8.publicprivatepartners apec 1 questionnaire baru

8/13/2019 8.PublicPrivatePartners APEC 1 QUESTIONNAIRE Baru

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Terry De Lacy, Marion Battig,Stewart Moore, Steve NoakesJULY 2002

PUBLIC / PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS FORSUSTAINABLE TOURISM

DELIVERING A SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGY FOR TOURISM DESTINATIONS

ASIA PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATIONAPEC TOURISM WORKING GROUP


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The Australian Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourismwas commissioned by APEC as part of its Tourism Working GroupProgram to produce this report (APEC TWG 05/2011T)

Copyright 2002 APEC Secretariat

Published for:APEC Secretariat348 Alexandra Road # 14-00 Alexandra Point Singapore 119958Tel: 65-6276-1880 Fax: 6276-1775 Email: [email protected]

By:CRC for Sustainable TourismGriffith University, PMB 50GOLD COAST MC QLD 9726AUSTRALIA

APEC#202-TR-01.2

The CRC for Sustainable Tourism was established under theAustralian Governments Cooperative Research Centres Program tounderpin the development of a dynamic, internationally competitive,and sustainable tourism industry. The CRC for Sustainable Tourism isa not-for-profit company owned by its industry, government anduniversity partners

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Terry De Lacy, Marion Battig, Stewart Moore, Steve NoakesPublic/Private Partnerships for Sustainable Tourism: Delivering aSustainability Strategy for Tourism Destinations

Bibliography.ISBN 1 876685 89 1.

1. Ecotourism Asia. 2. Ecotourism Pacific Area. 3. Public-private sectorcooperation Asia. 4. Public-private sector cooperation Pacific Area. 5.Sustainable development Asia. 6. Sustainable development PacificArea. 7. Tourism Environmental aspects Asia. 8. Tourism Environmental aspects Pacific Area. I. De Lacy, Terry. II. CooperativeResearch Centre for Sustainable Tourism.

338.4791

AcknowledgementsMaterial has been contributed by the following CRC for SustainableTourism Researchers; Dr Peter Daniels, Dr Diane Lee, Prof Ashley Scott, DrJim Ness, Melinda Watt, Prof Larry Dwyer, Prof Peter Forsyth, Prof RaySpurr, Graeme Worboys, Dr Pramod Sharma and Dino Zanon.

Photos have been supplied by Tourism Queensland, CRC for SustainableTourism and the Chilean Tourism Service (Photo on front cover by TourismQueensland).


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The objective of this report is to provide a framework for

the sustainable development of the travel and tourismindustry in the APEC region, through public / privatepartnerships, and to deliver a sustainability strategy fortourism destinations.

An interim report was submitted at the 19th TWGMeeting in Bangkok (November 2001). That meetingagreed the report should concentrate on the developmentof a template for tourism sustainability. Therefore, thereport has been expanded to include a new Part 2Sustainability model for tourism destinations using

public/private partnerships . The model/template issuitable to be used by economies whenever destinationsare investing in tourism development (marketing,planning, infrastructure etc). Part 1 will remain anoverview and discussion of public/private partnerships forsustainable development, including example case studieswhere appropriate.

Methods used for the development of the report include:

i. Collect and collate secondary data within and eternalto APEC economies;

ii. Design and conduct a survey (primary data) within

APEC economies and analyse the data;

iii. Collect and collate case studies within APECeconomies;

iv. Report on CRC for Sustainable Tourism research intothe sustainability of tourism destinations; and

v. Produce a publication for distribution within APECeconomies.

Part 1 of the report discusses how tourism is more than aneconomic activity and that it is inherently interrelated withculture and environment, touching all countries of theworld and affecting their people, cultures andenvironments. Tourisms interconnection of people andtheir environment, means that its long-term survivaldepends on sustainable tourism developments that fosterhealthy and vibrant natural and cultural environments.Furthermore, coordinated action between differentsectors (public and private) allows for more successfultourism planning, management, marketing, productdevelopment, training and education. Partnerships are atthe core of sustainable development and sustainabletourism.

Since natural and cultural resources provide the

foundation for many tourism products, tourism has thepotential and responsibility to give value to local culturesand natural environments and to encourage theirprotection. One of the most widely accepted principles inachieving this is through local community involvement intourism planning and management. Communityparticipation in tourism can support and uphold localculture, tradition, knowledge and practises, maintainingdiversity and creating pride in heritage.

Sustainable tourism development involves an integratedwhole of community approach. The most effective way toapproach sustainable tourism development andmanagement is through destinations, as Part 2 of thisreport outlines. Part 2 discusses the 5 Ps for sustainabledestination planning, development and management.This includes:

1. Policy and planning

2. Predictive modelling

3. Performance monitoring

4. Performance improvement

5. Performance reporting

Sustainable Planning principles have been developed inresponse to the growing international concern overresource degradation and the wide variety of social andenvironmental impacts being experienced in poorlyplanned destinations. A sustainable vision for a touristdestination is of great importance and should be aboutminimising ecological impacts, spreading financial returnsthroughout the community, investing in best practiceenvironmental programs, ensuring tourism activity isresponsive to and reflects community values, and ensuringtourism respects and appropriately presents local culture.

It is important that the community and industry can Predictwhat the environmental demands and impacts will be as aresult of various levels, scales and types of tourismdevelopments. The development of such predictivemodelling tools and their regular use is a core component ofsustainable tourism development. There are a variety oftechniques available for examining environmental impactsassociated with tourism. This report discusses tools such asinput-output models, computable general equilibriummodels, computable general and systems such as GIS.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


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Performance monitoring is essential to ensureenvironmental and social performance in travel andtourism. This can be achieved through the establishmentof sustainability indicators, together with best practiceperformance benchmarks for these indicators.

It is further evident that appropriately designed integratedsystems are required to ensure continuous environmentalPerformance improvement throughout the travel andtourism industry. The Earth Check TM system is one suchapproach that incorporates the continuous monitoring ofeach of 20 individual travel and tourism sectorsenvironmental performance together with anenvironmental management system (EMS) for each sector.

A crucial component of achieving sustainability indestinations is Performance reporting on progress. For

communities and regions that make up a destination, thebest means is by using State of the Environment Reports.Individual enterprises that provide services in thedestinations should undertake triple bottom linereporting.

Having developed tools to assist travel and tourismenterprises and communities to monitor, improve andreport their performance, it is important that this isactually put to use and implemented. One powerfulmeans of doing this is through the Green Globesustainability, benchmarking, certification andimprovement system as detailed in this report.

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PART 1: PUBLIC/PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

1 OVERVIEW .....................................................................................................................................11.1 The Tourism System...................................................................................................................11.2 The public and private sectors ...................................................................................................2

1.2.1 Public sector ...................................................................................................................31.2.2 Private sector..................................................................................................................31.2.3 Public/private partnerships in tourism .............................................................................3

1.3 Sustainable development...........................................................................................................31.4 Sustainable tourism ...................................................................................................................41.5 Public and private sector roles in achieving sustainable tourism .................................................6

1.5.1 Public sector role ............................................................................................................61.5.2 Private sector role...........................................................................................................7 1.5.3 Public/Private Partnerships ..............................................................................................8

2 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM POLICY AND STRATEGIES.....................................................................112.1 Environmental legislation and policy ........................................................................................11

2.1.1 Legislation and planning...............................................................................................112.2 Community participation and socio-economic policy ...............................................................14

2.2.1 Community participation ..............................................................................................142.2.2 Tourism leakage ...........................................................................................................15 2.2.3 Rural and regional development...................................................................................15 2.2.4 Pro-poor tourism ..........................................................................................................17 2.2.5 Indigenous people and tourism ....................................................................................17 2.2.6 Women in tourism........................................................................................................182.2.7 Small and micro business development ........................................................................192.2.8 Protection of cultural and religious traditions................................................................19

