the vindication of rights in practice. The monitoring

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function has also often been vested in vigilance bodies with participation of Social

Action Groups.

Q.2. (a) What is ecosystem? Discuss various types of ecosystem.

Ans. ECOSYSTEM

According to GEORGE JACKSON, an Ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants,

animals and micro-organisms in an area functioning together with all of the non-living things.

An ecosystem is the smallest unit of biosphere that has all the characteristics to support life.

Pond ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, marine ecosystem, urban ecosystem are

some of the examples for ecosystems.

An ecosystem varies in sizes from a few square kms to hundreds of square kms. Similarly an

ecosystem may be temporary like a fresh pool / agriculture field or permanent like a forest /

ocean. In an ecosystem both organisms (biotic communities) and abiotic environment (rainfall,

temperature, humidity) each, influencing the properties with other for maintenance of life.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS: Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.

Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man tries

to control biotic community as well as physico chemical environment.

Eg: Artificial pond, urban area development.

Natural Ecosystem: These ecosystem are more stable. Under the natural conditions, a

variety of ecosystem operates themselves such type of ecosystem are called Natural

ecosystem. Natural ecosystem are of following types:

(1) Terrestrial ecosystem

(2) Aquatic ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem

This ecosystem relates to biotic components

living on the land. Vegetation dominates the

community and the types of vegetation affect

the climate, soil structure & a rapid exchange

of O2, water & CO2

Aquatic Ecosystem

This ecosystem relates to biotic community

living in water. The types of water ( fresh

water, saline water, polluted water ) dominate

and affect the pH of water, depth of water,

temperature of water etc..

Aquatic ecosystem has been sub-divided into

fresh water and saline water based on the

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quality of water.

I. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

Eco system that exists in water is known as aquatic ecosystem . Water is the primary

requirement for life in biological community. The aquatic ecosystems range from a small

pond to a large ocean.

Varying quantities of nutrients are carried from terrestrial ( land ) ecosystem by the

movement of water and deposited in aquatic ecosystems. The life in aquatic communities is

influenced mostly by physical factors like:

Water depth;

amount light;

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temperature;

salinity of water and

amount of oxygen and Carbon dioxide.

Aquatic ecosystems are broadly classified into fresh water and marine water ecosystems.

In some regions, the marine and fresh water environment overlaps creating “Estuaries”.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

FRESH WATER MARINE ESTUARIES

Eg. lakes, ponds, streams,

river water

Eg. salt lakes, seas, oceans Eg. water bodies

Mix of fresh water and sea

A. Freshwater Ecosystem- (Pond/ Lake Ecosystem)

A pond is a small area of still water, especially is artificial whereas a lake is a large area of

water body and the water is natural. The life span of ponds range from a few weeks or

months and whereas the life span for lakes depend upon their location, size and depth.

Depending upon temperature, the upper part of the lake becomes warm and is called

eplimnion and the lower part of the lake becomes cold which is called as hypolimnion.

These two zones are separated by thermocline zone which acts as a barrier to exchange of

material / nutrients within the pond.

During rainy season, entire water body gets same temperature due to mixing of water while

in non-rainy season very small amount of mixing occurs by surface waves due to wind blow.

A freshwater ecosystem is of 2 types:

1. Lotic (Flowing water): eg. freshwater streams, springs, rivers, etc.

2. Lentic (Stagnant/ Still water): eg. ponds, lakes, swamps, etc.

The components of freshwater ecosystem are as follows:

1. Abiotic (non-living) Components: include Heat; light, pH value of water; organic

compounds ( water, CO2, O2, Ca, N, P ..)

2. Biotic (living) Components: include:

A) Producers- eg. Green plants, photosynthetic bacteria, etc.

B) Consumers- are classified as:

Primary (Herbivores) –eg. Zoo plankton

Secondary (Small Carnivores)- eg. Small fishes. They serve on primary

consumers.

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Tertiary (Top Consumers)- eg. Large fishes. They depend on secondary

consumers.

C) Decomposers- eg. Bacteria, fungi, etc.

B. Marine Ecosystem (or Ocean Ecosystem):

The marine environment is characterized by its high concentration of salts and minerals. The

major oceans of the world are Atlantic; Pacific; Indian, Arctic and Antarctic. These are deep

and life extends to all its depths. The sea water contains salt content in the form of NaCl and

rest are Mg, Ca, K .

