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THE COMMUNITY QUESTION* Intimate Ties in East York
Barry Wellman
Research Paper No. 90
*This is a revised version of Research Paper No. 84 - "URBAN CONNECTIONS".
Centre for Urban and Co11111unity Studies and
Department of Sociology University of Toronto
August 1977
Abstract
Three approaches to the Community Question are evaluated: the
Lost, Saved and Transformed arguments. Network analysis is proposed
as a perspective on the Community Question, for by focusing on
linkages, it avoids the a priori confinement of analysis to
solidary units. Data are presented about the structure and use of
"intimate" networks of 845 adult residents of the Borough of East
York, Toronto. The data provide broad support for the Community
Transformed argument, but only as modified by some portions of the
Saved and Lost arguments.
THE COMMUNITY QUESTION
The Community Question has been one of the continuing focal
concerns of sociology. It is the question of how macroscopic changes
in the division of labor in industrialized, bureaucratized social
systems have affected the structure and use of communal ties.
The Community Question, in its many guises, has set the agenda
for much of sociology: urban, kinship and industrial analyses, in
particular. Within the general domain of the Community Question,
there have been numerous specific structural inquiries: e.g. into
the replacement of informal multi-stranded linkages by more specia
lized, more formal ties (Wirth 1938; Slater 1970; Braverman, 1974);
into the "stripping away" of many of the component strands of extended
family (Litwak 1960; Shorter 1973) and neighborhood (Keller 1968;
Webber 1963) relations; into the organization of communal ties as
sparsely-knit, narrowly-defined, ramified networks rather than as
densely-knit, multistranded, tightly-bounded solidarities (F. Katz
1966; Craven and Wellman 1973).
The Community Question has, in particular, been a principal
concern of urban sociology, from Tennies (1887), Sirnrnel (1902-1903)
and Park (1925) to Warren (1972), Hunter (1975) and Fischer (1976).
However, in much urban sociological analysis, the basic structural
concern of the Community Question has been obscured by its being
confounded with two other issues: Firstly, a continuing overarching
sociological concern with normative integration and consensus has
caused the confounding of structural questions with questions about
the conditions under which solidary communal sentiments could be
maintained. Secondly, urban sociology's particular concern with
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spatial distributions has meant a preoccupation with locating communal
ties within spatially proximate (local) linkages. As a result of
these two confounding concerns, the basic structural Corrununity
Question has, in practice, tended to be confined to the search for
local solidarities.
In this paper we propose a re-examination of the Corrununity
Question (untangled from its confounding questions) from a network
analytic perspective. (It is our implicit argument that the proper
concern of urban sociologists is that of social structure and social
linkages, with questions of spatial distribution and social senti
ments holding important -- but secondary -- positions.) Using data
from our study of urban "intimate" networks in Toronto, we shall
argue that contemporary communal ties are organized into ramified,
differentiated networks and not into normative solidarities. We
shall further argue that allegations of the contemporary "loss of
community" (see the discussion in Hunter 1975) have been caused,
for the most part, by the search for such communal ties in a context
which the current structural situation has to a great extent tran
scended traditional solidarities.
Community: Lost, Saved, Transformed
In confronting the Community Question, urban sociologists have
been particularly concerned with analyzing the effects of four con
textual correlates of the industrial bureaucratic transformation
upon urban interpersonal linkages and sentiments:
(1) the increased size of cities, with a consequent increase
in the population potential for more diverse interest groups;
(2) the increased density of interactions among parts of the
population (even where spatial density is decreasing), with the
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ensuing complexities of organizational and ecological sorting;2
(3) the increased heterogeneity of persons with whom city-
dwellers come into contact under conditions of heightened mobility;
(4) the proliferation of cheap, efficient and dispersed tran-
sportation and communication facilities, increasing the ease with
which urbanites can overcome distances and maintain contact with
others. As a consequence, the increased scale of the contemporary
city is accessible, the increased velocity of transaction facilitates
interactional density, and links to multiple social circles are
more readily maintained (see Deutsch 1961; F. Katz 1966; Park 1925b;
Meier 1968; Webber 1968).
The Community Lost Argument: The Community Lost argument
holds many urban phenomena to be concrete and concentrated manifes-
tations of contemporary Western industrial bureaucratic societies.
I't argues that the restructured division of labor has attenuated
l 'd 1 t d . t 3 so i ary communa s ructures an sentimen s. The changes in the
urban context are deemed to have created single-stranded relation-
ships, sparsely-knit communal systems, membership in discrete mul-
tiple social circles, and a greater reliance by the individual and
the social system on indirect ties for connectivity.
Several Community Lost scholars have been somewhat optimistic
about the consequences of this change in community structure. Georg
Simmel argued that the urbanite, freed from a single encapsulating
solidarity had gained "freedom of movement ••. (and) a specific
individuality to which the division of labor in the enlarged group
gives both occasion and necessity ..• " (1902-19 03; 417) • Robert
Park's work (e.g. 1925a) vibrates with a sense of excitement about
the possibilities for individual action in the hurly-burly of the
city (see also Cox 1966).
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However, most scholars making the Lost argument have seen the
structural changes as profoundly disorganizing. The purported
socially disorganizing effects of attenuated community solidarities
have been prevalent in analyses of migration, poverty, crime and
collective violence (see the critical review in Feagin 1973). There
is a continuing tradition from Jeffersonian anti-urbanism to George
Grant's Toryism (1969) and movies such as "Death Wish" (1974) . 4
Louis Wirth, writing after two decades of "Chicago school" urban
sociology summarized the Lost argument well:
The bonds of kinship, of neighbo:bliness, a:nd the sen
timents arising out of living together for generations under
a common folk tradition are likely to be absent, or at
best, relatively weak in an aggregate the members of which
have such diverse origins and backgrounds. Under such
circumstances competition and formal control mechanisms
furnish the substitutes for the bonds of solidarity that
are relied upon to hold a folk society together ..• The
city is characterized by secondary rather than primary
contacts. The contacts of the city may indeed be face to
face, but they are nevertheless impersonal, transitory and
segmental. (19381 11-12)
Thus, the very prevalence of non-local primary ties is held to be
qualitatively different--segmental and instrumental (see Mostacci
Calzavara 's critique 1976). Help in coping with contingencies
can rarely be gained informally through communal ties; urbanites
are now bound to the city by webs of secondary affilitations.
Proponents of the Lost argument have wrestled with the
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Community Question for many years. They have sharpened our awareness
of the ways in which the transformed division of labor could strongly
affect the nature of traditional solidarities. Yet, because of an
orientation towards seeing communal ties as naturally occurring
in densely-knit, tightly-bounded, multistranded solidarities, most
of these analysts did not fully acknowledge that this same trans
formation might also make more viable another form of communal
structure: more sparsely-knit, loosely-bounded, with fewer strands
in most relationships.
The Community Saved Argument: Many urban researchers, dismayed
by the Community Lost argument, have brought forth evidence to
support the Community Saved argument: that important multistranded,
bounded, help-giving, often densely-knit communal relations
still flourish in many neighborhood and kinship solidarities (see
the reviews in Keller 1968; Wellman and Whitaker 1974; Fischer 1976).
In contrast to the Lost argument's analytic concentration on aggre
gated individual social behavior, the Saved argument has been very
much concerned with analyzing communal structures.
Multitudes of urban scholars have presented carefully-docu
mented community studies, using systematic survey and field-work
techniques, to make the Community Saved argument. Neighborhood and
kinship ties have been shown to be continuing important sources of
assistance in mediating with bureaucratic structures and in coping
with contingencies (e.g. Liebow 1967; Young and Willmott 1957;
Gans 1962; 1967) 5 . Although the transformation of the urban context
had clearly fostered membership in a multiplicity of social circles
(Greer, 1962), the Saved argument maintained that single-stranded
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links have a tendency to become multi-stranded, and that dense,
bounded interconnections often develop in initially sparse networks,
given the opportunities for communal interactions. By the early
nineteen-sixties the Saved argument had become the new orthodoxy,
with the publication of such works as Ganst {1962) study of an
"urban village," Greer's (1962) synthesis of post-war survey research,
and Jacobs' (1961) assertion of the vitality of dense, diverse
central cities.