2.3 Industry performance ..............................................................................................................202.4 Individual action......................................................................................................................202.5 Sustainable tourism strategies .................................................................................................21

3 EFFICIENT USE OF NATURAL AND CULTURAL RESOURCES FOR TOURISM................................243.1 Wise management of natural resources...................................................................................24

3.1.1 Greenhouse gas and energy.........................................................................................24 3.1.2 Waste.................................................................... .......................................................26 3.1.3 Water........................................................................................................ ...................27 3.1.4 Biodiversity ................................................................................................ ...................30

3.2 Protected areas and sustainable tourism..................................................................................303.3 Cultural heritage areas and sustainable tourism ......................................................................33

3.4 Community based tourism ......................................................................................................344 PROMOTION AND MARKETING OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM.....................................................37

4.1 International market context ...................................................................................................374.2 Promotion and marketing of sustainable tourism through public/private partnerships .............374.3 Destination image ...................................................................................................................374.4 Marketing greenwash ...........................................................................................................384.5 Ethical destination and product marketing. .............................................................................38

5 INDUSTRY SELF-REGULATION AND BEST PRACTICE....................................................................405.1 Codes of conduct....................................................................................................................405.2 Best practice management ......................................................................................................42

5.2.1 Tour operators initiative ...............................................................................................42

5.2.2 Industry accreditation and certification schemes ...........................................................43

TABLE OF CONTENTS


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iv

PART 2: A SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGY FOR TOURISM DESTINATIONS

6 THE FIVE PS OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DESTINATIONS.......................................... ..................47

7 POLICY FRAMEWORK AGENDA 21..... .......................................................................................48

7.1 Planning for Sustainable Tourism Destinations .........................................................................487.1.1 Tourism Planning and Agenda 21 .................................................................................487.2 Local Agenda 21 .....................................................................................................................49

7.2.1 Concept .......................................................................................................................497.2.2 Local Agenda 21 and Tourism ......................................................................................497.2.3 A process .....................................................................................................................497.2.4 Green Globe 21 ...........................................................................................................51

8 PREDICTIVE MODELLING...............................................................................................................528.1 Input/output models................................................................................................................52

8.1.1 Economic Input/output models.....................................................................................528.1.2 Material flow analysis ...................................................................................................528.1.3 Physical input-output models........................................................................................52

8.1.4 Environmental input-output analysis.............................................................................57 8.1.5 NAMEA Extension to Environmental Input-Output Analysis ..........................................598.1.6 Advantages and Limitations of Environmental Input-Output Analysis............................598.1.7 Potential Tourism-Related Applications of Environmental Input-Output Analysis ...........59

8.2 Computable general equilibrium models .................................................................................598.2.1 The General Equilibrium Approach ...............................................................................598.2.2 Using CGE Modelling in Tourism...................................................................................598.2.3 Tourism Satellite Accounts............................................................................................608.2.4 Modelling environmental impacts by CGE models ........................................................60

8.3 Tourism systems models ..........................................................................................................608.3.1 Tourism futures simulator .............................................................................................60

8.4 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Tourism.................................................................638.4.1 Use of GIS for Identifying Tourism Environmental, Social, and Cultural Hotspots.........63

9 PERFORMANCE MONITORING ......................................................................................................669.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................66

9.1.1 Earth Check TM System ................................................................................................. ..669.1.2 Consumer demand for responsible tourism ..................................................................66

9.2 Performance assessments for whole communities ...................................................................679.2.1 Benchmarking indicators (Earth Check System) .........................................................69

9.3 Benchmarking individual enterprises........................................................................................749.3.1 Benchmarking indicators (Earth Check System) .........................................................75

10 PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT....................................................................................................7910.1 Environmental management systems (EMS).............................................................................7910.2 Application to sustainable travel and tourism ..........................................................................80

10.2.1 Incorporation of the Enviro-Mark TM system into Earth Check benchmarking ..............81

11 PERFORMANCE REPORTING......................................................................................... .................8211.1 State of the environment reporting .........................................................................................8211.2 Triple bottom line reporting............................................................................................... ......82

12 IMPLEMENTING THE TRIPLE P OF PERFORMANCE ......................................................................8412.1 Green Globe 21 ......................................................................................................................84

12.1.1 The Green Globe 21 system .........................................................................................8412.1.2 Certification process: ................................................................................................... .85

APPENDIX: SURVEY METHODOLOFY AND ANALYSIS .......................................................................89

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................103


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List of Tables

Table 1: Stakeholders in the tourism industry (CRC for Sustainable Tourism 2002)..................................2Table 2: Greenhouse gas emissions resulting from travel and tourism accommodation and

transportation within Australia (CRC for Sustainable Tourism 2000) ........................................24Table 3: Average Rates of Waste Generation and Energy and Water Usage

(CRC for Sustainable Tourism 2000) ........................................................................................27Table 4: Irritation Index or irridex model (Doxey 1975)......................................................................36Table 5: The complete environmental input-output table......................................................................56Table 6: Benchmarking indicators and units of measurements for communities....................................68Table 7: Benchmarking indicators and their units of measurement for accommodation........................75Table 8: Benchmarking Indicators and measures for tour companies ....................................................78

List of Figures

Figure 1: Interrelationships in tourism ......................................................................................... .............2

Figure 2: Sustainability dimensions (Prescott-Allen 2001) .......................................................................11Figure 3: Flight activity of various airlines GHG emissions (million tonnes CO2)................. ..................25Figure 4: Four Types of Linkages in the Human Economy Natural Environment Nexus .........................53Figure 5: Tapestry tourism structure model............................... ..............................................................62Figure 6: The 3 stages of Green Globe 21 certification process ..............................................................85Figure 7: Benchmarking of sustainability performance against an Earth CheckTM indicator ...................85Figure 8: Green Globe Reporting Index (RI ) ...........................................................................................86


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List of Boxes Case Studies and Snapshots

Box 1: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)...................................................................................12Box 2: The real price ..........................................................................................................................13Box 3: Carbon trading........................................................................................................................14Box 4: Mundo Maya Project, San Juan, Mexico ..................................................................................15Box 5: The Agro-Tourism Network, Island of Chiloe, Chile..................................................................16Box 6: Tour operators cooperative, Honda Bay, Philippines .................................................................19Box 7: Regulations and restrictions for preserving historical cultural heritage, Macau.........................19Box 8: WTO Code of Ethics................................................................................................................20Box 9: Philippine Master Tourism Plan ................................................................................................21Box 10: Environmentally Sustainable Development Strategy for Hong Kongs Travel and

Tourism Industry ............................................................................................. .........................21Box 11: Malaysian National Ecotourism plan .......................................................................................22Box 12: Planning for a National Ecotourism Strategy, Vietnam .............................................................22Box 13: New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010 .......................................................................................23Box 14: A hotels energy use ................................................................................................................25

Box 15: Solid waste in Australia ...........................................................................................................26Box 16: Environmental management in Jamaicas Hotel Industry Negril Cabins..................................28Box 17: Environmental management in Jamaicas Hotel Industry Swept Away Beach Resort ..............29Box 18: Costa Rica...............................................................................................................................30Box 19: Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, China..............................................................................31Box 20: National Integrated Protected Areas System Act, Philippines....................................................32Box 21: The Fushan Botanical Garden (Nature park), Taiwan................................................................32Box 22: Heritage City, Bhaktapur .........................................................................................................33Box 23: Sustainable tourism development in the Lower Volga Region, Russia ......................................33Box 24: Songup Folk Village, Cheju Island, Korea.................................................................................34Box 25: A Community-Based Eco-Tourism Project, Umphang District, Thailand ....................................34Box 26: Banff Heritage Tourism Strategy, Canada.................................................................................35