The components of marine or ocean ecosystem are as follows:

1. Abiotic Components- eg. Chemical components, oxygen, temperature, light, etc.

2. Biotic Components- include:

A) Producers- eg. Phtoplanktons, green algae, sea weeds, red algae, etc.

B) Consumers- are classified as:

Primary (Herbivores)- eg. Small fishes

Secondary (Carnivores)- eg. Shad, mackerel (carnivores fishes)

Tertiary (Top carnivores)- eg. Cod, halibut, etc.

C) Decomposers- eg. Marine fungi and bacteria

C. Stream & River Ecosystems:

Rivers and streams are flowing fresh water bodies. Out of all natural ecosystems, rivers

are the most intensively used ecosystems by man. The organization of river and stream

ecosystem includes:

1. Abiotic components: include volume of water, speed of water flow, dissolved oxygen

content, temperature etc.. The energy flow usually the organic matter which is being

imported from adjacent terrestrial ecosystems.

2. Biotic components: include Producers ( algae, grass, amphibians ); consumers ( leaches,

water insects, snails, fishes, crocodiles, reptiles ) and Decomposers (bacteria, fungi,

protozoa).

D. Estuarine Ecosystem

Estuary is the area at the mouth of the river joins the sea and continents. It has a free

connection with the open sea and is thus strongly affected by tidal action. Estuaries are

mixed with fresh water from land drainages. River mouth, coastal bays, tidal marshes etc.

are the examples for estuarine ecosystem.

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Estuaries are one among the naturally fertile in the world. The components of

The components of Estuarine ecosystem are as follows:

1. Abiotic Components- eg. Nutrients received from land as well as sea; rooted plants

2. Biotic Components- include:

A) Producers- Three major life forms of Autotrophs play a significant role in grass

production. They are (a) macrophytes ( sea weeds, sea grass, spartina, Thalassia,

marsh grass, nagrove trees ) (b) Phytoplankton and (c) Benthic flora (algae ).

B) Consumers- eg. Zooplankton, Oysters, shrimps, crabs and some species of fishes

capable of surviving in estuarine conditions form primary, secondary, tertiary

consumers of the estuarine ecosystem.

C) Decomposers- Decomposers include bacteria and fungi which actively take part in

the breaking down the complex and dead organic matter ( Fungi of actinomycites ).

II. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM:

Terrestrial ecosystem is of following types:

A. Forest Ecosystem

B. Desert Ecosystem

C. Grassland Ecosystem

D. Cropland ecosystem

A. Forest Ecosystem:

Forest is a type of terrestrial ( land ) ecosystem. It consists of trees, shrubs or woody

vegetation occupying an extensive area of land. Forests are important renewable resources.

A different types of forests are seen on this earth. The type of forest depend upon its

geographical location and environment factors ( Temperature and moisture ) that influence

the kind of vegetation that occur in an area.

Types of forests:

1. Savannas: These forests develop where a seasonal rainfall occurs. The grass lands of

North Africa are known as savannas. Eg: North Africa, America, Burma & India.

2. Tropical forests: These exits in areas of good rainfall (>200cm per year) with uniform

warm temperature. The Soils found in there forests are old, acidic in nature & poor in

nutrients. Eg: Amazon rain forest (South America, India).

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3. Deciduous forests (or) Temperate forests: Deciduous forests consists of broad leaved

trees & occur where rainfall is plenty (750 - 1000 cms per year). Eg: Europe & North-East

America.

4. Coniferous forest: These occur in areas with long winters with heavy snowfall.

In other words, where moisture is limited & rainfall is low. Herbivores (animals eating

plants) & insects exist in these forests. Eg: Moscow.

(5) Tundras: These are the large flat Arctic regions of Northern Europe, Asia and North

America where no trees grow and where the soil below the surface of the ground is always

frozen. The growing season is short and plants grow very slowly.

Following are the types of forests present in INDIA:

1. Tropical, forests present in Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Kerala.

2. Deciduous forests present at Dehradun, Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, M.P.,

U.P.