While the Community Lost argument's assertion of urban social
disorganization has been rebutted, theoretically and empirically,
this work has been accomplished by documenting the persistence of
bounded communal solidarities. While some of the most interesting
Community Saved arguments (e.g. Janowitz 1952; Greer 1962; Suttles
1972; Hunter 1975) have been quite concerned with external linkages,
these linkages have been seen as radiating outward from a bounded
communal base -- often a small-scale territory or "neighborhood."
Such analyses, while properly rejecting the conclusion of the
Lost argument, have unfortunately also not sufficiently considered
its useful starting point: that the new division of labor may have
important effects on the nature of communal ties. Although Saved
scholars have clearly demonstrated that communal solidarities still
exist, because they have looked only for -- and at -- such solidari
ties, it has not been possible to assess their positions within
overall networks of corrununal ties. 6 Weaker, more sparsely-knit,
less-bounded ties are all apt to be underrepresented in the Commu
nity Saved studies (see the discussion in Granovetter 1973).
Furthermore, the basic Community Question -- dealing with the
structure and use of communal ties -- has been confounded in both
the Lost and Saved arguments with concerns about the persistence of
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solidary sentiments and territorial cohesiveness. This is because
both arguments take as their starting points extrinsic mappings of
local area boundaries and then proceed to enquire into the extent
of communal interaction and sentiment within these boundaries.
The two arguments thus assume, a priori, that a significant portion
of an urbanite's communal relations are organized by locality {see
the critique in Katz 1966). This territorial perspective, searching
for answers to the Community Question only within bounded population
aggregates, is especially sensitive to the evaluation of community
solidarity in terms of shared values {see the discussion in Fried
mann 1974; Howard 1974). Consequently, when there is an observed
dearth of locally-organized interaction and solidary feeling, both
the Lost and the Saved arguments can too easily lead to assertions
of the breakdown of community.
The Community Transformed Argument: We have seen that the
Community Lost argument emphasized the impact of a changed industrial
bureaucratic division of labor upon the nature of communal ties,
and that the Community Saved argument then proceeded to demonstrate
the continuing existence of such primary ties, organized in local
communities and kinship groups.
The Community Transformed argument has developed out of the
analytic juxtaposition of these two formulations. It argues that:
(a) the separation of residence, workplace and kinship groups
involves urbanites in multiple social circles with weak solidary
attachments;
(b) cheap, effective transportation and communication facilities
lower spatial costs of contact and have made the maintenance of
communal ties much less dependent on local-area proximity;
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(c} the scale, density and diversity of the city, in combination
with widespread facilities for interaction, create the possibility
for access to loosely-bounded multiple social circles;
(d) the dispersion of communal ties and the heterogeneity of
the city make it unlikely that most of those with whom an urbanite
is linked will be densely-knit in potentially-solidary communities.
The Transformed argument thus maintains that communal ties
continue to be prevalent and important, as ways of accessing scarce
resources, enforcing trust (e.g. Cohen 1969), and providing socia
bility (cf. Leyton 1974). Such informal ties are less multistranded
than those in which kinship, residence and work are combined. For
example, some may be purely sociable while help may flow through
others to deal with various contingencies. However, there is a
tendency over time for any given tie to become more multistranded
as new aspects of the informal relationship develop -- e.g. friends
getting each other jobs, or workmates becoming friends (Craven and
Wellman 1973).
The argument suggests that these communal ties will tend to
be dispersed among multiple social circles -- with little inter
connectivity -- rather than being bound up within a single densely
knit solidarity. These social circles, by their very nature, are
not "institutionally complete" (Breton 1964) tightly-bounded
"urban villages," but sparsely-knit, ramifying structures, providing
indirect connection to additional resources. Thus, the informal
provision of help to an urbanite is not a matter of obligations due
to a member of a solidarity. Rather, it is dependent upon the
dyadic quality of particular communal ties, the ability of network
members to provide indirect connection to additional resources, and
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the extent to which additional members of a social circle can be
mobilized to create normative expectations for assistance.
Some formulations of this Transformed argument are analytically
dependent on Western industrial technology, from freeways (e.g.
Webber 1963) to computer conferences (e.g. Hiltz and Turoff, forth-
coming), as a means of reducing the social costs of spatial distances
to virtually zero. Yet, recent research in the Third World suggests
that important communal ties can be maintained over long distances,
using much less developed technology, as long as the ties are
structurally-based upon kinship systems or common local origins.7
This ses the interesting possibility for future research of
finding Community Transformed patterns prevalent in pre-industrial
Europe.
The Community Transformed argument, prefigured by Simmel
(1902-1903 417ff) and Park (192:b,65ff), has first been systematically
developed and tested in this decade. In urban sociology, its take
off point has been the recent work of the Community Saved argument,
which has given important analytic attention to urbanites'
limited involvement in their local communities and their external
linkages beyond local community boundaries. 8 Going one step further,
the Community Transformed argument has abandoned the local area as
the starting point for analyzing the Community Question and looked
directly at the social and spatial structure of communal ties.
Conceptualizing the interpersonal life of the city-dweller as
the central node linking together complex network structures has led
to quite different analytic concerns than conceptualizing it as a
membership in a discrete solidarity. Preliminary analyses of the
Transformed argument have studied the structure and use of multiple
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social circles (Brieger 1974; Bell and Newby 1976; Burt 1977; Craven
and Wellman 1973; Kadushin 1966; Katz 1966; Shulman 1972, 1976),
the use of communal ties to access resources (Lee 1969; Granovetter
1974; Foote 1974), and connectivity between social circles (Grano
vetter 1973; Galaskiewicz and Marsden 1977; Warren 1972; Turk 1977) 9 .
Yet, a number of important questions are still posed for the
Community Transformed argument. First, are there no costs to main
taining ties over distances and no advantages to the quick physical
accessibility afforded by proximity? Second, are there structural
pressures towards the formation of solidarities, as "friends of
friends" (Boissevain 1973) become friends of each other, as those
increasingly-dense clusters tend to interact more with each other
and less across network boundaries, and as network members develop
new strands to their relationships? Third, are there structural
circumstances -- e.g. lack of physical mobility, lack of material
resources, cultural differences -- which foster the maintenance
of "urban village" solidarities? Fourth, to what extent do con
tinuing kinship and local systems structure informal social relations?
Fifth, is the maintenance of solidary communal sentiments dependent
upon a single unambiguous attachment to a solidary communal structure?
Posing these questions is not to vitiate the Community Trans
formed argument, but to acknowledge that the reformulation of the
Community Question in network analytic terms has not only performed
a useful critique of the solidary assumptions of the Lost and
Saved arguments, it has also provided us with a new structural
perspective towards evaluating some of the continuing concerns of
all three arguments in dealing with the Community Question.
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Analyzing the Community Question
Our current research attempts to analyze the Community Question
from a network perspective. Although often thought of as a col-
lection of techniques, network analysis is basically a perspective
which focuses on relations between individuals and collectivities.
It gives analytic attention to (a) social structural properties
and not to aggregates of individual units; {b) the allocation of
scarce resources through concrete systems of power, dependency and
coordination; {c) complex network structures as well as dyadic ties;
(d) questions of network boundaries, clusters and cross-linkages;
(e) complex structures and not simple hierarchies of power and
dependency.
The utility of the network perspective for analyzing the
Community Question is that it does not take as its starting-point
putative solidarities -- local or kin -- nor does it seek primarily
to find and explain the persistence of solidary sentiments. Rather,
it is principally concerned with specified structures of relation
ships and flows of activities. 10 By looking directly at linkages
rather than at solidarities, the network perspective enables us to
focus on the basic structural issues posed by the three Community
Question arguments. We have reviewed above the different formulations
of the three arguments in dealing with the Community Question; these
are summarized in testable form in Figure 1.