Box 27: What is Local Agenda 21 ........................................................................................................36Box 28: Tourism-based community development, Japan.......................................................................36Box 29: The concept of marketing greenwash ...................................................................................38Box 30: The green travel trend...........................................................................................................39Box 31: An important USA market perspective on future consumer expectations.................................39Box 32: APEC/PATA Code for Sustainable Tourism................................................................................41Box 33: Code of ethics, Philippines ......................................................................................................41Box 34: International Hotels Environment Initiative (IHEI)......................................................................42Box 35: Green Hotelier Magazine.........................................................................................................42Box 36: Tour Operators initiative in Scandinavia ...................................................................................43Box 37: International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) ................................................................43Box 38: Ecolabels in the Tourism Industry.............................................................................................44Box 39: Green Globe 21 ......................................................................................................................44Box 40: International Ecotourism Standard...........................................................................................44Box 41: The Rainforest Alliance............................................................................................................44Box 42: Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council ................................................................................44Box 43: Application of the TFS to the Tapestry region ..........................................................................62Box 44: Interactive Open Space Demand Model (ISOD model) .............................................................65Box 45: Benchmarking a destination community..................................................................................71Box 46: Benchmarking Sheraton, Auckland..........................................................................................77Box 47: Green Globe certified company Melia Bali Villas and spa report ..........................................87


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Abbreviations

APEC Asia Pacific Economic CooperationAPEC TWG Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Tourism Working GroupAPTEC Asia Pacific Tourism Exchange CentreCRC Cooperative Research CentreCSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research OrganisationDEHAA Department for Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal AffairsEAA Ecotourism Association of AustraliaEEBP Energy Efficiency Best PracticeEIA Environmental impact assessment (analysis)ESD Ecologically Sustainable DevelopmentGG 21 Green Globe 21GGAP 21 Green Globe Asia Pacific 21ICLEI International Council on Local Environmental InitiativesIIED International Institute for Environment and DevelopmentIUCN The World Conservation Union

LA21 Local Agenda 21NGO Non-governmental organizationOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPATA Pacific Asia Travel AssociationPPP Polluters Pay PrinciplesPPT Pro-poor TourismRING Regional and International Networking GroupSoER State of The Environment ReportingUCEP UNESCO Cousteau Ecotechnic ProgrammeUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural OrganizationWCED World Commission on Environment and DevelopmentWSSD World Summit Meeting on Sustainable DevelopmentWTO World Tourism OrganizationWTTC World Travel and Tourism Council

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1

In the South East

Asian countries,including Vietnamand Cambodia,tourism is

positioned as oneof their top fiveincome generatingactivities.

In 2000, Chinareceived ,morethan 31 millioninternational visitors, Malaysiamore than 10million and Thailand 9+ million(WTO).

1.1 The Tourism System

Over the past 50 years the travel and tourismindustry has experienced phenomenal growthto become one of the most dominating socio-economic activities at the beginning of the21st Century. It is a major creator of jobsacross national and regional economies (WorldTravel and Tourism Organisation &International Hotel and Restaurant Association1999). Research based on simulated TourismSatellite Accounting for 160 countries in theyear 2000, illustrated that the direct andindirect impacts of travel and tourism wereestimated to contribute Gross DomesticProduct of US$3,575 billion. This represents10.8 per cent of the total worldwide (WTTC2001 a). In employment terms, it wasestimated in the year 2000 that travel andtourism generates 192 million jobs around theworld, across all industry sectors, whichrepresents 8 per cent of total employment(WTTC 2001a). It is expected that tourism willcontinue to expand and grow significantlyover the next two decades (WTO 2001 a). Inthe year 2000 alone, international tripsincreased by nearly 50 million, bringing thetotal number of international arrivals to arecord 698 million (WTO 2001 a). Globaltourism is growing at an annual rate of 7%. Itis still difficult to accurately quantify thenumber of domestic tourists, but researchersestimate there are approximately 5 times asmany domestic as international tourists(Ceballos-Lascurain 2001).

A whole range of different services and products

in both the source market and destination, aredependant on, create and shape the travel andtourism industry. What makes tourism distinct isthat people often travel far distances to reachthe product. It is a complex and highlyintegrated activity, reaching the upstreamsuppliers (i.e. aircraft manufacturers or foodproducers) and downstream services (i.e. retailshops) (WTTC & IHRA 1999). This is also knownas the flow-on or the multiplier effect oftourism (Elliott 1997).

A whole range of stakeholders from both theprivate and public sector participate in thetourism system. Stakeholders in the tourismindustry include (Table 1):

Supply sidea. Those whose resources are used e.g.

government bodies such as parks andwildlife, galleries, museums, heritage sites,traditional landowners

b. Those who deliver the product e.g.tourism operator such as airlines, hotels,

restaurants, attractions, tour operators.

c. Those who manage destinations e.g.tourism commissions

d. Those who provide infrastructure e.g.roads, building, water supply, waste disposal.

Demand side(those who use the product tourists)a. International

b. Domestic

1. OVERVIEW


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The travel and tourism industry has the ability to createand spread wealth, employment and innovation from

urban to rural and regional areas, while acting as a catalystto the development of other economic activities (WTTC2001 a). Importantly, tourism is a catalyst ofentrepreneurship and small businesses.

Tourism however is more than an economic activity and anindustry; it is inherently interrelated with culture andenvironment (Figure 1). It is a universal, dynamic, socialand cultural phenomenon, touching all countries of theworld and affecting their people, culture andenvironments (Elliott 1997). Tourisms interconnection ofpeople and their environment, means that its long-termsurvival depends on sustainable tourism developmentsthat foster healthy and vibrant natural and culturalenvironments.

As a result of travel and tourisms diverse nature, it is alsoa highly fragmented industry. Therefore, the long-termsurvival of the industry also depends on coordinatedaction between different sectors. This is both challengingand important in order to achieve a more sustainableindustry. It demands that further development should beguided by greater dialogue, co-operation and partnershipsbetween the public and private sectors (WTO 2001 a)(Figure 1). This is not to say that sustainable tourismdevelopment cannot result from partnerships within theone sector. Collaboration between various stakeholdershowever does allow for more successful tourism planning,management, marketing, product development, trainingand education (Selin 1999). To achieve responsible tourismplanning and management outcomes, partnerships mustbe holistic in outlook and based on sustainabledevelopment principles, and exist at the national,provincial and importantly at local levels (WTO 2001 a).The process of collaboration and partnership is a keyelement for planning and managing natural and culturalassets/products. Partnerships are at the core of sustainable

development and sustainable tourism.

Figure 1: Interrelationships in tourism

Clearly, tourism plays a paramount economic role incountries around the world and, if planned and managedcorrectly, can significantly contribute to sustainable socio-economic development and environmental conservation.By experiencing different cultures and traditions, tourismcan also represent a critical force for peace andunderstanding among peoples of the world (WTO 2001 a).

1.2 The public and private sectors

1.2.1 Public sector

The term public sector covers the whole range of publicorganizations, from national government ministries anddepartments to government business enterprises and localgovernment tourism departments. Just as tourism hasbeen identified as important to many governmentseconomically and politically public sector (government)involvement is very important to the sustainable growthand development of the tourism industry (Elliott 1997).

