7mpa - management of human resources -motivation
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M ANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
RESOURCESBMG2083/4: Management Principles &
Applications – ILO1b - MOTIVATION
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PRESENTATION FORMAT
Herzberg‟s Two Factor Theory
McClelland‟s Achievement Motivation Theory
Alderfer‟s ERG Theory
Douglas McGregor- Theory X and Theory Y
Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Content Theories
Behavior
Motivation Defined
Introduction
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PRESENTATION FORMAT
Content theory of motivation
Process Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory of Motivation
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
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Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
MOTIVATION
“If you want to build a ship,
don‟t drum up the men to go to the forest
to gather wood, saw it, and nail the planks together.
Instead, teach them the desire for the sea.”
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WHAT IS MOTIVATION
Ability Opportunity
Performance
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WHAT IS MOTIVATION
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WHAT IS MOTIVATION
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MOTIVATION DEFINED
Derived from the Latin term motivus (a moving cause).Defined as:
“forces acting either on or within a person to initiate behavior”.
Encyclopedia Britannica
“Motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimesdescribed as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or
energize behavior and give it direction”.
Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (Motivation & Emotion 1981)
“The arousal, direction, & persistence of behavior”.
Franken, R. (Human Motivation 1994)
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WHAT IS BEHAVIOR
Person•Abilities•Skills•Personality•Perception•Attitudes•
Values•Ethics
Environment•Organization
•Work group•Job
•Personal life
Behavior
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MOTIVATION: A D YNAMIC PROCESS
Drives:
goal-directedtendenciesbased on achange
in an organism'sbiological state.
Needs:
Internal state ofdisequilibrium/ deficiencywhich
has the capacityto energize/ trigger abehavioral response.
Tension:
Physical orphysiological
Behavior
attempt to reduce tension
Needs fulfilled Needs Unfulfilled
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MOTIVATION THEORY
Accounts For Behavior By Making Logical Conclusions
And Assumptions
Seeks To Explain How These Are Affected By The Work
People Accomplish And The Situation In Which They
Do It
Types
•Content Theory
•Process Theory
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CONTENT THEORY
Asks What Motivates People
Explains Motivation In Terms Of Needs
Specify A Variety Of Needs
In Some Cases Dynamic Shifts Of Needs
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CONTENT THEORY
Often Referred To As “Needs Theories”
Underlie The Strength And Character Of Our Desires Or
Wants
Two Types
Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs Model
McClelland‟s Needs Model
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A BRAHAM M ASLOW
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY 1954
Motivation research has long considered human motivesand needs. However, isolating people's motivational needscan be a difficult process because most people are notexplicitly aware of what their motives are.
In attempting to understand employee motivation, Abraham Maslow proposed Hierarchy of Needs based onthe assumption that people are motivated by a series of five universal needs. These needs are raked, according tothe order in which they influence human behavior, in
hierarchical fashion.
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A BRAHAM M ASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY 1954
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DOUGLAS MCGREGOR
THEORY X AND THEORY Y
THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE 1960
Suggested that there were two different and opposingviews relating to peoples‟ behaviour at work. These viewshave become known as Theory X and Theory Y .
Theory X:
people generally dislike work and therefore need to becoerced into working effectively.
most people dislike taking responsibility and generallylike to carry out tasks that are clearly defined for them.
people do not like change and are resistant to it.
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DOUGLAS MCGREGOR
THEORY X AND THEORY Y
Theory Y:
to people work is as natural as play or rest.
people who are committed to goals can achieve them
through their own self-direction without the need for
coercion or supervision.
most people like to be in control of their own actions and
are naturally creative in solving problems without having
to be told.
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DOUGLAS MCGREGOR
THEORY X AND THEORY Y (CONTD.)
Therefore a managers who worked from Theory X are
likely to control, make decisions for people who work for
them and closely monitor them, whilst mangers who
operated from Theory Y would encourage and help their
staff to set their own goals and targets.
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A LDERFER‟S ERG THEORY
Clayton Alderfer reworked Maslow's Need Hierarchy to
align it more closely with empirical research. Alderfer's
theory is called the ERG theory Existence, Relatedness,
and Growth.
Existence refers to our concern with basic materialexistence requirements; what Maslow called physiological
and safety needs.
Relatedness refers to the desire we have for maintaining
interpersonal relationships; similar to Maslow'ssocial/love need.
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A LDERFER‟S ERG THEORY (CONTD.)
Growth refers to desire for personal development; the
intrinsic component of Maslow's esteem need, and self-
actualization.
Alderfer's ERG theory differs from Maslow‟s Need
Hierarchy insofar as ERG theory demonstrates:
that more than one need may be operative at the same
time.
does not assume a rigid hierarchy where a lower need
must be substantially satisfied before one can move on.
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A LDERFER‟S ERG THEORY (CONTD.)
deals with frustration-regression. That is, if a higher-order
need is frustrated, an individual then seeks to increase the
satisfaction of a lower-order need.