Figure 1 about here
The Toronto Research: Our own research-into urban networks has been
primarily survey-based , supplemented by field work. At present,
the survey data consist of a 1968 random-sample survey of 845
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adults (18 and over) residing in the Toronto Borough of East York,
a one-year follow-up survey of a sub-sample (N=l98) of the original
respondents conducted by Norman Shulman (1972; 1976) and a "snow
ball" sample survey (also by Shulman) of 71 intimate networks
identified in the second survey. 11
A principal concern of this work has been .an inquiry into the
nature of ties to the 3930 intimates of the respondents. Intimates
were operationally defined in the survey as "the persons outside
your home that you feel closest to." Detailed information was
obtained about the six closest intimates: their degree of closeness
with the respondent, their gender and socioeconomic status, the
basis of their relationship (e.g. mother, neighbor), where they
live, how often they are in contact (and by what means), and the
kinds of assistance available in the relations~p. We sought infor
mation about the structure of these small egocentric intimate net
works by inquiring into the interconnecting close ties among the
sets of persons named.
The Borough of East York U971 pop.=104,645), the site of our
research, is an upper working-class/lower middle-class, predominantly
British-Canadian inner suburb of Metropolitan Toronto. It has the
reputation of being one of the most internally solidary areas of
Toronto, and as such, it is a particularly interesting site at which
to evaluate the claims of the Community Transformed argument. 12
In the next three sections of this paper, we present our
findings and evaluate the three Community Question arguments. This
paper treats the sample as a whole, dealing with overall patterns
of communal ties; future work will present analyses of the network
ties of various subgroups (see Wellman, Shulman, Wayne and Crump
forthcoming) .
We realize that our work, at best, can only deal with part of
the Community Question. This paper focuses only on strong intimate
ties and not on the whole range of communal attachments, and it
has no information on the dynamics of using such ties or on solidary
sentiments. Despite its lacunae, it does speak to much of the
Community Question; we trust that it will be a stimulus to further
research from the network perspective.
The Social Bases of Intimacy
(1) Almost all East Yorkers have some close intimate ties.
(supports Community SAVED, TRANSFORMED arguments)
(2) Most East Yorkers have intimate ties with both kin and
friends, but tend to "specialize" in one type of relationship
{TRANSFORMED)
(3) The strongest intimate ties tend to be with members of
the immediate family -- children, parents and siblings. The weakest
intimate ties tend to be with other kinds of relatives, neighbors
and coworkers. (SAVED)
Relational Bases: The data on the relational bases of intimacy
support some aspects of both the Community Saved and the Community
Transformed arguments. Almost all (98%) of the East Yorkers
report having at least one intimate tie; the majority (61%) of
them report having five or more of such strong ties. The prevalence
of these intimate ties is clearly at variance with the Community
Lost's argument of urban social disorganization.
The data show that most East Yorkers have intimate ties with
both kin and friends, in accordance with the Transformed argument
(see also Laumann 1973; Verbrugge 1977). For the sample taken as
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a whole, about half of all intimate ties are with kin and about
half are with unrelated individuals (predominantly "friends"). (See
Table 1.) However, the strongest intimate ties (in terms of respon
dents' relative strength of closeness to imtimates) are usually
with immediate kin (children, parents and siblings) -- a traditional
basis for solidary ties. Furthermore, when neighbors and coworkers
are considered as intimates at all, the ties are likely to be
comparatively weak (see Table 1).
Table 1 about here
Most of the East Yorkers "specialize" in one type of intimate
relationship -- kin or friend -- while also maintaining one or two
of other types of intimate connection. A sizable minority are
"superspecialists": 19% name only kin and 18% name only nonkin.
Kin and nonkin intimates tend to be in different clusters of their
intimate networks and do not have intimate ties with each other.
All of East Yorker 1 s intimates, though, are indirectly tied to
each other through the respondent; many may also have non-intimate
direct connections with one another.
The multiple bases of the intimate relationships , and the
lack of direct connections between relationally-different intimates,
are in accord with the Transformed argument. Yet, multiplicity
does not mean equality. Most East Yorkers are closer with kin
than with unrelated intimates, and the greater portion of their
intimate ties tends to be bound up in one type of relationship.
Thus our data are in accordance with the persistence of kinship
ties that has been well-documented in the Community Saved argument
{e.g. Litwak 1960; Adams 1968; Gordon 1977). However, in treating
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kinship systems as separate analytic entities, such Saved arguments
have underplayed the manifest multiplicity of contemporary urban
intimate networks. We believe that our data suggests a synthesis
with the Transformed argument: the variety of intimate ties poten-
tially provides access to a more diverse array of resources, while
especially heavy involvement with kin retains connection to a some-
what solidary system. The Lost argument, foreseeing the attenuation
of intimate ties, is clearly not as tenable and will not be given
further consideration in detail.
Spatial Bases:
(4) Most intimate ties are maintained within the metropolitan
area, but they are not local. The metropolitan area thus bounds
the effective field of contact more than does the neighborhood.
(TRANSFORMED)
(5) Intimate ties with kin tend to be maintained over greater
distances (SAVED).
(6) Contacts with intimates tend to be more frequently made
by telephone than in-person. (TRANSFORMED)
(7) The telephone acts as a complement to in-person contact --
and not as a substitute -- for all but the most spatially distant
and the most spatially close connections. In the former case, a
very high proportion of all contact is by telephone; in the latter
case, almost none. (partial SAVED/partial TRANSFORMED).
(8) Neighboring ties are prevalent, but not intimate (partial
SAVED/partial TRANSFORMED) •
Rather than strict spatial bounds to intimacy, there is a
gradient, with the maintenace of such ties being rarer with greater
distance. The majority of East Yorkers' intimates live within
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Metropolitan Toronto but only a small minority (13%) live in the
same neighborhoods as their respondents (Table 2). One-quarter Jf
the intimates live outside of Metropolitan Toronto -- some as far
away as Vancouver and New Delhi.
Table 2 about here
The distances at which intimate links are maintained varies
markedly with the relational basis of the tie. Distant ties are
much more likely to be with kinfolk than with friends. Thirty-four
percent of intimate kin live outside of Metro Toronto, more than
twice the percentage of unrelated intimates (Table 2). Furthermore,
ties with kin are the most actively maintained distant intimate
ties, with a much higher frequency of in-person and telephone
interaction.
The wide spatial expanse of intimate networks is facilitated
by extensive use of the telephone. Indeed, telephone contact is
usually more frequent than is in-person contact (Table 3) . The
two modes of communication are generally complementary and not
substitutive; it is quite rare for there to be a good deal of tele
phone conversation between intimates without there also being
frequent in-person meetings. (One exception is that intimates living
on the same block rely predominantly on in-person contact.) Perhaps,
the greater breadth of communication available through in-person
meetings provides necessary information to reaffirm, reinforce and
readjust relationships routinely maintained by telephone (cf. Goffman
1971). We find no instances where an intimate tie is being solely
sustained by telecommunications.
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Table 3 about here
Distant ties: Contemporary transportation and communication faci
lities have lessened, but not eliminated, the constraints of dis
tance. Intimates who live far from East York tend to have a much
different relationship, having much less frequent telephone and
in-person contact. 13 The infrequent contact ratifies the tie, and
a potential is retained for more intensive use when needed. The
minority of those distant intimates who do interact frequently,
tend to maintain contact by telephone (see Table 3).
Clearly, many of the long-distance intimate ties are rather
dormant in their actual functioning (see F. Katz 1966; P. Katz 1974
for good discussions of dormant ties). However, the very existence
of these semi-dormant links may usefully serve to link East Yorkers
indirectly to other connections. Furthermore, these are intimate
ties and not just distant links to kin and friends. When necessary,
the costs of distance can be overridden by an emergency (see Boswell
1969 for a Zambian example). A typical example from our interviews
is a son winging his way 2100 miles to Calgary to care for a sick
mother, when "Sunday visit" telephone calls had sufficed for the
previous ten years.