The public sector makes up a core component of thetourism industry. Many tourism products are based onpublic assets such as the natural and culturalenvironments. A key role of the public sector is to providebasic infrastructure, essential services, destination

management and marketing, innovation, training and

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Table 1: Stakeholders in the tourism industry (CRC for Sustainable Tourism 2002)

D E M A N D

S I D E

CATEGORY EXAMPLES

Resource owners Traditional landholders

Resource managers National park managers

Providers of infrastructure Construction, design, power, gas, water, waste treatment

Planners and development control Local government authorities

Deliverers of product Enterprise operators hotels, airlines, airports, hire cares, attractions, tour operators,travel agents, farm stays, convention centres, restaurants, museums, sporting events

Destination developers and marketers Tourism commissions; local government

Employees Managers, hospitality, planning, communication, ICT, finance, construction

Tourists Domestic and international e.g. package holidays, ecotourists, business travellers,backpackers, visiting friends and relatives, events, conferences, cultural tourism

S U P P L Y

S I D E


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education (Elliott 1997). These are important componentsin providing a sustainable and profitable travel and tourismindustry. Governments provide a policy and planningframework for environmental protection and heritagemanagement and set strategies to encourage the privatesector to take the issue of sustainability seriously(Swarbrooke 1998).

1.2.2 Private sector

Private enterprises provide the basic tourism products,facilities and essential services, such as: accommodation,transport, restaurants, retail, various attractions and evenexperiences (Tonge and Myott 1996). This sector rangesfrom large vertically and horizontally integrated globalcorporations such as tour companies, airlines and hotelchains, to tiny, remote local family businesses, such as craft

shops and lodges.

The private sector therefore, plays an essential role in thedevelopment and management of tourism and must beequally involved with national, regional and localgovernment, in the management and sustainabledevelopment of tourism (Tonge and Myott 1996).

1.2.3 Public/private partnerships in tourism

Until recently, the travel and tourism industry has beenhesitant in establishing public/private partnerships,because of the very competitive market within which itoperates. Industry has been reluctant to participate inpublic policy objectives, in case they are required to doanything that will increase their costs, or otherwise reducetheir competitiveness (Swarbrooke 1998).

Public/private tourism partnerships however, can do quitethe opposite. They represent a pooling of knowledge,expertise, capital and other resources from variousstakeholders (Bramwell and Lane 2000). There is graduallya growing awareness of the benefits of partnerships. Theyensure consistency within a framework and act as aneffective agent for planning, management, problem

solving and change, and therefore enhances rather thanreduces the competitive advantage of the tourism product(UNCSD 1999a).

According to Wood and Gray (1991:146) collaborationoccurs: when a group of autonomous stakeholders of a problem engage in an interactive process, using shared rules, norms and structures, to act or decide on issuesrelated to that problem (Bramwell and Lane 2000).

Whatever the tourism objective is, from economicdevelopment, poverty reduction, protected area

management, conservation, cultural development or social justice, the travel and tourism industry is beginning to

realise the power of collaboration and partnerships. Mostimportant are the partnerships between local community,and the tourism industry, which provides opportunities forcommunity involvement and participation in tourism(Tonge and Myott 1996).

This integration has spawned a diverse array of new inter-organisational forms and agreements including regionalplanning authorities, joint management of protectedareas, community-based cooperatives, multinational firmsand coalitions formed by global accords (Bramwell andLane 2000).

There are various inter-organisational forms andagreements that represent the travel and tourism industryon the global, and regional level. They play an importantrole in coordinating, organising and planing the travel and

tourism industry. On a global level, key intergovernmentaland industry organisations include the World TourismOrganisation (WTO) and the World Travel and TourismCouncil (WTTC). There are also various sector associationsrepresenting the private sector, for example theInternational Hotels and Restaurant Association (IHRA). Ona regional level, key bodies include, the Asia PacificTourism Association (PATA) and the Asia Pacific EconomicCooperation (APEC) Tourism Working Group. There is anincreasing awareness in the APEC region thatstrengthened partnerships between the public and privatesectors in tourism will assist tourism to effectively meeteconomic, environmental and socio-cultural goals. This willbenefit industry, private sector, tourist consumers and hostcommunities (WTO 1997).

1.3 Sustainable development

The word development includes many inherent tensionsas global economic growth at all costs intersects with localempowerment, environmental protection and culturaldiversity. The subsequent emergence of notions ofsustainable development was partly recognition of theimpossibility of continuing a growth-at-all-cost strategy ofdevelopment.

Sustainable development was interpreted in theBrundtland Report (WCED 1987:43) as: Sustainabledevelopment is development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Weaver andLawton 1999).

In 1992, sustainable development and related conceptswere adopted as the central theme of the UNCED RioEarth Summit Meeting, producing a comprehensivedocument, known as Agenda 21 (Weaver and Lawton

1999). Agenda 21 contains 40 Chapters dealing withmatters of social and economic development, the

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conservation and management of naturalresources, stakeholder groups, and means ofimplementation (Weaver and Lawton 1999).This document was globally adopted by 182signatories and represents an internationalconsensus and a comprehensive program ofnecessary actions, (actions that governmentsand international organizations, as well asindustry and the community, can take toachieve lasting changes), in order to movetowards a global goal of truly sustainabledevelopment (UNCED 1992).

Sustainable development involves an integratedwhole of community approach. As early as1987, the Brundtland report raised therequirement for collaboration and partnership

building as an integral part of the route tosustainable development (Lane 1999). Itsobjectives are no less than the alleviation ofpoverty, hunger, sickness and illiteracy at thesame time halting the deterioration of theecosystem on which humankind depends tosustain life. Nonetheless, while the concept ofsustainable development is an important one,we should be careful to recognise some of theproblems and contradictions that its uncriticaluse may imply. Agenda 21 does not pretend torepresent the last word, or even the currentleading edge, as a consensus document, inapproaches to sustainable development(UNCED 1992). As mentioned within thedocument itself: It cannot hope to deal in afinal way with all the apparent contradictionsand difficult decisions needed to marry the

goals of human development and environmental quality in the 21st century. It ishowever a major step forward for theinternational community. Agenda 21 is and must remain a living document (UNCED 1992).

In September 2002 a World Summit Meeting

on Sustainable Development (WSSD) will beheld in Johannesburg, South Africa, to reviewthe progress of the global commitment tosustainable development and of theimplementation of Agenda 21. The summitwill be reinforcing components of sustainabledevelopment to ensure a balance existsbetween economic development, socialdevelopment and environmental protection, asthese are interdependent (UNCED 2002).

1.4 Sustainable tourism

Inappropriate tourism developments producenegative impacts on natural and culturalenvironments. Life cycle assessments oftourism consumption indicate tourism is a largeconsumer of natural resources. The so-calledecological footprint of tourism is large.Consequently, poorly managed tourism can:

degrade heritage sites;

commodify the sacred;

create a market for prostitution and drugs;

reduce biological diversity;

destroy habitat for wildlife;

pollute lakes, rivers and coasts;

overuse valuable fresh water resources;

contribute significantly to global warming;

lead to a loss of scenic beauty; and

reduce the pleasure and satisfaction

obtained from an unspoilt environment.Experiences throughout the world show thatpoorly planned and managed tourism thatfails to support its environment base, results ina falling market share and sows the seeds ofits own destruction (APEC 1996).Environmental deterioration will inevitablylead to economic deterioration, where theimpacts of poorly planned and managedtourism development results in long-termproblems that outweigh the short-termeconomic benefits that tourism may bring(APEC 1996). With the potential for self-destruction, achieving a more sustainableoption is becoming the most important issuefacing tourism.

Sustainable tourism development is describedas: Sustainable tourism development meetsthe needs of the present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing theopportunity for the future. It is envisaged asleading to management of all resources in

such a way that economic, social and aesthetic

needs can be fulfilled, while maintaining

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Energy,Water,

Air,Habitat,Waste,

Wildlife


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5

1. APEC TWGSurvey results

According to the surveys, 15 APEC economies (75%),have a peak tourism industry association. Of these 15 peak tourismorganisations only 4 have developed a set of sustainabledevelopment

principles for thetravel and tourism

industry.