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MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY
David McClelland furthered the idea of Abraham
Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs. McClelland's experimental
work identified sets of motivators present to varying
degrees in different people. He proposed that these needs
were socially acquired or learned, i.e. the extent to whichthese motivators are present varies from person to
person, and depends on the individual and his or her
background.
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MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
McClelland's experiment:- Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT)
consisted of showing individuals a series of pictures and
asking them to give brief descriptions of what was
happening in the pictures.
The responses were analyzed in terms of the presence or
absence of certain themes.
The themes McClelland and his associates were looking
for revolved around the following motivators:achievement, affiliation and power.
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MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
According to David McClelland, regardless of culture orgender, people are driven by three motives:
achievement
affiliation
power (influence) Since McClelland's first experiments, over 1,000 studies
relevant to achievement motivation have been conducted.These studies strongly support the theory.
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MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
Achievement (nAch)
The need for achievement is characterized by
the wish to take responsibility for finding solutions to
problems
master complex tasks
set goals
get feedback on level of success
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MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
Affiliation (nAff)
The need for affiliation is characterized by
desire to belong
an enjoyment of teamwork
a concern about interpersonal relationships
a need reduce uncertainty.
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MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
Power (nP)The need for power is characterized by
drive to control and influence others
need to win arguments
need to persuade and prevail.
According to McClelland, the presence of these motivesor drives in an individual indicates a predisposition tobehave in certain ways. Recognizing which need is
dominant in any particular individual affects the way inwhich that person can be motivated.
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MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
High achievement motivationSpecifically, achievement motivation is defined as aconcern for achieving excellence through individualefforts. Such individuals:
set challenging goals for themselves assume personal responsibility for goal accomplishment
are highly persistent in the pursuit of these goals
take calculated risks to achieve the goals
actively collect and use information for purposes of feedback.
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High achievement motivated managers:
are also strongly inclined to be personally involved in
performing their organizational tasks.
However, they may also be reluctant to delegate authority and
responsibility. Thus, high achievement motivation may be expected to result
in poor performance of high- level executives in large
organizations.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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Achievement motivation positively related to theleadership of small task-oriented groups and small
entrepreneurial firms and negatively related to the
effectiveness of high- level managers in complex
organizations or in political situations.In areas of management where high levels of delegation
may be required, high achievement motivated
individuals may be unable to give up their personal
involvement with the task.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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High power motivation:
Power motivation is defined as the concern for acquiring
status and having an impact on others.
McClelland used power motivation as a measure of social
influence behaviors.
Since most management activities require the use of
social influence behaviours and since power motivation
measures an individual's desire to influence, the power
motive is important for leadership effectiveness.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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McClelland proposed the Leader Motive Profile Theory(LMP theory) in which he argued that in high power
motivation, greater than the affiliation motive, is
predictive of leader effectiveness.
Highly power-motivated individuals obtain greatsatisfaction from the exercise of influence.
Consequently, their interest in the exercise of leadership
is sustained.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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High power motivation is predicted to result in effectivemanagerial performance in middle and high-level
positions.
However, unless constrained in some manner, somepower-motivated managers may also be predicted to
exercise power in an aggressive manner for self-
aggrandizing purposes, to the detriment of their
organizations.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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High affiliation motivation Affiliative motivation is defined as a non-conscious
concern for establishing, maintaining, and restoringclose personal relationships with others.
Individuals with high affiliative motivation tend to benon-assertive, submissive, and dependent on others.
Such managers are expected to manage on the basis of personal relationships with subordinates. This mayresult in them showing favouritism toward some.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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As managers, highly affiliative individuals are predictedto be reluctant to monitor the behaviour of subordinates,
give negative feedback to others, or discipline their
subordinates.
However, when the power motive is higher than the
affiliative motive, individuals are disinclined to engage in
dysfunctional management behaviors such as
submissiveness, reluctance to monitor anddiscipline subordinates, and favouritism.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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Adults are assumed to possess all three motivations toone degree or another, however, one of the motives isusually dominant. Managers need to identify whatmotivates others and to create appropriately motivatingconditions for them.
People with achievement motives are motivated bystandards of excellence, delineated roles andresponsibilities and concrete, timely feedback.
Those with affiliation motives are motivated when theycan accomplish things with people they know and trust.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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And the power motive is activated when people are
allowed to have an impact, impress those in power, or
beat competitors.
MCCLELLAND‟S A CHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
THEORY (CONTD.)
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HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY
WORK & THE N ATURE OF M AN 1966
Herzberg's Two Factor Theory, also known as theMotivation-Hygiene Theory, was derived from a study
designed to test the concept that people have two sets
of needs:
their needs as animals to avoid pain (avoidance of unpleasantness)
their needs as humans to grow psychologically
(personal growth)
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HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY (CONTD.)