Local Ties: In keeping with the Transformed argument, the great
majority of East Yorkers' intimate networks are not organized at
all into local solidarities. Few East Yorkers have more than one
intimate who resides in their own neighborhood (see Table 2). The
distribution of intimates' residences clearly indicates that the
communal ties of East Yorkers are situated in a broad Metropolitan
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Toronto {and beyond) field of interaction. This broad expanse of
ties is facilitated by a forty minute maximum driving time to any
where in the metropolitan area, a good public transit system, a
cheap metropolitan-wide local telephone rate, and the ready access
of many Torontonians to long-distance telephones, airplanes and
automobiles.
Yet East York's pride in its small town atmosphere is not with
out foundation. The data do provide some support for the Community
Saved argument. Although the Borough contains less than 5% of
Metro Toronto's population, fully one-quarter of the respondents'
intimate ties are with other East Yorkers, and the percentage is
even higher for ties with intimates who are not kin (see Table 2).
Furthermore, many ties, of all types, started locally, even if they
now extend for longer distances.
There are many ties with neighbors, although these rarely
reach the strength of intimacy. On the average, East Yorkers
talk with five neighbors regularly and visit in the homes of three. 15
Such local ties are used for easy sociability and routine assistance,
when quick physical accessibility is an important consideration.
The data on the spatial basis of intimate ties provide support
for a synthesis of the Community Saved and the Community Transformed
arguments (as did the data on the relational bases of ties). They
show that East York is neither an "urban village" nor a "community
without propinquity" (Webber 1963). Intimate ties are organized
into local solidarities even less often than they are into tight
kinship systems. Indeed, the car, telephone and airplane may help
many kinship ties stay active, under situations of physical mobility.
Yet, space is still a constraint; there are distances for each tie
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in which the cost of keeping in contact becomes too great for it
to remain viable.
Local ties are real and important in East York, as the Saved
argument would suggest, but their importance comes from their being
only a component of a diverse array of relationships. The neigh
boring relationship is usually a weak tie, with limits to the claims
that can be made upon a fellow network member. Neighboring is of
particular importance to the less-mobile: young children, the aged,
housewives, invalids (Jacob 1961; Keller 1968; Gates, Stevens and
Wellman 1973). In conjunction with the dispersed networks of inti
macy, there remains the easily accessible, more densely-knit, often
less-intense networks of neighborliness.
Network Structure
(9) Intimate ties tend to be structured in networks of rather
sparse density, but ties among intimate kin are much more densely
interconnected. (partial TRANSFORMED/partial SAVED).
(10) Only the strongest intimate connections tend to be reci
procated as intimates (TRANSFORMED) .
(11) East Yorkers' intimate networks connect them to multiple
social circles (TRANSFORMED) .
Density: The prevalent sparse density in East Yorkers' intimate
networks support the Transformed argument. The average density is
33%; that is, one-third of all possible close ties among intimates
are actually reported to exist. 16 Only one-fifth of the networks
have a density greater than 50% (table 4). Clearly, the great
majority of respondents are not encapsulated within the bounds of
one solidary group, but are linked through their intimates to
multiple, not strongly connected, social circles. 17
Table 4 here
- 20 -
There are significant clusters of density in the sample, though.
Kinship systems tend to foster close ties among members, and those
East Yorkers' intimate networks which are predominantly composed
of kin tend to be more densely-knit than are other intimate net
works (Table 5). Kin members of intimate networks also tend to
form densely-knit so~idary clusters within the rather sparse over
all networks. Intimate friends, in contrast, tend to be either
unconnected to other intimates or dyadically linked to them.
Table 5 about here
Reciprocity: Shulman's associated study (1972) interviewed many
of the intimates named by our respondents and asked them, in turn,
who their intimates were. These data reveal that only 36% of the
surveyed intimates reciprocate by naming East Yorkers as their
intimates. The closest intimates (those ranked first by mutual
respondents) are markedly more likely to see each other as mutual
intimates. Others acknowledge return ties to the East Yorkers
but weaker ones than intimacy. These people have intimate relation
ships, but different ones than the East Yorkers have. 18 These
ramifying, non-reciprocating ties are in keeping with the Transformed
argument, and go against the Saved argument's notion of a tightly
bounded, mutually-oriented solidary system. 19
Ramific~tions: Taken together, the variety of types of inti-
mate ties, the sparse network density, and the often-unreciprocated
character of intimate bonds strongly suggests a ramified, loosely
bounded web of communal ties, rather than an aggregation of densely
knit, tightly-bounded solidary communities. Only a minority of an
East Yorker's intimates reciprocate his/her feelings of intimacy,
- 21 -
and only a minority of intimates tend to be intimate with each
other. The overall structure of intimate relationships is closely
in accord with the Transformed argument.
Yet the data also indicate some basis for the closer structural
integration suggested by the Saved argument. Many of those who are
not strongly connected to each other as intimates are still linked
in other important ways: as acquaintances, neighbors, coworkers,
or non-intimate kin. Using this less-restrictive criteria, the
networks are markedly denser. There are also often dense clusters
within sparsely-knit networks.
Whilst making for low communal solidarity, this variety of
ties and uneven density provide structural bases for dealing with
contingencies. Densely-knit network clusters provide the basis for
cooperative activities. Ramifying, branching networks and as:Ymme-·
trically reciprocated linkages facilitate access to other social
circles. They provide the basis for East Yorkers to utilize the
intimate ties to others that their Alters have. The ties are
not encapsulated in "decoupled" little worlds (White 1966) but
are strands in the larger metropolitan web.
The Availability of Help from Intimates
(12) The great majority of East Yorkers have help in dealing
with emergencies available from within their intimate networks: the
majority also have help available from within their intimate networks
in dealing with everyday matters. (SAVED and TRANSFORMED)
(13) Help in emergencies and everyday matters is available
only in a minority of intimate relationships i.e., "helping" is a
defining attribute of only a minority of such relationships. (TRANS
FORMED)
- 22 -
(14) Parents and (adult) children who are intimates are more
likely to be called on for help in emergencies, as a direct effect
of the social basis of the relationship, and because such parents
and children tend to have stronger bonds, be more structurally
central, in more densely-knit networks, and in more frequent tele
phone contact. (SAVED)
(15) Parents and (adult) children who are intimates are more
likely to be called on for help in everyday matters. This is not
a direct effect of the social basis of the relationship, but because
such parent and child intimates tend to have stronger bonds, be
more structurally central, in more densely-knit networks, and in
more frequent telephone contact. (SAVED)
(16) Coworker intimates are quite likely to help in dealing
with everyday situations as a result of their frequent face-to-face
contact. (TRANSFOR~ED)
(17) Local neighborhood proximity is not a factor in the
availability of help from intimates
as emergencies. (TRANSFORMED)
in everyday matters as well
(18) Residential location is a constraint in the mobilization
of help from intimates, but only when the intimates live outside
of the metropolitan area. There is no direct effect: it is because
intimates who live inside of the metropolitan area tend to be in
more frequent face-to-face and telephone contact. (TRANSFORMED)
(19) More structurally central intimates tend to have somewhat
more frequent contact with East Yorkers, and this, indirectly,
makes them slightly more likely to provide everyday and emergency
assistance to them.
(20) There are no significant direct effects of the density of
an intimate network on the likelihood of an intimate providing
- 23 -
everyday or emergency assistance. (TRANSFORMED)
(21) The more frequently intimates are in contact, the more
apt are they to provide help in both emergency and everyday matters.