3. Littoral and swamp forests present at Sunderbans in West Bengal and Andaman islands.

4. Tropical Thorn forests present in New Delhi, Punjab and Gujarat.

5. Mountain wet temperature forests present at Nilgiri and Palani hills.

6. Alpine scrub forests present at Ladakh and Sikkim.

The components of forest ecosystem are as follows:

A. Abiotic Components: are non-living components of forest ecosystem. These include:

1. Inorganic Nutrients- eg. Ca,N,P,s,K,etc. are found in the soil in a large quantity.

2. Organic Compounds- includes dead remains of palnts and animals such as carbohydrates, fats,

etc.

3. Climatic factors- eg. Temperature, light, rainfall, humidity, etc.

B. Biotic Components: are living organisms of forest ecosystem. These include:

(a) Producers: Green plants (producers) is classified as a biotic components. In a forest, there are

different types of plants, trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns, etc.

(b) Consumers: comprise of 3 categories:

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Primary Consumers: are herbivores animals which depend directly on producers (green

plants). Eg. Beetles, flies, ants, grasshoppers, spiders, deer, elephants, rats, etc.

Secondary Consumers: are primary carnivores which depend on primary consumers. Eg.

Snakes, fox, wolf, frogs, eagles, vultures, jackals, etc.

Tertiary Consumers: are top consumers (top carnivores) which depend on secondary

consumers. Eg. Lion, tiger, leopard, etc.

(c) Decomposers: are the micro-organisms which depend on dead-organic matter. The micro-

organisms include:

Bacteria

Fungi

Myxomycetes, etc.

B. Desert Ecosystem:

Desert consists of bare-ground or bush covered by land, where the average annual rainfall

is less than 25 cm. In India, abou17% land is desert. Eg. Thar Desert

The components of desert ecosystem are as follows:

1. Abiotic Components: includes Dry soil with poor nutrients, days are hot and nights

are cold, low humidity, high temperature and less water, etc.

2. Biotic Components: includes:

a) Producers: includes Bushy shrubs, scanty trees, xerophytic vegetation, etc.

Eg. Cactus, bunch grass, etc.

b) Consumers: includes:

Primary (Herbivores): eg. Camel, jack, rats, rabbits, insects, etc.

Secondary (Carnivores): eg. Reptiles, lizards, fox, snakes, insect-

eating birds, etc.

Tertiary (Top carnivores): eg. Vultures, wild cats, etc.

c) Decomposers: eg. Fungi, bacteria. Due to scarcity of plants and animals, dead

organic matter is less and hence, decomposers are also few in number.

C. Grassland Ecosystem:

Grasslands are characterized by tall or short grasses, herbs and shrubs, with low rainfall.

They occupy about 19% of the earth’s total surface.

The components of a grassland ecosystem are as follows:

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1. Abiotic Components: includes-

a) Inorganic or nutrient elements- eg. S, Ca, K, Mg, N,P, etc.

b) Organic matter- eg. fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc. derived from dead organic

matter or plants or animals.

c) Climatic factors- eg. light, high temperature, low rainfall, etc.

2. Biotic Components: includes-

a) Producers: eg. grasses, herbs, shrubs

b) Consumers: are classified as:

Primary Consumers: They feed directly on grasses and include herbivores

animals like cows, goats, buffaloes, mouse, rabbits, etc.

Secondary Consumers: These are primary carnivores animals that feed on

herbivores such as lizards, snakes, jackals, fox, etc.

Tertiary Consumers: These are called Top consumers. They depend on

secondary consumers. Eg. Hawks, eagles, vultures, tigers, leopards, etc.

c) Decomposers: includes microbes, bacteria, fungi, etc.

D. Cropland Ecosystem (or Agro Ecosystem):

Cropland, also called artificial ecosystem, is a man-engineered ecosystem.

The components of cropland ecosystem are as follows:

1. Abiotic Components: includes-

a) Inorganic or nutrient elements- Eg. S, Ca, Mg, S, K,P, etc.

b) Organic matter- includes fats, proteins derived from dead plants and animals.

c) Climatic factors- includes light, temperature, rainfall, etc.

2. Biotic Components: includes-

a) Producers- crops such as wheat, pulses, vegetables, etc.

b) Consumers- are classified as:

Primary consumers- are called as Herbivores. Eg. Insects, beetles, rats,

rabbits, etc.