(see Appendix 1for more details)

cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems (WTO) (UNEP 2001).

Since natural and cultural resources are thecore of many tourism products, tourism hasthe potential and responsibility to encouragesustainable development in the countries andcommunities in which it operates (WTTC,WTO and Earth Council 1996).

Tourism can give value to local cultures andnatural environments and can act to enhancetheir protection by (WTTC & IHRA 1999):

increasing consumer commitment tosustainable development principles

through tourisms unparalleledcommunication channels; and

providing an economic incentive toconserve natural, environments andheritage places.

Travel and tourism was identified at the 1992UNCED, Rio Earth Summit Meeting, as oneof the sectors able to make positivecontributions to achieving sustainabledevelopment. As a result in 1994 the WTTC,WTO and the Earth Council launchedAgenda 21 for the Travel & Tourism Industry(UNCSD 1999a). This document containspriority areas for action with definedobjectives and suggests steps to be taken toachieve them. It provides a framework forsustainable tourism, highlighting how it isfundamentally linked to sustainabledevelopment, and demonstrates theenormous benefits in making the industrysustainable (WTTC, WTO and Earth Council1998). It explains the importance of optimumuse of resources, ensuring environmental,

socio-cultural and economic sustainability(UNEP 2001).

The document also emphasises theimportance of partnerships betweengovernment, industry, non-governmentalorganizations and local populations, in orderfor tourism benefits to reach all stakeholders.Sustainable tourism planning andmanagement approaches can promoteefficient use of resources, minimiseenvironmental damage and share benefits

equitably. The approaches taken however,must be well suited to the characteristics of

the destination site, as well as to the,political, legal and cultural institutions of theeconomy (APEC TWG 1996). Sustainabletourism can provide economic benefits to aneconomy as a whole, improving livingstandards for local residents and maintainingor even increasing the quality of the localenvironment (APEC TWG 1996).Safeguarding the quality of the local culturaland natural environment ensures adestination that is unique. This is importantfor destinations in maintaining or gainingtheir competitive advantage.

Following the UN Commission onSustainable Development 7th meeting in1999, which focused on sustainable tourism,

the WTO worked with interestedstakeholders to develop a Global Code of Ethics for tourism (Box 8) (WTO 1999). Thissets a global frame of reference for thesustainable and responsible development ofworld tourism (WTO 1999).

For APEC member economies, thedevelopment of sustainable tourism is animportant consideration. Spatially dispersed,

job-creating tourism, that is environmentallyand culturally sensitive is greatly desired inmany APEC member economies, as analternative to extractive and pollutingindustries, or to migration to cities andresulting urbanisation (APEC TWG 1996).APEC has already shown its commitment tosustainable and viable tourism growth in itsregion, through adopting, together withPATA, the APEC/PATA code for sustainabletourism (Box 32) (APEC & PATA 2001). Thiscode acts as a guide for APEC activities andpromotes sustainable tourism principles tomembers and affiliates.

Also, the APEC Tourism Working Groupreflects its commitment to sustainabletourism in one of its four policy goals, whichsets out to: Sustainably manage tourismoutcomes and impacts (APEC & PATA 2001).


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1.5 Public and private sector roles inachieving sustainable tourism

1.5.1 Public sector role

Governments establish the legal, policy and institutionalframework in which the tourism industry functions andsustainable development can be achieved (UNEP 2001).

National Government

The role of national governments is to set the broad policyagenda and provide the framework in which developmenttakes place (WTTC, and IHRA. 1999). Governments can andshould provide a lead for integrating travel and tourism intooverall policy for sustainable development (UNEP 2001).There is a need to ensure Agenda 21 principles are

incorporated into tourism policies and strategies at national,regional and local levels (UNCSD 1999 a), to ensure thattourism is balanced with broader economic, social andenvironmental objectives (UNEP 2001).

a. Regulation:Governments establish the legal and regulatoryframework for overall economic development,including planning and development control,environmental protection and heritage conservation(UNCSD 1999b). For example, this might involveestablishing tourism development agencies; protected

areas and institutions to manage them; taxationbenefits to encourage environmental best practise;education and training programs; and so on.

b. Infrastructure and facilities:Governments provide a great deal of infrastructure,such as, ports, roads, waste management and potablewater supply, crucial for tourism development. Theyalso ensure that the design and location of privatelyowned travel & tourism infrastructure is sustainableand upholds nationally agreed development standards.Governments should support performance relatedincentives for responsible development and operationof tourism facilities, to enhance the up-take of bestpractice innovation.

c. Marketing and promotion:Governments often invest in marketing and promotingtourism destinations within their country. It isimportant that the message contained in suchpromotion enhances sustainability principles.Conditions for sustainable consumer behaviour can beimproved by promoting sustainable tourism facilities,environmentally friendly modes of transport andrenewable sources of energy (UNCSD 1999 b).

d. Education and training:Governments are major providers of education andtraining. They need to support public educationprograms to raise awareness of sustainability principlesamongst consumers (UNCSD 1999 a). This involvesencouraging responsible consumption and use of naturalresources, environmental protection and local cultureconservation. Introducing training and educationprograms in environmental management and sustainabletourism development for guides, tour operators andmarketers, is also important. Finally, sustainabledevelopment education should be incorporated into thecurricula of hospitality, tourism and related courses incolleges and universities (UNCSD 1999 b).

Local Government

Action at the local level is vital in moving towardsustainable development. Local Agenda 21 (LA21)provides a forum for local people to come together withtourism operators and share common concerns and reachsolutions that benefit local people. LA21 helps developand support programs that revitalise the diverse aspects oflocal cultures. This builds the capacity of a destination tohost tourism and ensures sound and effectivemanagement and product development of destinations(UNCSD 1999b).

Of the three levels of government, local government is theone involved most directly with communities andindividuals, and therefore provides the on-the-groundinterface where most government policies areimplemented (Worboys et al. 2001). The problem is thatoften the role of local governments is very limited in itsscope.

At the local level, sustainable development is achieved bysteering local development activities to simultaneouslyachieve 3 objectives (The International Council on LocalEnvironmental Initiatives (ICLEI 1999):

Increase local social welfare;

Achieve greater and more equitable distribution oflocal economic wealth; and

Enhance integrity of local ecosystems.

Local authorities provide social services, build economicinfrastructure, regulate economic activity and managenatural environment. Consequently they are able todirectly influence the direction of local tourismdevelopment (ICLEI 1999). Another important role localauthorities play, especially in a global economy, is to act as

facilitators amongst diverse interest groups that existwithin a community. This is important as it assists to define

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community interests as a shared vision and guides actionconsistent with that vision.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

NGOs play a key role in representing and acting for thecommunity. NGOs range from small local institutions suchas womens groups to large global organizations such asWWF (UNCSD 1999a).

NGO roles include:

Bringing together key players and decision makers todiscuss areas of common interest or concern (WTTC &IHRA 1999).

Promoting consensus on the need for action and in

influencing decision makers;

Participating with industry in awareness raisingcampaigns and education activities to minimise theimpacts of consumer behaviour and consumptionpatterns;

Assisting with measurement and monitoring ofprogress towards sustainable tourism (UNCSD 1999 a);

Supporting educational awareness programs ontourism for local people;

Playing an important role in advocating bottom-upapproach in tourism planning, development andmanagement through putting pressure on theindustry and facilitating contracts and localparticipation for community development;

Initiating stakeholder dialogue on communityinvolvement in tourism development;

Promoting respect for indigenous peoples and localcommunity self-determination, autonomy and socialand cultural integrity;

Promoting consultation processes in tourism planning;

Strengthening efforts to empower disenfranchisedgroups (in particular women);

Promoting relevant research; and

Monitoring tourism developments (UNCSD 1999 b).