A high frequency of contact is particularly important for the mobi
lization of help in dealing with everyday contingencies, when ready
accessibility is more likely to be salient. (TRANSFORMED)
(22) The stronger (closer) the intimate bond, the more likely
is helping to be a component of the relationship. The strength of
the relationship is the most powerful direct predictor to the
availability of everyday and emergency assistance. (TRANSFORMED)
------------------------------------------------The current structural situation of East Yorkers, linked to
intimates by means of sparse networks rather than solidary groups,
is reflected in the nature of the help from intimates which they
report to be available. If East Yorkers are to avoid the direct
dependence on formal bureaucratic resources forecast by the Community
Lost argument, they must be able to find sources of assistance in
their interpersonal network. Although help might come from many
relationships, it is reasonable to expect that most urbanites par-
ticularly rely on the availability of help from intimates -- by
definition, the people outside of their households with whom they
feel closest. Indeed, our current interviews suggest that such
helpfulness is a key defining characteristic of many intimate rela
tionships. While the data on the prevalence of intimate relation-
ships basically support the Community Transformed argument, they
also indicate that the concerns of the Lost argument for the decline
of supportive communal relationships may have some foundation. In
support of the Transformed argument, we find that the great majority
of East Yorkers (81%) report that help in emergency situations is
available to them from somewhere in their intimate network. A
- 24 -
smaller majority (60%) report that help is available from their
intimate networks in dealing with everyday matters. Such quick
routine help is often available as part of less-intense relation-
ships, (e.g. acquaintanceship, neighbor, coworker) and there is
1 f . . 1 t. f . 20 ess use o intimate re a ions or it.
However, while assistance in e~ergencies is available from the
great majority of intimate networks, it is not available from the
majority of intimate relationships. Only a minority of intimates,
30%,help in emergencies, and only 22% help out in dealing with
everyday matters. Thus while East Yorkers can almost always count
on help from at least one of their intimates, they cannot count on
21 such help from all (or even most) of them.
The data clearly do not support a "Three Musketeers" (Dumas
1844) variant of the Community Saved argument: "All for one, one
for all." Rather, they support a more differentiated conceptuali-
zation of intimacy, consistent with the Transformed argument's
analysis of the division of labor in interpersonal networks. Inti-
rnacy (or closeness) is not a unidimensional construct. "Helping"
is a defining attribute of only a minority of intimate relationships,
while other intimate relationships are based on factors such as
sociability, normative or structural obligation, and perhaps propin-
quity (see Leyton 1974).
What structural and relational factors in these differentiated
networks act to influence the likelihood that an intimate will help
another out? We have constructed two path models (Figure 2, emer-
gency help; Figure 3; everyday help) to summarize the effects of
network variables on the availability of help to intimates.22
- 25 -
Basis of Relationship: Our most antecedent variable in the path
models traces the continuing effect of traditional kinship ties.
The data reveal that the traditional role of the extended family as
a special provider of assistance (see Gordon 1977; Scott and Tilly
1975) has become narrowly confined to intimate parents and (adult)
children(see Table 7). Other intimate kin, such as siblings,
grandparents, aunts and uncles, are only about as likely as friends
to provide assistance.
Table 7 about here
Parent and child support is more marked in emergencies. Fifty
percent of the intimate parents and children have an emergency assis
tance component to their relationship, as compared with 26% of the
other intimates (Table 7). They are more apt than other intimates
to be called upon for help in emergencies, regardless of where they
live (and they tend to live at greater distances from respondents
than other intimates) and how frequently they are in face-to-face
contact (see Figure 2). In addition to the direct effect, intimate
parents and children are also more likely to provide help because
of their greater tendency to have stronger (closer) bonds and to be
in more frequent contact with the East Yorkers in their intimate
networks.
Parent/child intimates are also signficantly more likely (34%)
than all other (19%) except coworkers (37%) to help out with every
day affairs (see Table 7). There is no direct effect of kinship
in this case (Figure 3). There are indirect effects due to the
stronger bonds and more frequent telephone contact that parent/child
intimates have.
- 26 -
Coworkers are also in frequent face-to-face contact with inti-
mates (Figure 3). This contact is the basis for their being a signi-
ficant source of everyday assistance for the East Yorkers, despite
the comparative weakness of their intimate bonds.
Thus the path models partially support both the Community
Saved and Community Transformed models. Kinship remains a signi-
ficant basis for providing help, both directly and because it encou-
rages closer bonds and more frequent telephone contact. Yet the
particularly helpful kin are parents and children, and not a large
solidary network of extended kinship relations. Indeed, an East
Yorker is somewhat more likely to find help in dealing with routine
contingencies from an intimate coworker than from any other type
of intimate.
Residence: Our analyses reveal that the availability of assi-
stance is not significantly associated with intimates' neighborhood
residence, in contradistinction to the Lost and Saved arguments'
emphasis on local solidarities (Table 8) .~3 Close proximity appears
to be more important on the job than in the neighborhood for the
availability of help. The residential distinction that does make
a difference in the availability of help is that of living inside
of Metro Toronto's boundaries. It has a slight direct positive
effect on the availability of help and appreciably increases the
frequency of contact between intimates. (There may be reverse effects
operating here as well, with intimates choosing to live in Metro
Toronto so that they may continue to be available to help their
East York respondents). The data support a somewhat revised version
of the Community Transformed argument: to an appreciable extent,
the spatial range of assistance relationships has not disappeared,
but has expanded to encompass the entire metropolitan area.
- 27 -
Table 8 about here
Degree: One purely structural variable, an intimate's degree
(or centrality) in a network slightly affects the frequency of tele
phone contact and hence, the provision of assistance (Table 9) .24
In general, more structurally central intimates are more likely to
provide help. Indeed, their ability to provide help may have made
them central. (Why this is not apparently so for the best connected
intimates (degree=5) is an anomaly which we have not yet explained.)
A structurally central person's potential ability to mobilize
help is not related to the solidary nature of the network: there
are no meaningful paths between density and the availability of
assistance from an intimate. Density has not been incorporated in
the final path models. Once again, the Transformed argument is better
supported than the Saved argument.
Table 9 about here
Frequency of contact: The more frequently intimates are in
contact, the more apt are they to provide assistance in their rela
tionships (see Table 10) .25
They are particularly strong factors
in the more mundane provision of everyday assistance. Ready acces-
sibili ty through contact is more likely to be a mobilizing factor in
many such situations. The models indicate that this is because the
frequency of contact is positively associated with the strength of
the intimate bond. It is also quite plausible that a reverse effect
operates: intimates may tend to interact with one another more when
they believe that help will be forthcoming in the relationship.
Table 10 about here
- 28 -
Closeness: The closer the intimate relationship (as measured
by the respondents' ordinal ranking of their intimates), the more
the perceived availability of help becomes a salient defining compo
nent of that tie (Table 11) . Indeed, the path models show that the
strength of closeness of an intimate relationsPiPs to be the strongest
predictor to the availability of both emergency and everyday assis
stance. It has appreciable paths with the next most powerful predic
tors, the frequency of contact variables. All other significant vari
ables predict to it, directly and indirectly, and to the provision
of assistance. While it is clear that intimacy has many guises, it
is also apparent that the closer the relationship , the more the
availability of help is associated with it.
Table 11 about here
The comparatively strong association between the availability
of assistance, the frequency of contact and the strength of closeness
variables more fully support the Community Transformed argument
than the Saved argument. While there is also an appreciable path
between parent/child intimacy and the strength of the bond, this
appears as a dyadic tie and not as one embedded in strong, supportive
familial relationships. Furthermore, structural measures such as
degree are only weakly related to the availability of help. The
availability of help thus is more closely associated with the charac
ter of the dyadic bond than it ~s with the potentially solidary
character of the overall network.
Evaluating the Arguments: The availability of help data, in
sum, indicate the continued viability of some aspects of the Community
Saved argument, albeit greatly affected by the contemporary context.
- 29 -
Kin still remain pre-eminent sources of help, but the atrophying
of kin solidarities means that these are now only parents and children.
Other intimate kin can be counted on no more than can be intimate
friends. Residential propinquity still facilitates the availability
of assistance, but the loca!.area is now metropolitan and not the
neighborhood. This implies that it is the physical availability
of aid -- by automobile, public transit and local telephone --
which is operative and not the activity of neighborhood solidari-
ties. Kinship and metropolitan residence both act to encourage
frequent contact. Frequent contact, in turn, exhibits Homansian
(1961) properties; those in touch more often are likely to feel
closer and to provide assistance when needed.