Secondary consumers- are called as primary carnivores. Eg. frogs, fox,

jackals, etc.

Tertiary consumers- are called as top consumers. Eg. hawks, snakes, etc.

(B) Discuss the various causes for the soil and land degradation.

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Land degradation

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by

combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land also environmental degradation is

the gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities animals

activities or natural means example water causes soil erosion, wind, etc. It is viewed as any

change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Natural hazards are

excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods

and bush fires. Land degradation is a broad term that can be applied differently across a wide

range of scenarios. There are four main ways of looking at land degradation and its impact on the

environment around it:

A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land. This can be

seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in potential productivity, or a

loss or change in vegetative cover and soil nutrients.

Action in the lands capacity to provide resources for human livelihoods. This can be

measured from a base line of past land use.

Loss of biodiversity: A loss of range of species or ecosystem complexity as a decline in

the environmental quality.

Shifting ecological risk: increased vulnerability of the environment or people to

destruction or crisis. This is measured through a base line in the form of pre-existing risk of

crisis or destruction.

Causes

Land clearance, such as clear cutting and deforestation

Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices

Livestock  including overgrazing and over drafting

Inappropriate irrigation and over drafting

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Urban sprawl  and commercial development

Soil contamination

Quarrying  of stone, sand, ore and minerals

Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as

hedgerows and copses disappear

Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment

Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem

Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastic

In recent years industrial effluents and wastes have become causes of land and water pollution in

several parts of India. Degradation of natural vegetation caused by over-grazing by animals.

Deforestation and careless management of forests. Mining and industry are two important

activities of man which cause degradation of land. Surface mining lead to degradation of land.

There are certain natural causes soil degradation such as running water, glaciers, wind etc. The

mineral processing like grinding of lime stone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for

ceramic industry generates heavy amount of dust and releases it in the atmosphere. It latter on

settles down in the surrounding areas affecting infiltration of water and crop cultivation.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion

refers to the wearing away of a field's topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and wind or

through forces associated with farming activities such as tillage.

Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage, involves three distinct actions – soil detachment,

movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in organic matter, fertility and soil life, is

relocated elsewhere "on-site" where it builds up over time or is carried "off-site" where it fills in

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drainage channels. Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity and contributes to the pollution of

adjacent watercourses, wetlands and lakes.

Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or can occur at an alarming

rate, causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure,

poor internal drainage, salinization and soil acidity problems are other serious soil degradation

conditions that can accelerate the soil erosion process.

Direct causes of degradation

Deforestation of unsuitable land Deforestation is both a type of degradation as such, and also a

cause of other types, principally water erosion. Deforestation in itself is not necessarily

degrading without it, most productive agricultural lands (in the temperate zone as well as the

tropics) would not be available. Deforestation becomes a cause of degradation first, when the

land that is cleared is steeply sloping, or has shallow or easily erodible soils; and secondly,

where the clearance is not followed by good management.

Overcutting of vegetation. Rural people cut natural forests, woodlands and shrublands to obtain

timber, fuelwood and other forest products. Such cutting becomes unsustainable where it

exceeds the rate of natural regrowth. This has happened widely in semi-arid environments,

where fuel wood shortages are often severe. Impoverishment of the natural woody cover of trees

and shrubs is a major factor in causing both water erosion and wind erosion.

Overgrazing . Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensifies above the

livestock carrying capacity. It leads directly to decreases in the quantity and quality of the

vegetation cover. This is a leading cause not only of wind erosion, but also of water erosion in

dry lands. Both degradation of the vegetation cover and erosion lead to a decline in soil organic

master and physical properties, and hence in resistance to erosion.

Extension of cultivation onto lands of longer potential and/or high natural hazards. These

are also called 'fragile' or marginal lands. Historically the more fertile, or high-potential,

agricultural lands were the first to be occupied. Population increase has led to the widespread use

of lands of longer potential, those which are less fertile or have greater degradation hazards.

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Overpumping of groundwater. In areas of non-saline ('sweet') groundwater, the technology of

tubewells has led to abstraction of water in excess of natural recharge by rainfall and river

seepage. This has progressively lowered the water table, as in Iran, India and Pakistan.

Q.5. (II) Explain forest degradation. What are the different environmental issues related to

Mega Hydroelectric Projects/ Dams?