International organisations

Tourism is a very global industry, and not surprisingly avariety of international organisations have developed to

represent the various stakeholders in the tourism system.Some of these are United Nations organisations such asUNEP. Others are a representation of governments, such asWTO and APEC; and still others represent industryassociations such as, WTTC and PATA. Such internationalorganizations can enhance global sustainability by:

Promoting global ethics and best practice and

Facilitating transfer of knowledge to industry sectors.

1.5.2 Private sector role

This section focuses on what initiatives the tourismindustry itself can take in order to improve itsenvironmental, cultural, social and economic profile andmake sure this is sustainable. It is important that both

small and large-scale tourism operators continuouslyimprove their sustainability performance (UNCSD 1999 a).The travel and tourism industry must ensure that decisions(investment, employment, operational and other business)take full account of the principles of Agenda 21 andcontinue to develop voluntary programs (self-regulation)to improve environmental management and enhancepositive social impacts. There should also be acommitment to education and environmental training ofstaff (WTTC & IHRA. 1999). By educating staff the traveland tourism industry can minimise negative environmentaland cultural impacts and create incentive schemes topromote sustainable behaviour (UNCSD 1999 b).

Further industry initiatives for sustainable tourism include(UNCSD 1999b):

Adopting environmentally sound technologies;

Implementing polluter pays principles;

Financing protected areas;

Encouraging destinations to support environmentalprotection and actions;

Promoting projects which are compatible with andsupport local cultures;

Facilitating local small and medium sized enterprises,which encourage local entrepreneurship;

Supporting industry awards for best sustainabilityperformance;

Encouraging a participatory approach to planning; and

Encouraging innovation of process and managementthrough adopting new technology.

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There is increasing recognition that companies shouldplace sustainable development issues at the core of theirmanagement process (UNCSD 1999 a). Agenda 21 for theTravel & Tourism Industry has summarised a key pointscompanies should adapt to achieve greater sustainability(WTTC, WTO and Earth Council 1996):

A statement of the companys commitment tosustainability objectives;

An assessment of the impacts of the business on theenvironment and local community;

Involvement of all staff and designation of an individualas responsible for environmental activities;

The development and publication of an environmental

policy (either stand-alone or as part of a missionstatement);

Identification of overall objectives for theenvironmental program; and

Definition of priority areas for action; this should focuson the priority areas identified by Agenda 21.

Specific action should include (UNEP 2001):

Responsible use of natural resources such as land soil,energy and water;

Reducing, minimising and preventing pollution andwastes including solid, liquid and atmospheric emissions;

Maintaining or enhancing biodiversity throughthe protection of plants, animals, ecosystems andsensitive areas;

Maintaining and enhancing cultural diversity throughthe protection of landscapes and cultural heritage;

Respecting the integrity of local cultures;

Co-operating with local communities and people;

Utilising local products and skills; and

Industry accreditation schemes.

True sustainable tourism however can only be achievedthrough the participation of the local community intourism, a so-called bottom-up approach. This will involvemajor participation of community owned businesses tohelp reduce financial leakage and support local

economies. The training and hiring of local people andcontracting with local businesses should be high on travel

and tourism agenda. Facilities such as accommodationshould be built and staffed by local people. Mostimportantly, there must be respect for local cultures andawareness of and sensitivity to local customary laws,regulations and traditions (UNCSD 1999 b).

1.5.3 Public/Private Partnerships

Although both enterprises and governments can individuallytake action to enhance sustainability, working together willachieve much more (UNEP 2001). The process ofcollaboration and partnership is a key element ofsustainable tourism development. This can best be donethrough partnerships involving: international bodies,governments, national tourism authorities, internationaland national industry associations, travel and tourismcompanies, NGOs and the voluntary sector (UNCSD 1999 a).

Public/private partnerships are essential in order to launcha dialogue process on sustainable tourism between allstakeholders and identify mechanisms and action plans toachieve sustainable development goals in tourism. Specificaims of public/private partnerships include (UNCSD1999 a&b):

Regulatory regime self-regulation and wherenecessary this is supplemented with regulation in areassuch as land-use and waste management;

Agreed indicators measuring progress towardsachieving sustainable development;

Agreed and widely used certification criteria;

Public funding programs on marketing and destinationdevelopment should have sustainable developmentprinciples as part of their eligibility criteria;

Research into sustainable tourism needs;

Environmental education and training programs;

Greater investment and use of new technology; and

Fair and non-discriminatory taxes with revenueallocated to environmental improvement programs.

The cumulative benefits of public/private partnerships,involving travel and tourism companies, local and nationalgovernment, communities and other industries, willoutweigh individual efforts and protect the quality of thetourism product (WTTC, WTO and Earth Council 1996).

The achievement of objectives will depend on the quality

of the partnerships. The most effective partnerships are

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those developed for mutual benefit (WTTC, WTO andEarth Council 1996).

They must include a wide and representative range ofstakeholders from the local community, who are able toplay an active role in partnerships (Bramwell and Lane2000). By involving a range of organisations, tourism cansignificantly contribute to the development of the localeconomy. There is an urgency to constructively shapetourism in order to support local development andconservation goals.

Effective travel and tourism partnerships should include(UNCSD 1999a; WTTC, and IHRA 1999; UNCSD 1999 b):

National governments raising the profile of social andenvironmental issues within the tourism industry;

Local Authorities engaging the local populationthrough including tourism issues in Local Agenda 21plans;

NGOs raising awareness of tourism issues in theirwork and activities and provide feedback to the traveland tourism industry;

International organizations partnerships must beplanned within the framework provided by UN treatiesand declarations;

Development organizations to communicate withhost communities to understand their needs andrequirements; and

National and International Trade Associations, labourrepresentatives, education and training providers toincrease awareness and training of staff in social andenvironmental issues.

Public and private sector initiatives to establish and maintain effective partnerships

a. Public sector initiatives in participationGovernment departments, national tourism authoritiesand trade organizations can take a number of steps todevelop successful partnerships (WTTC, WTO andEarth Council 1996):

Offer support and assistance in the form of effectivelegislation where necessary, in order to encouragesustainable tourism initiatives and to help provide aclimate of self-action in the travel and tourism industry;

Offer a coordinating mechanism between government

departments with responsibility for sustainabledevelopment, travel & tourism and the environment;

Work to ensure that the policies developed and adviceoffered by government departments to the Travel &Tourism industry are consistent;

Facilitate information exchange between companiesand government agencies and local authorities to helpindustry develop more sustainable operations andproducts;

Recommend/introduce incentives and awareness-creation measures to assist the industry to adopt moresustainable procedures;

Promote sustainability accreditation schemes, whichencourage responsible entrepreneurship;

Encourage all branches of industry to train people in

environmental management;

Work with government to ensure that the necessaryinfrastructure is in place for companies to operate in anenvironmentally responsible manner (for examplesewage treatment plants, recycling facilities, etc.); and

Assist the travel and tourism industry to adopt suitabletargets for energy and materials use reduction, wasteminimization, fresh water resources management, andwaste water management and to achieve themconsistently.

b. Private sector initiatives in participationTravel and tourism companies should (WTTC, WTO andEarth Council 1996):

Foster dialogue between individual businesses toformulate solutions to joint problems;

Work with small and micro enterprises to buildmanagement skills, market development, andtechnology transfer;

Work with governments to establish an enabling

framework for the achievement of sustainabledevelopment;

Promote interaction between tourists and hostcommunities and so enhance the industrys potential tocontribute to increased understanding of othercultures; and

Incorporate the concerns of communities especiallyindigenous communities in the planning process sothat they effectively participate in sustainabledevelopment.