However, the overall data fit the Community Transformed argu
ment better. Assistance is affected by the quality of relationships,
and not by the extent of structural solidarity. Coworkers play an
important everyday role. The residential proximity findings appear
to be more a function of potential availability than of communal
organization, and the persistent helpfulness of parents and children
appears to be more linked to continuing normative obligations than
to the possible solidarity of the kin network.
Although the data document network effects on the availability
of help, the amounts of explained variance in the path models are
small. We are reluctant to relinquish most of the unexplained
variance to unspecified, residual "psychological factors" in the
linkages. Some of the unexplained variance is likely due to the
crude way in which the variables have been defined and measured.
Additionally, the way is surely open to the delineation of additional
structural and categorical variables that are affecting the inter-
- 30 -
personal provision of scarce resources. Our current in-depth inter
views are providing us with detailed information about the structure
of urban networks and the dynamics of their functioning which should
well-complement the survey data presented here.
Community or Network?
The Transformed Argument: Our findings generally support the
Community Transformed argument that East Yorkers tend to organize
their intimate relationships as differentiated networks and not
as solidarities. There is much differentiation in the nature and
character of intimate ties. There are links to a variety of
people, often living in quite different residential areas (or
interacting at work), and maintaining contact both by telephone
and in-person, at a wide range of intervals.
This differentiation does provide some support for the Commu
nity Lost argument's concerns. It appears that East Yorkers can
only count on a minority of their "close" intimates for help.
Extensive communities or networks of mutually-supportive relation
ships do not appear. If such highly supportive networks ever did
exist for East Yorkers, they have now been transformed into more
differentiated ties. However, many intimate ties still have support
as an important component of the relationship, and communal help
is available to almost all East Yorkers. Furthermore, the differen
tiation of connections helps link East Yorkers to multiple social
circles. The sparsely-connected ties branch out to access various
needed resources. Different contingencies, social situations, times
of the day, week or year bring East Yorkers into juxtaposition with
a variety of connections.
- 31 -
Complex networks of chains and clusters are ultimately linked
together via a common network node. All persons with whom one is
directly connected are indirectly linked to each other through one
self. Each individual is a member of the unique personal networks
of all of the people with whom he/she is linked and his/her member
ship in these networks serves to connect a number of social circles
(see Craven and Wellman 1973). Social solidarity, analyzed from
this perspective, is the outgrowth of the coordination of activities
through network processes rather than the sharing of sentiments
through common socialization.
Intimate networks are just one of a number -- neighbors, work
associates, acquaintances, distant relatives, people with shared
interests, and so on-- of often quite distinct personal networks.
Frequently, weaker ties, such as neighboring and coworking, have
limits on the claims that can be made on them. But, as weaker
ties, they tend to afford indirect access to a greater diversity
of resources than do stronger, more socially homogeneous ties
(Granovetter 1973).
Indeed, not all intimate ties are used similarly, even those
which are densely-connected. Some intimates can be counted on to
provide assistance in dealing with everyday matters; a good many
more, but certainly not all, give assistance when emergencies arise.
Other intimates interact with East Yorkers on different bases, such
as kinship obligations, sociability, or job comradeship.
The many components of intimate relationships are not very
neatly associated. Some intimate friends are only seen socially;
some routinely provide help. Some intimate kin can be counted on in
any emergency; others cannot. Some intimate kin are seen daily;
some intimate friends, yearly, and so on. This lack of neat coinci-
- 32 -
dence among the qualitative aspects of the relationships makes for
more differentiated linkages (see Mitchell 1969; Litwak and
Szelenyi 1969; Gordon 1976). It means that the "role-frame 11 of
intimacy includes many complexly-packaged bundles of relationships
(see Nadel 1957).
Membership in spatially and socially ramified networks is a
logical response to the problem of accessing a diverse and differen
tiated set of resources which are less available now through tradi
tional solidary auspices. While proponents of all three Community
Question arguments see the Industrial Revolution as the source of
change in communal structure, this is as un-self-evident as any
development model. On the one hand, the Saved argument has docu
mented the continued vitality of many solidary communities; on the
other hand, historical analysis and contemporary anthropological
studies have shown the presence of sparsely-knit, loosely-bounded
networks in many pre-industrial milieux. Perhaps the Community
Question could be most useful rephrased into an inquiry about what
structural communal arrangements, given a specific macroscopic
division of labor, help best to access and control resources: dense,
tight solidary communities or sparse, loose networks?
The prevalence of general-purpose helping relationships chal
lenges a "market 11 model of assistance, in which a seeker rationally
determines a need, scans all available sources, and calls upon them
in ranked order of probable utility. Not only is the provision of
help determined by networks, but so may be the perception and
utilization of available channels. Indeed, the very provision of
help may precede -- and define -- the putative seeker's desire to
enter into a help-receiving relationship.
- 33 -
The Saved Argument: Our data provides some insight in resol
ving the difference between the Community Saved argument's elegant
documentation of solidarities and the material we have presented
which basically supports the Community Transformed argument. The
resolution, we believe, is principally one of analytic scope. If
one focuses on the kinship systems or neighborly relations, one
is apt to find densely-connected, bounded networks. Looked at in
fine-grain isolation, they appear as solidarities, which may well
serve to give urbanites a sense of attachment in the world. But
if we broaden one's field of view to include all those with whom
an urbanite is in touch, then the apparent solidarities may now
appear to be clusters in rather sparsely-knit, loosely-bounded
networks.
The data do show that in the overall intimate networks parent/
child t~Ps play a special role. They tend to be socially closer
to the East Yorkers even at a greater physical distance. They are
more apt to help -- in mundane matters as well as crises. Clearly
some of the traditional obligations of kinship still obtain, but
as dyadic relationships, for the data also indicate that the
density of the network is not a factor in the mobilization of
assistance.
Neighborly relations are prevalent, and for many East Yorkers,
important. Considered separately, they validate the opinion East
Yorkers have of themselves as being intensely involved in local
community interactions. Yet the data indicate that for most East
Yorkers such neighborhood ties are just one component of a more
diverse set of relationships, and that they rarely comprise the
more intense intimate sort of relationships. It may be that in other
- 34 -
p::>pulations, or in subsets of the present population, a larger propor-
tion of the relationships will be tightly-bounded in local areas.
East York is a largely British-Canadian, moderate-income area in
a largely British-Canadian, moderate-income metropolis; ethnic,
socioeconomic, life-cycle or life-style discrepant groups may tend
to have far fewer metropolitan linkages. Clearly, more work needs
to be done on the principles of establishing, maintaining, using,
and losing interpersonal ties.
System implications: The concatenation of communal networks
helps to organize the social system. Considered from the standpoint
of the system rather than from that of the individual, it is the
compounding of links and networks at many levels which allocates
resources and juxtaposes alliances of similar interest. Not only
individuals, but clusters and collectivities are linked through net
work ties (see Levine 1972; Heil 1973; White, Boorman and Breiger
1976; Galaskiewicz and Marsden 1977; Turk 1977). A network of net
works connects individuals, clusters and collectivities in complex
ways.
Despite all this connectivity, our data also give us an indica
tion as to why so many urbanites believe in the Community Lost argu
ment even when they, themselves, are well-connected. Rather than an
unambiguous membership in a single, almost concrete solidary commu
nity, East Yorkers' lives are now divided among multiple networks.
The sparseness of interconnections among these networks means that
no one solidarity can readily make or enforce normative claims on a
member. While this may be somewhat liberating in providing a struc
tural room to maneuver, it can also create a disorientating loss of
identity, as it is no longer as clear or simple as to which group
- 35 -
(among many) one belongs. Thus our current answer to the Community
Question is that while urbanites have not lost their communal access
to people and resources -- and indeed, have increased their reach
for those who seek solidarity in tidy, simple hierarchical group
structures, there may well now be a lost sense of community.