FOREST DEGRADATION

According to FAO (2006), Forest Degradation is the changes within the forest which negatively

affect the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply

products and/or services. This takes different forms particularly in open forest formations

deriving mainly from human activities such as overgrazing, overexploitation (for fuel-wood or

timber), repeated fires, or due to attacks by insects, diseases, plant parasites or other natural

sources such as cyclones.

Forest degradation means any negative changes in a forest that damage its productivity; any time

a forest is made worse by

overexploitation (any time it is used too much by farmers or tourists),

logging (deforestation),

logging camps and

logging roads built through the forest.

air pollution,

fires,

insects and

vegetation diseases.

firewood scavenging

animal foraging

pasturing

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industrialisation (factories)

urbanisation (buildings)

The causes of forest degradation have economic, social, ecological, policy and institutional

dimensions, and could be categorized as:

Natural factors:

Physical environmental factors: sloppy topography, fragility, erosion by wind and water,

soil fertility decline, low organic matter and associated physical problems, salinity,

alkalinity, bush fires, etc.

Climatic factors: insufficient and variable total rainfall, unpredictable variation in rainfall

pattern within and between seasons, occurrence of intermittent but serious drought

periods that affect natural and plantation forests, etc.

Biological factors: diseases and pests, e.g. high malaria and tsetse infestations in the

lowlands leading to burning of forests and woodlands and, hence, constraining tree

planting practices; aggressive perennial plants; termite attack, etc.

Anthropogenic factors:

Deforestation – destruction, clearing or incineration of forest and woodland resources for:

(i) expanding crop cultivation spurred by the ever-increasing human population coupled

with several constraints preventing/narrowing possibilities of options for economic

diversification; (ii) charcoal and wood production meant for domestic requirements of

energy (because of shortage or lack of alternative sources of energy), construction

material (because of shortage or lack of alternative sources of construction materials) and

carpentry/household utensils as well as for sale to generate income and support

household livelihood; (iii) urgently required socio-economic/infrastructural development,

namely re-settlement, mining, road construction, etc.

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Overgrazing/grazing by livestock: leading to soil compaction, herbivore damage of

seedlings and hampered natural regeneration.

Unsustainable utilization: improper and unplanned harvesting practices resulting in

wastage of wood (because of very low recovery rates) and damage to the residuals

trees/plants and stands

Introduction of invasive alien species: resulting in the displacement of the native forest

flora in particular and biodiversity in general.

Socio-economic and policy-related factors:

Poverty, population growth and poor economic performance: declining standard of

livelihood of the farming communities and their close dependence on forests and

woodlands have lead to clearing/burning for subsistence farming, cutting of trees/shrubs

for fuelwood and charcoal production (both for consumption and sale), construction

material, overgrazing, burning associated with traditional apiculture, etc.

Inadequate or Absence of land-use classification, land use and forest policies and

legislation: lack or inadequate policies and legislation that lay down guidelines for

development, conservation and sustainable utilization as well as research in forests;

Absence of land and tree tenure/ownership right: because trees have long gestation

period, the decision to plant trees is generally influenced by farmers’ perception of risks

and absence of secured access to land that reduces investment risks.

Lack of pricing and incentive policies: “under pricing” of fuelwood and construction

wood that occurs as a result of “open access” to forest resources in state and communal

land.

Inadequate institutional arrangements/set-up for forestry: low profile given to forestry by

Governments and frequent restructuring of forestry institutions leading to discontinuity

of planned activities and inadequate budget, qualified manpower and infrastructure.

Inadequate or lack of viable forestry development strategies: inadequate participation of

rural population and no demand-driven forest development strategy.

Weak forestry research system: general absence forest research policy that clearly defines

research directions, priorities, strategies, and weak performance that has not been able to

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generate knowledge and technologies useful for forest development, conservation and

utilization.

Insufficient information acquisition, management and dissemination: lack of or

insufficient knowledge about forests, woodlands and their components leading to

inappropriate management and utilization as well as inadequate conservation practices

and lack of or insufficient awareness of the environmental role of forestry by

communities; etc.