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Effective partnerships will result in the following benefits(Bramwell and Lane 2000):

Involvement by a range of stakeholders all of whomare affected by the multiple issues of tourismdevelopment and may be well placed to introducechange and improvement;

Decision-making power and control may diffuse to themultiple stakeholders that are affected by the issues,which is favourable for democracy;

The involvement of several stakeholders may increasethe social acceptance of policies, so that implementationand enforcement may be easier to effect;

Parties involved in policy-making may have a greater

commitment to putting the resulting policies intopractise;

More constructive and less adversarial attitudes resultfrom working together;

The parties who are directly affected by the issues maybring their knowledge, attitudes and other capacitiesto the policy-making process;

Greater innovation and effectiveness;

Learn much through working together learn thework and skills of other parties, develop negotiatingskills that help to make partnerships successful;

Improved coordination of policies and actions;

Greater consideration of the economic, environmental,social and cultural issues that affect the sustainabledevelopment of resources;

Greater recognition of the importance of non-economic issues and interests, which will strengthenthe range of tourism products available;

Pooling of resources of stakeholders, which may leadto their more effective use;

Resulting policies are more flexible and more sensitiveto local circumstances and to changing conditions; and

Non-tourism activities may be encouraged, leading toa broadening of the economic employment andsocietal base of a given community or region.

Not all partnerships however are effective. Some potentialproblems with collaboration and partnerships include(Bramwell and Lane 2000):

Only limited number of stakeholders participating;

Token partnerships to avoid tackling real problemshead on with all interests;

Actors may not reduce their own power or not bewilling to work together with unfamiliar partners orprevious adversaries;

Those stakeholders with less power may be excludedfrom the process or may have little influence onthe process;

Some key parties may be uninterested or inactive inworking with others, sometimes because they decideto rely on others to produce the benefits resulting froma partnership;

Some partners may coerce others;

Involving a range of stake-holders in the policy-makingmay be costly and time consuming;

The complexity of engaging diverse stakeholders inpolicy-making makes it difficult to involve themall equally;

There may be fragmentation in decision-making andreduced control over implementation;

The power of some partnerships may be too great,leading to the creation of cartels;

Some collaborative arrangements may outlive theirusefulness, with their bureaucracies seeking to extendtheir lives unreasonably.

One response to these potential problems to partnerships

for sustainable tourism is to strengthen the role of electedlocal government as an organisation able to facilitate andcoordinate in the work of partnerships, and also tomobilise debate, opinion and support where necessary.There is a need to see partnerships and collaborationwithin the context of the public interest as opposed toonly the market interest. Partnerships and collaborationsneed to be challenged by focusing on equity and access toall stakeholders in tourism planning and policy processes(Bramwell and Lane 2000).

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Achieving sustainability and in particular sustainable

tourism, requires a whole of community approach(Worboys et al. 2001).

This involves:

1. Environmental legislation and policy

2. Local community participation and socio-economic policy

3. Industry performance

4. Individual action

5. Sustainable tourism strategies

Sustainability involves participation from all groups andinstitutions in society. The following figure illustrates therange of human and ecosystem dimensions that need tobe considered in establishing sustainable policies andstrategies (Figure 2).

2.1 Environmental legislation and

policy

2.1.1 Legislation and planning

Environmental legislations and regulations are powers oflaw, introduced by government at national and provinciallevels that assists in protecting the natural environment inrestricting polluting or destructive activities that peoplemight pursue (Worboys et al. 2001).

This includes:

Environmental planning and development control

Policy reform and economic instruments

Conservation legislation (i.e. wildlife, forests)

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2. SUSTAINABLE TOURISM POLICY AND STRATEGIES

Figure 2: Sustainability dimensions (Prescott-Allen 2001)

HUMAN DIMENSIONS

ECOSYSTEM DIMENSIONS

HEALTH AND POPULATION

Physical and mental health,disease, mortality, fertilityand population change.

WEALTH

Economy, financial system,income, poverty, inflation,

employment, trade, materialgoods, infrastructure, basic

need for food, waterand shelter.

KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURE

Education, research, state ofknowledge, communication,

systems of beliefand expression.

COMMUNITY

Rights and freedoms,governance, institutions,

law, peace, crime,civil order.

EQUITY

Distribution of benefits andburdens between males and

females and amonghouseholds, ethnic groups,and other social divisions.

LAND

Diversity and quality offorests, farmland, and otherland ecosystems, including

their modificationconservation

and degradation.

WATER

Diversity of quality of inlandwater and marine

ecosystems, including theirmodification by dams andother structures, pollution

and water withdrawal.

AIR

Local and indoor air qualityand condition of theglobal atmosphere.

SPECIES AND GENES

Status of wild species andwild and domesticated (cropand livestock), populations,

genetic diversity.

RESOURCE USE

Energy and materials, wastegeneration and disposal andrecycling. Pressures from

agriculture, fisheries, timber,mining and otherresource sectors.


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Environmental planning and development control

The increasing use of land for tourism in manycountries has brought about conflictinginterests between tourists and the needs ofthe host population. To minimise potentialimpacts of land use conflict, nationaldevelopment plans must contain a set ofdevelopment guidelines for the sustainableuse of land, water and natural resources. Aneffective legislative framework is required,setting standards for physical facilities fortourism and land use in tourism development.These standards must then be successfullyenforced (Ceballos-Lascurain 2001).

There are various scales at which planning anddevelopment occurs:

National level

Regional level

Local level

The local level is the most important in tourism.Planning and regulation of tourism needs to bedestination specific, as the development impactof tourism will not be uniform. It varies widelywithin and between communities anddestination areas (Ceballos-Lascurain 2001).Therefore, it is important that tourismdestinations can develop within their boundariesto suit the specific requirements of their local

socio-economic and environmental situation.Importantly however, the consistency withoverall international, national, and regionalstandards and guidelines must be maintained(UNEP 2001). Careful planning and design,based on an understanding of local livelihoods,and an understanding of the type of tourist(s) acommunity wish to cater for, can greatlyminimise the negative impacts and enhance thepositive impacts of tourism.

Ecologically and socially conscious site design,design of infrastructure and landscaping, isindispensable to ensure harmony betweentourism development and environmentalprotection. There is a need for a holisticapproach to site planning and design.

Sustainable site planning and design can leadto a greater integration of tourism facilitiesand their natural surroundings, which can helplessen the environmental impact of thesefacilities (Ceballos-Lascurain 2001).

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) canbe an effective method in planning tominimising negative impacts of tourismdevelopments, as they help determiningwhether the project will be sustainable(UNCSD 1999a) (Box 1). An EIA aims toaddress and help avoid negativeenvironmental and social impacts that mayarise at an early stage of the developmentprocess. Alongside this, there also needs to beon-going monitoring of impacts.

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19 APEC economies (95%)

suggested they have national,

provincial or local planningregulations in

place to control the location of and type of tourist development (See Appendix 1for more details).


According to the survey results, in17 (85%) APEC economies tourismdevelopments arerequired toundertake anenvironmental impact assessment.(See Appendix 1for more details)

Box 1: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

An EIA in its simplest form is a planning toolimplemented at the early stages of a development orproject. It is the mandatory assessment of thecompliance of planned activities. It is a formalplanning process to try and predict theenvironmental consequences of proposeddevelopment activity. This then forms the basis forgranting or denying approval for a proposeddevelopment.

Key elements of an EIA are:

Scoping identify key issues and concerns ofinterested parties

Screening decide whether an EIA is requiredbase on information collected

Identifying and evaluating alternatives list alternative sites and techniques and theimpacts of each;

Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty review proposed action to prevent or minimise thepotential adverse effects of the project;

Issuing environmental statements report thefindings of the EIA.