TABLE 1
Strength of Intimate Relationship by Relationship to Respondent RELATIONSHIP
(All Kin) t.:hild Parent Sibling Other Friend Neighbour Coworker TOTAL
Strength of Relative
Relationship (Ranked)
1. 106 153 167 99 226 32 28 811 27.1% 46.7% 46.0% 28.2% 12.7% 15.3% 13.1% 13.0% 20.9%
2. 61 94 119 174 279 43 27 797 23.1 26.9 27.6 20.1 22.3 18.9 17 .6 12.5 20.6
3. 30 38 28 156 298 55 36 741 18.2 13.2 11.2 21.6 20.0 20.2 22.4 16.7 19.1
4. 18 28 77 142 280 38 43 626 13.7 7.9 8.2 13.0 18.2 19.0 15.5 19.9 16.2
5. 8 20 52 113 227 42 46 508 w 0'1 10.0 3.5 5.9 8.8 14.5 15.4 17.1 21.3 13.1
6. 4 7 49 95 166 35 36 392 8.0 1.8 2.1 8.3 12.2 11.2 14. 3 16.7 10.1
N = 227 340 592 779 1476 245 216 3875 TOTAL 5.9% 8.8% 15.3% 20.1% 38.1% 6.3% 5.6% 100.0% Mean Rank 2.0 2.1 2.8 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.7
Chi-square = 441.3 p( .001 Lambda (asym.) = .06 Gamma = .27
aTotal number of intimates = 3930
TABLE 2
Residence of Intimates By Relationships To Respondent
RELATIONSHlP
Child Parent Sibling Other Friend Neighbour Coworker TOTAL Relative
RESIDENCE
Same 9 23 25 54 194 182 18 505 Neighbourhood 4.0% 6.8% 4.2% 6.9% 13.1% 74.3% 8.3% 13.0%
Elsewhere in 23 35 63 85 211 38 28 483 East York 10.U 10.3% 10.6% 10.9% 14.3% 15.5% 13.0% 12.5%
City of 26 94 130 176 441 10 83 960 Toronto 11.5% 27.6% 22.0% 22.6% 29.9% 4.1% 38.4% 24 .8%
Other 108 50 147 227 359 10 71 972 Metro Toronto 47.6% 14.7% 24.8% 29.1% 24.3% 4.1% 32.9% 25.1% w
....)
Outside 61 138 227 237 271 5 16 955 Metro Toronto 26.9% 40.6% 38.3% 30.4% 18.4% 2.0% 7.4% 24.6%
N= 227 340 592 779 1476 245 216 3875b TOTALS 5.9% 8.8% 15.3% 20.1% 38.1% 6.3% 5.6% 100.0%
Chi-square = 1203.0 p .001 Lambda (asym.) = .15 Gammaa = -.32
a Relationship ordered by mean closeness rank for kin and nonkin. See Table 4.
TABLE 3
Reliance on Different Modes of Contact, Controlled by Intimates' Residential Location
Mode and Frequency of Contact
In-person weekly or more often; telephone weekly or more often
In-person weekly or more often; telephone 2x per month or less
In-person 2x per month or less; telephone weekly or more often
In person 2x per month or less; telephone 2x per month or less
TOTAL N=
Chi-square = (p .001) Conditional Gamma=
(In-Person by Telephone)
Residential Location Same Neighbourhood
51.9%
31.5
4.8
11.9
100.l 505
31.0 .61
Elsewhere in East York
53.4%
15.5
9.5
21.5
99.9 483
95.2 • 77
(for each residential location)
City of Toronto
43.0%
13.1
20.9
23.0
100.0 975
85.9 .56
Other Metro Toll"onto
38.8%
11.6
21.8
28.8
100.0 984
123.8 .64
Zero-order Gamma (In-Person by Telephone, uncontrolled by Residential Location) = .67 Partial Gannna (In-Person by Telephone, controlled by Residential Location) = .62
Outside Metro Toronto
6.8%
4.8
21.8
66.7
100.1 947
53.5 • 63
w co
- 39 -
TABLE 4
Density of Intimate Networks (Grouped)
Density N % Cumulative %
0 171 20.2% 20.2%
6.67 - 20.0 238 28.2 40.4
26.67 - 50.0 261 31.0 79.4
53.33 - 73.33 65 7.7 87.1
80.0 - 86.67 7 1.0 88.1
100 99 11. 7 99.8
Density of Networks
0 - 25%
26 - 50
51 - 75
76 - 100
Total
F (3,820)
- 40 -
TABLE 5
Percentage of Kin and Friends in Networks of Various Density
N % Kin % Friends (in such Networks)
388 36.4% 53.2%
261 56.9 35.9
65 56.9 37.0
110 73.7 20.1
824 49.5 42.1
48.6 36.6
P<. • 01 p <. • 01
TABLE 6
zero-order Correlation M.::1.trix for Path Diagrams
Living inside of Metro Toronto -.100
Coworker (Figure 3 only) -.102
Degree {Centrality) .236
In-person contact
Closeness Strength
Telephone contact
Emergency assistance from intimate
Everyday Assistance from intimate
-.028
.267
.205
.180
.112
ParentChild
.101
-.079
.346
-.011
.282
.105
.134
Living inside
of Metro
-.092
.437 -.012
-.098 .044 .035
.008 .098 .337
(-.021) .054 .147
.093 .065 .202
Coworker Degree In-person (Centrality) contact
.212
.280
.221
Closeness strength
.c.. I-'
.197
.248 (.444)
Telephone Everyday contact Assistance
- 42 -
TABLE 7
ercent of Intimates Providing Assistance by Basis of Relationship
asis of elationship
:hild
?arent
Sibling
Other Relative
Friend
Neighbor
Coworker (non-kin)
Total
N = 3871
... (7,3863)
>(
Emergency Assistance from Intimates
50.2%
49.7
31.3
26.8
23.08
32.6
26.8
29.8
21.8 .01
Everyday Assistance from Intimates
36.6
32.l
20.0
20.2
18.l
20.4
37.0
22.3
13.4 .01
Special Tabulations:
Parent and Child All other relationships (excluding parent and child)
Cowowrker (includes kin coworker)
All other relationships (excluding parent, child,
coworker)
- 43 -
50.0
26.4
33.9
.093
19.2
Intimates' Residence
Same neighborhood
Elsewhere in East
City of Toronto
Other Metro Toronto
York
Outside Metro Toronto
Total N=3926
F(4,3921)
P<.
- 44 -
TABLE 8
Percent of Intimates Providing Assistance
by Residential Proximity
Emergency Assistance ·f.rom Intimates
36.0%
36.6
29.9
31.6
29.9
29.9
13.6
.01
Everyday. Assistance from Intimates
25.9%
29.4
26.6
22.8
12.8
22.5
20.1
.01
- 45 -
TABLE 9
Percentage of Intimate Providing Assistance by Intimates'
Degree (Centrality)
0
l
2
3
4
5
Total
N=3926
F(5,3920)
p<
Degree (Centrality)
Emergency Assistance From Intimates
25.5
30.4
33.8
35.2
37.4
26.9
29.9
5.5
.01
Everyday Assistance From Intimates
19.8
21.4
23.4
29.8
31.9
23.6
22.5
5.3
.01
- 46 -
TABLE 10
Percentage of Intimates Providing Assistance by Frequency of Contact
Frequency of contact
2-7 times
Weekly
a week
1-2 times a month
Less Often
Total
N=
F
P(
Emergency Assistance from Intimates
In-person Telephone
39.4 43.3
37.8 30.9
25.3 22.0
17.4 19.4
29.8 29.9
3912.