Environmental Issues related to Mega Hydro-electric Projects/ Dams:

Ans. Dams are the means to store the water in the river valleys and to release it for hydro-electric

projects, irrigation or other purposes as required. There are various benefits of constructing

dams. Some of the benefits include - year round water supply, use of reservoirs to breed fishes,

multi-river valley projects used for inland water navigation, manage droughts, etc.

Despite various benefits, dam create a number of environmental problems, such as they alter

river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as wetlands and flood plains, and

destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild plant and animal species, particularly is

the case with mega dams. Some of the problems are mentioned below:

Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of areable farmland and forest and

land submergence

Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces agricultural

productivity

Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and ecosystems,

deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture

Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal

people.

Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers

Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property and livelihood

Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal people

Dislodging animal populations

Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities

Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation

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Large landholders on the canals get the lion’s share of water, while poor and small farmers

get less and are seriously affected leading to conflicts. Irrigation to support cash crops like

sugarcane produces an unequal distribution of water.

Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological hazards due

to large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone diseases, such as malaria,

schistosomiasis, filariasis.

PAPER 2013:

Q.1. What is Biodiversity? Discuss its importance. Explain major causes and consequences

of degeneration of biodiversity.

The variety of life on Earth, its biological diversity is commonly referred to as biodiversity.The

number of species of plants, animals, and microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in

these species, the different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs

are all part of a biologically diverse Earth. The existence of biodiversity of species helps in

resisting any extreme disturbances caused to the ecosystems by natural calamities. It is also

essential to deal biodiversity of plants, animals and microorganisms at the levels of terrestrial

fresh water and marine systems. Many pharmaceuticals have traditionally been derived from

plants and animal sources. Extracting medicines from plants are worth over 60 billion dollars a

year (Govt. of India 2006). The total percentage of the people in tropical areas depends upon

traditional medicines. Penicillin and tetracycline and amongst the 3000 antibiotics extracted from

micro-organisms. Guggal is an oleogum which is used in ayurvedic medicines for its anti-

inflammatory, anti-rheumatic and hypocholesteral activity.

Why Is Biodiversity Important?

Beacause it provides following services:-

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Provisioning Services

Products obtained from ecosystems:

diverse food products

timber and fuel

textiles

medicinal products

fresh water

Regulating Services

Benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes:

regulate our climate

control floods

pollinate crops

purify our water

absorbs CO2 gases

stops erosion

Cultural Services

Non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems:

beautiful landscapes

a sense of place

cultural heritage

peace and tranquillity

a healthy environment

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recreation and tourism

Biodiversity matters for a whole variety of reasons: ethically, emotionally, environmentally and

economically. It is at the very foundation of our society and the basis of our economic success

and wellbeing. Living things, the rocks and soils, water and air interact to provide a range of

conditions that favour life on Earth. If the ecological systems that support life on Earth collapse

or radically change, our very existence is threatened. Soil biodiversity alone influences a huge

range of processes and functions vital to ecosystem services. From the harvesting of fish to the

growing of timber, biodiversity provides the source for an enormous range of products we

consume and use. Many pharmaceuticals, as well as soaps, starches, rubber, oils, dyes, and

fabrics, have been derived from wild plant products – and many more are yet to be discovered.

At the larger ecosystem scale, biodiversity plays an enormous role in regulation of the

atmosphere, of the water cycle and the nutrient cycles of the soil. From flood control to soil

conservation, the annual contribution of these services is worth millions.

The Causes and Consequences of Degeneration of Bio-Diversity

Biodiversity contains various species, sub-species, and types. Different species and sub-species

have different types of nature and qualities.

These nature and qualities are exploited by mankind for benefit and progress, e.g., we use some

types of vegetation for food purpose and some types of animals for transportation and some

others for food also. But, this bio-diversity gets degenerating due to some or the other reasons as

narrated below:

a. Over exploitation of a particular type of species gets them reduced to such a lower number to

sustain.

b. Some species of birds are in danger due to hunting and/or loss of their natural habitats.

c. Some animals are also on the verge of extinction because of hunting, loss of their natural

home in forests etc.

d. Some species of animals and birds are used for medicinal and experimental purposes.

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.

e. Some forests are being destroyed for urbanization and with them gets destroyed habitation of

many species of living beings.

f. Climate change also destroys species because some species cannot adapt to such changes.

g. Sometimes some natural calamity or sudden change in geographical set-up may destroy

species.