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Policy reform and economic instruments

Increasingly, environmental economic instruments, such aspolluter pays principles (PPP), are being used to achieveenvironmental protection. They are an effective andefficient complement to traditional and widely usedregulatory controls. Under certain conditions, economicincentives are more likely to influence firms and individualsand attain desired environmental outcomes thanregulations alone (APEC TWG 1996).

The Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) implies that actual costsare internalised to operations (APEC TWG 1996). In otherwords, those who pollute the environment and destroybiodiversity should carry the costs of the negative effectspollution and loss of biodiversity create in society (UCEP).Making polluters pay should provide a disincentive to

pollute and simultaneously provide an incentive toimplement sustainable practices. This in turn shouldgenerate funds to compensate those in society thatexperience the negative effects of pollution. The concepthas the potential to encompass a mechanism to transformunsustainable practices to sustainable ones, whilesimultaneously providing financial resources to facilitatethe transformation (Greenpeace International).

Pollution and other sources of the environmentaldegradation should be reflected in the costs of goods andservices, which cause pollution in production and/orconsumption (Box 2). Existing market prices still do notaccurately reflect the total environmental costs involved(UCEP). There are however various incentives to makepolluters pay (APEC TWG 1996):

Direct (income) or indirect (tax) subsidies forenvironmentally consistent actions;

Taxes fees on emissions of pollutants orenvironmentally incompatible behaviour i.e. carbontraining (revenue programs) (Box 3);

Deposit-refund schemes that control management of

potentially harmful materials;

Tradable permits that increase flexibility and reducecosts of meeting specific environmental targets for likegroups of establishments;

Banking and offsets that help firms mitigate damagesefficiently when they are otherwise unavoidable; and

Performance bonds posted in advance of developmentthat help ensure delivery of environmentalcommitments during construction and operation.

Some potential problems with PPP include (UNCSD 1999 b):

when and how much the polluter should pay is oftenstill unclear;

how to set the level of the charge in order to achievethe desired level of pollution reduction;

how to identify polluters;

enforcement and control; and

the risk that investors or developers can pay a symbolicfine for imposed irreversible negative impacts on thelocal environment.

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Box 2: The real price

Timber prices do not usually include the total environmental costsof logging operations (e.g. loss of habitat, biodiversity andrecreational values etc.). Timber markets, like so many others, are

therefore subject to market failure. If added to the price of forestproducts, consumers would be better informed about theenvironmental costs involved. If cheaper, more environmentallyfriendly products are available they might then prefer them. Thepositive effects would be many: a cleaner environmental andimproved social welfare. Economists often refer therefore to theimportance of getting the prices right through public interventions,as a key environmental management policy tool.(UCEP)


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Conservation legislation

Resource legislation helps establish naturalareas, which in turn are managed bygovernment agencies (i.e. national parks).Such national parks, nature reserves and otherprotected areas help conserve a countriesbiodiversity.

Parks however, have experienced increasedpressures from resource users such asagriculture, forestry, mining and tourism.Effective strategies for protected areamanagement are very important for theconservation of these protected areas(Worboys et al. 2001). National parks andother protected areas are subject toregulations that minimise to a greater or lesserextent activities that threaten the areas

environmental carrying capacity and can act asindications of sustainability (Weaver andLawton 1999). IUCN (International Union forthe Conservation of nature; also referred to asthe World Conservation Union) and otherconservation organizations have made a hugeinternational effort to establish a world systemof protected areas (Worboys et al. 2001).

Intact and healthy ecosystems are becomingthe worlds most sought-after tourismdestinations (Lindberg 1999). Protected areas

and tourism will be discussed in more detail inSection 3.2.

2.2 Community participation andsocio-economic policy

As tourism has attained a major socio-economic role round the world, it must beensured that tourism is balanced with other

economic, social and environmental goals(Ceballos-Lascurain 2001). However, thetourism industry has been slow to integrateeconomic force with environmental and socialrequirements. While the industry may bewilling to improve their products and services(to be more sustainable in nature), there is aconflict between the industrys pursuit ofeconomic gains and social and environmentalresponsibility. For instance, increasing touristnumbers in a destination area will often leadto a competition of resources, wherefrequently tourists are supplied at the expenseof the local population. The social andenvironmental effects of tourism on localpeople can therefore be profound.

2.2.1 Community participation

On the contrary, tourism can be seen as avehicle to transform local communitiespositively and provide a more sustainablealternative (Elliott 1997). One of the mostwidely accepted principles in achieving this isthrough local community involvement in

tourism planning and management(Swarbrooke 1998). Community participation

14


According to the surveys, 19 (95%) APEC economieshavenational/provincial

policies in place for establishing parksetc to conservebiodiversity.

(See Appendix 1for more details)

5. APEC TWG

Survey results

According to the survey results, 15 (75%) APEC economies have

policies/strategiesin place for community

participation intourismdevelopment and management.

(See Appendix 1for more detail)

Box 3: Carbon trading

What is carbon trading? Carbon emissions trading regimes are usually tied tothe Kyoto Protocol designed to slow global warming.A carbon trading system allows the development ofa market through which carbon (carbon dioxide) orcarbon equivalents (other greenhouse gases such asmethane expressed in units of carbon relating to anequivalent warming capacity) can be traded betweenparticipants, whether countries or companies.

In an allowance trading system each participant isallocated an emissions limit. The participants canthen sell any unused component of the carbonallowance, obtained by reducing emissions belowtheir limit, or they can buy carbon credits fromothers, allowing them to exceed their original limit.

The participants would choose the least costalternative between reducing emissions or buyingadditional allowances from the marketplace.

In a credit trading system, each participant earnscredits for reducing emissions by more than isrequired. Credits can then be stored for future use orsale. Credit or allowance systems could coexist or beintroduced independently and one or the other maybe better adapted to specific.

How would carbon trading work? For a carbon trading system to operate effectivelythere needs to be:

effective emissions monitoring and reporting byparticipants;

independent verification of the emissions; and

an enforcement mechanism.

a number of other economic instruments, such ashigh penalties for non-compliance, should coexistwith trading.

(Australian Minerals & Energy EnvironmentFoundation 1997; The Carbon Trader 2002)


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in tourism can support and uphold local culture, tradition,knowledge and practises, maintaining diversity andcreating pride in heritage.

Community involvement and control of tourismdevelopment will also ensure that tourism revenue stays inthe host communities. This will enhance livelihoods andgenerate a profitable source of income, empower andmotivate local groups to direct cross-cultural exchange inthe way they wish and adopt practices, which conserve,protect and preserve the environment (UNCSD 1999 b).This will be discussed in more detail in Section 3.4.

2.2.2 Tourism leakage

The tourism industry is characterised by a high degree ofmonopoly, which implies a concentration of services and

profits into very few big transnational corporations. In manycountries, tourism facilities mostly belong to foreigners. Asa result, a significant amount of foreign exchange revenueleaks from the destination countries. Also, many touriststend to purchase most of their materials, products andservices in their country of origin. In turn, foreign exchangeearnings generated by tourism are retained by tourist-generating countries, rather than being retained by tourist-receiving countries (Benavides 2001).

Very often the investors are not approaching the localcommunity to see what it actually can provide. There is adanger that a global economy can undermine possibilitiesof individual countries and regions to control their tourismindustries and gain economically from tourism(UNCSD 1999b).

The multiplier effect from tourism is less significant thansometimes assumed. In order to minimise tourism leakage,there is a need for a move towards greater communityparticipation in tourism where local supply capacities arestrengthened so that products are produced and ownedby the local population (UNCSD 1999 b; Benavides 2001).Another factor in minimising leakage levels is to identifythe type of tourism that is being promoted. For instance,

high-income tourism requires the provision of very highquality and high priced goods. This may actually result inincreased leakage in some cases, despite the higherincome it may gener

8.publicprivatepartners apec 1 questionnaire baru

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