Herzberg's study consisted of a series of interviews thatsought to elicit responses to the questions:
Recall a time when you felt exceptionally good about your job.
Why did you feel that way about the job? Did this feelingaffect your job performance in any way? Did this feeling havean impact on your personal relationships or your well- being?
Recall a time on the job that resulted in negative feelings?Describe the sequence of events that resulted in thesenegative feelings.
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HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY (CONTD.)
It appeared, from the research, that the things makingpeople happy on the job and those making them unhappy
had two separate themes.
Five factors stood out as strong determiners of job
satisfaction: achievement
Recognition (for achievement)
work itself
responsibility advancement
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HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY (CONTD.)
The determinants of job dissatisfaction were found to be:
company policy
administrative policies
supervision
salary
interpersonal relations
working conditions
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HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY (CONTD.)
The theme of the satisfiers (motivators) is one having todo with the relationship the employee has with his/ her
job; job content.
The theme of the dissatisfiers (hygiene or maintenance
factors) is related to the environment or context of the job.
Motivators led to job satisfaction because of a need for
growth and self actualization, and hygiene factors led to job dissatisfaction because of a need to avoid
unpleasantness.
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HERZBERG‟S TWO F ACTOR THEORY (CONTD.)
By providing motivators and removing hygiene,management can facilitate the growth of employees.
This is essential to both the individual and the
organization. Growth makes the employee morevaluable to the organization because of his/her ability to
perform higher order duties.
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“...management cannot really motivate employees, it
can only create the environment in which the
employees motivate themselves. If you want people to
do a good job for you, then you must give them a good
job to do.”
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WHAT ARE THE PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION?
Process theories of motivation …
How people make choices to work hard or not.
Choices are based on:
Individual preferences.
Available rewards. Possible work outcomes.
Types of process theories:
Equity theory.
Expectancy theory. Goal-setting theory.
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EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
The distribution of rewards in organizations has importantbehavioural consequences.
Employees are rarely passive observers of the events that
occur around them at the workplace. They are observers and,perhaps more importantly, they evaluate the events they
observe.
It will be useful to use Exchange Theory to try to understandthese evaluative processes.
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Exchange Theories are based on two assumptionsabout human behavior.
There is an assumed similarity between the process
through which individual evaluate their socialrelationships and their economic transactions in themarket.
Contributions to the social relationship may be
perceived as investments for which people expect somereturn (it is assumed that people do not enter intosocial relationships without some expectation that thetime and resources they commit to them will besomehow be returned).
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)
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Perception: Inputs Compared with Outputs
The major components of exchange relationships are
inputs and outcomes.
Inputs, like investments, are what a person puts into
the relationship.
Outcomes are the things that result from the exchange.The relative importance of the inputs and outputs is a
matter of Perception.
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)
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Equity: the Input/ Output Ratio
Equity is said to exist whenever the ratio of my
outcomes to inputs is equal to the ratio of the other
person's outcomes and inputs.
Employees may exhibit satisfaction on a job that
demands a great deal and for which they receive very
little if, and only if, their co-workers are in similar
positions.
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)
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Equity theory (J. Stacey Adams, 1965) suggests that
individuals evaluate the ratio of their inputs to
outcomes for a given job in relation to other, referent
employees.
Inequity is assumed or perceived to exist if the ratios
are not equal. As a result of the tension thus created
by this inequity, employees are motivated to restore
equity.
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)
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Equity Theory:
perceived inequity creates tension in the individual.
the amount of tension is proportional to the
magnitude of the perceived inequity
the tension created in the individual will motivate
him or her to reduce it
the strength of the motivation to reduce inequity is
proportional to the perceived inequity
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)
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EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)
Equity theory suggests that over rewarded individuals
might be motivated to increase their performance and
under rewarded individuals to decrease their performance
in an effort to restore equity.
The concept of equity is most often interpreted as a
positive association between an employee's effort on the
job and the pay he/ she receives. Whoever contributes
more is believed to be entitled to more of the outputs. Thismay be referred to as the equity norm.
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GOAL-SETTING THEORY
Developed by Edwin Locke.
Properly set and well-managed task goals can be
highly motivating.
Motivational effects of task goals: Provide direction to people in their work.
Clarify performance expectations.
Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.
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EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
In recent years, probably the most popular motivationaltheory has been the Expectancy Theory (also known asthe Valence-Instrumentality- Expectancy Theory).
Although there are a number of theories found with thisgeneral title, they all have their roots in Victor Vroom's
1964 work on motivation.
Assumption
Vroom's theory assumes that behaviour results from
conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it isto maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
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Key Elements: Expectancy (E)
Instrumentality (I)
Valence (V)
EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
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SUMMARY
To summarize, individuals in social interactions
behave in a manner similar to that posited for
the „economic man‟ of classical economics. The
assumption is that individuals are motivated to
maximize their rewards and minimize their costs.
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