Consequences:

Such degeneration of bio-diversity creates imbalance in the food-chain. This does not only affect

the nature but also human being and their daily activities. Such changes also destroy “other

species dependent upon the diversity, e.g., oceanic activities change chemistry of oceanic climate

that destroy corals and some other organisms dependent upon them.India is one of the 12

countries with most bio-diverse area. So, naturally its economical, cultural and social activities

are closely related to them

Q 2 (a). What is Agenda 21?

Ans. Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations

with regard to sustainable development. It is a product of the UN Conference on Environment

and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It is an action agenda for the

UN, other multilateral organizations, and individual governments around the world that can be

executed at local, national, and global levels. The "21" in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century.

It has been affirmed and modified at subsequent UN conferences.

It offers policies and programmes to achieve a sustainable balance between consumption,

population and the Earth’s life-supporting capacity. It describes some of technologies and

techniques that need to be developed to provide for human needs while carefully managing

natural resources. Agenda 21 does not shun business. It says that sustainable development is the

way to reverse both poverty and environmental destruction.

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Structure of Agenda 21:

Agenda 21 is a 300-page document divided into 40 chapters that have been grouped into

4 sections:

Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combatting poverty,

especially in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health,

achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.

Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development Includes

atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments,

conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the

management of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes.

Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and

youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and

strengthening the role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.

Section IV: Means of Implementation: implementation includes science, technology

transfer, education, international institutions and financial mechanisms.

Agenda 21 calls on governments to adopt national strategies for sustainable development. These

should be developed with wide participation, including non-government organizations and the

public. Agenda 21 puts most of the responsibility for leading change on national governments,

but says they need to work in a broad series of partnerships with international organizations,

business, regional, state, provincial and local governments, non-governmental and citizens’

groups.

As Agenda 21 says, only a global partnership will ensure that all nations will have a safer and

more prosperous future.

Q. 2(b). Explain the salient features of RIO declaration on Environment and Development.

Ans. The 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development defines the rights of the

people to be involved in the development of their economies, and the responsibilities of human

beings to safeguard the common environment. The declaration builds upon the basic ideas

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concerning the attitudes of individuals and nations towards the environment and development,

first identified at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972).

The Rio Declaration states that long term economic progress is only ensured if it is linked with

the protection of the environment. If this is to be achieved, then nations must establish a new

global partnership involving governments, their people and the key sectors of society. Together

human society must assemble international agreements that protect the global environment with

responsible development.

There are a number of principles to the Rio Declaration. The main features of the declaration are:

People are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.

Development today must not undermine the developmental and environmental needs of

present and future generations.

Nations have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, but without causing

environmental damage beyond their borders.

Nations shall develop international laws to provide compensation for damage that

activities under their control cause to areas beyond their borders.

Nations shall use the precautionary approach to protect the environment. Where there are

threats of serious or irreversible damage, scientific uncertainty shall not be used to

postpone cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an

integral part of the development process, and cannot be considered in isolation from it.

Eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in living standards in different parts of the

world are essential to achieve sustainable development and meet the needs of the

majority of people.

Nations shall cooperate to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the

Earth’s ecosystem. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they

bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their

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societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources

they command.

Nations should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and

consumption, and promote appropriate demographic policies.

Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens.

States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making

environmental information widely available.

Nations shall enact effective environmental laws, and develop national law regarding

liability for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. Where they have

authority, nations shall assess the environmental impact of proposed activities that are

likely to have a significant adverse impact.

Nations should cooperate to promote an open international economic system that will

lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries. Environmental

policies should not be used as an unjustifiable means of restricting international trade.

The polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution.

Nations shall warn one another of natural disasters or activities that may have harmful

trans-boundary impacts.

Sustainable development requires better scientific understanding of the problems.

Nations should share knowledge and innovative technologies to achieve the goal of

sustainability.

The full participation of women is essential to achieve sustainable development. The

creativity, ideals and courage of youth and the knowledge of indigenous people are

needed too. Nations should recognize and support the identity, culture and interests of

indigenous people.

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Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development, and Nations shall respect

international laws protecting environment in times of armed conflict, and shall cooperate

in their further establishment.

Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible.

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