54.8 62.6
.01 .01
Everyday Assistance from Intimates
In-person
34.7
28.2
19.6
7.9
22.5
82.8
.01
3898
Telephone
37.2
22.4
16.0
10.9
22.6
85.2
.01
- 47 -
TABLE 11
Percent of Intimates Providing Assistance
Closeness Strength of Relationship (Ranked}
1. (Closest}
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. (Least Close}
Total
N=3926
F (5,3920}=
by Closeness Strength of Relationships
Emergency Assjst'l.nce From Intimates
55.8%
32.1
24.5
18.8
17.2
15.7
29.9
87.1
.01
Everyday Assistance From Intimates
40.5%
25.8
17.5
14.5
13.8
12.2
22.5
50.9
.01
The Community Question: Lost, Saved,. Transformed Argumen~s Compared
Formulation
Basis of Intimacy
Availability Relational 'spatial Mode of Contact
*Portability *Secondary Institutional
Ties
Communal Structure
Density Reciprocity Boundedness
Basis of Assistance
Relational source Structural source
Residential basis Density Prevalence
Rare
Community Lost
Formal Role Local In-Person No Direct
Sparse No Ramified
Formal ties Secondary institu-
tions Local** Dense** Minimal
Community Saved
Abundant Kin, Neighborhood Local In-Person No Mediated through
solidary group
Dense Yes Tight
Kin, Neighborhood Solidary group
Local Dense Abundant
*Not analyzed in present paper; data being gathered **To the extent to which communal ties exist
Community Transformed
Abundant Interest, Work Metropolitan, National In-Person; Telecommunication Yes Mediated through
network ties
Sparse Uneven Ramified
Interest, Work Network ties
Metropolitan, National Sparse Moderate
.i::-00
FIGURE 2
Emergency Assistance From Intimates
Parent/Child (1)
-.100
Degree (Centrality)
(4)
\ \ \(.070)
Lives Inside Metro Toronto
(2)
' \ \
In-Person
Closeness Strength
(6)
---- -
.112
(.065)
• 2 32
Telephone r· 9) Contact
( 7)
.094
Emergency Assistance
(8)
I I
I
I
I I
------ _I
(.n) and - - - = non-significant path necessary to reproduce original correlation matrix to .05
.i:--1.0
FIGURE 3
Everyday Assistance From Intimates
PareP_ t I Child (1)
.258
Degree (Centrality)
(4)
~·"" I '- Closeness
I (.061)'
' .093
I
I
I
/(-.069) I
.406
Lives Inside Metro Toronto
(2)
In-Person Contact
(5)
• 2·08
.16 Telephone Contact
( 7)
Everyday Assistance
(8)
(.n) and - - - = non-significant path necessary to reproduce original correlation matrix to .05
Vl 0
- 51 -
FOOTNOTES
1 This paper has gone through a number of revisions,and I am grateful to the
following people who have extensively commented on it: Stephen Berkowitz,
Y. Michal Bodemann, Ronald Burt, Barry Crump, Ellan Derow, Bonnie Erickson,
Harriet Friedmann, Joseph Galaskiewicz, Leslie Howard, Nancy Howell,
Livianna Mostacci-Calzavara, Lisa Peattie, Norman Shulman, Charles
2
Tilly, Jack Wayne, Beverly Wellman, Harrison White.
The following agencies have supported various components of our
research: Canada Ministry of Manpower and Immigration, the Connaught
Housing Research Program of the Centre for Urban and Community Studies
(University of Toronto), the Ontario Ministry of Health, the Laidlaw
Foundation and the Canada Council.
Early fo:rmulations were in terms of increased spatial density, but
this has been called into question by both the suburban dispersion and
doubts about the social effects of crowding. In any event, analyses of
spatial density tend to use interactional density as an intervening vari
able {see Freedman 1975), and if the questionable premise is dropped,
the useful conclusion still remains. See the discussions of interactional
density in Abu-Lughod (1969) and Tilly (1970).
3 See the reviews in Stein (1960) and Castells (1976). Recent non-urban
sociological examples of the Community Lost argument can be found in the
"mass society" analyses of Kornhauser (1968), Nisbet (1962) and Gurr
(1969}.
4 See White and White's (1962) and Marx' (1964) analyses of American anti
urbanism.
5 There are clear similarities here to the literature arguing the impor
tance of communal solidarities in bureaucratic workplaces -- e.g. Benyon
1973.
- 52 -
6 Perhaps only Edward Banfield (1958) has gone out searching for such
solidary ties and not found any.
7 See for example, P. and I. Mayer (1974);Cohen(l969); Howard(l974);Jacobson
(1973);Ross and Weisner(l977);Weisner(l973).
8 See the discussion in the "Community Lost" subsection above. See
also Merton (1957); Kasarda and Janowitz(l974).
9 See the annotated bibliographies of Freeman (1975) and Wellman and
Whitaker (1974). Other recent work includes Laumann (1973}, Verbrugge
(1977), Fischer, et al. (forthcoming) •
lO Good statements of the network perspective are found in Barnes (1972)
Mitchell (1969, 1974), White (1965), Emerson (1962), Kemper (1972)
White, Boorman and Breiger (1976).
11 The original formulations of the study in 1967 were somewhat different
from the analytic concerns expressed in this paper. The original
study, conducted by the Clarke Institute of Psychiatry, was directed
by Donald B. Coates, a psychiatrist, with Barry Wellman as co-director
(see Coates et al. 1970;1976. See also Wayne 1971). The sociological
analyses reported here were begun in 1970 at the Centre for Urban and
Community Studies.
12 Further research is currently being conducted by Barry Crump and Barry
Wellman to provide additional information about a wide range of communal
ties, the dynamics of network use, and the stability of networks over
time and space.
13 Indeed, the nature of the relationship may affect the spatial expanse
of the tie, as when an aging mother decides to rent an apartment near
her daughter.
- 53 -
14 It is quite likely, though, that many of the intimate ties were
initiated when both members lived in the same neighborhood. The
"portability of communal ties" is being studied in the current
research project.
15 For a fuller discussion of neighboring in East York, see Gates,
Stevens and Wellman{l973).
16 We exclude ties between Egos and intimates in our density calcu
lations, as such ties exist by definition. Links were calculated
symmetrically: if a respondent reported intimate *l was close to
intimate *2, we also assumed that intimate *2 was close to intimate
*l· Later work by Shulman (1972) has called this assumption into
question.
17 In contrast , the density of respondents in an inland Tanzanian
area (Kigoma) obtained by the same procedure is 76% (personal com
munication from Jack Wayne)
18 Shulman's findings indicate that our density measure may well
overstate the density of the networks when only intimate ties are
considered. In our survey analysis, we have assumed the intimate
ties to be symmetrical. Shulman's work casts this assumption into
doubt, although we wonder if the respondents would have perceived
the asymmetry present in the ties between their intimates.
19 Using Rapoport and Horwath's {1961) study of biased friendship
ties, such lack of reciprocity gives a structural basis for expec
ting wide disparities in the extent to which an urbanite is chosen
as an intimate. This in turn indicates the structural prevalence
of "broker.age" nodes, whose heavily-chosen incumbents link together
a number of social circles.
- 54 -
20 Respondents were asked which of their intimates did they "rely on for
help in everyday matters" and "rely on for help in an emergency."
21
22
We reasoned that respondents often perceived their intimate connections
as a type of general utility. While they knew that they might need
help from intimates at some time and, in part, maintained their ties
for that purpose, they often did not have any precise idea of what
contingencies would in fact develop. We are currently conducting
interviews to obtain more in-depth information on the nature of assi
stance relationships.
It is possible that our treatment of help as a generalized resource
underestimates its availability from intimates. East Yorkers may
count on help from some intimates for specific contingencies -- defined
by the relationship and the resources available -- while not thinking
of these intimates as being generally helpful.
Future work will examine the impact of social categorical attributes
of East Yorkers and their intimates (e.g. gender, life-cycle stage,
socioeconomic status) on network relationship, including the provision
of help. Preliminary analyses (Wellman et.al, 1972) indicate that
there are no appreciable direct association between such social cate
gorical variables and the availability of help.
23 Scheffe's test was used in all such contrasts, with an .OS significance
level.
24 Degree is a graph theoretic term measuring the extent to which any
given member of a network is directly connected to any other. All
respondents, by definition, have a very high degree, as they are directly
connected to all of their intimates. Degree and network density have
an inherently high correlation: in our data, r=.513.
- 55 -
25 For the path analyses, the original categorically-recorded frequency
of contact was transformed into estimated days per year equivalents.
For example, "about once a week" was transformed into "52."
- 56 -
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