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A CASE STUDY OF LEARNER LANGUAGE ON WRITTEN

REFLECTION OF BAHASA INGGRIS I CLASS B STUDENTS

IN THEOLOGY FACULTY SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By:

Aloysia Berlindis Lasar

Student Number: 121214154

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2016

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on

A CASE STUDY OFLEARNER LANGUAGE ON WRITTEN REFLECTION OF

BAHASA INGGRIS I CLASS B STUDENTS INTHEOLOGY FACULTY SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

ByAloysia Berlindis Lasar

Student Number: 121214154

Approved by:

Advisor

\

Markus Budirahatjo, MEd., Ed.D.

11

4 May 2016


A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on



ByALOYSIA BERLINDIS LASAR

Student Number 121214154

Defended before the Board ofExaminersOn 1 June 2016

and Declared Acceptable

Board of Examiners

D E S MH ~-'/~I: r. . unarto, . urn. I'

: Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., Ed.M.~

: Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., Ed.M.

: Paulus Kuswandono, Ph.D.Chairperson

Secretary

Member

Member

Member : Markus Budiraharjo, M.Ed., Ed.D.

Yogyakarta, 1 June 2016

Faculty of Teacher Training and EducationSanata Dharma University

.Deanr--

// ,~~, ,~(;. ~.i' ':;1 "'.;! .. " """y'-~"~'A II

~... :~~/ ..Y~,.~ .:: ~:~_ "..:" _ 7

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iv

The greatest victory is

to beat yourself

I dedicate this Thesis for my incredible Mom and Dad,

Oncu de Rozari & Yos Lasar,

also

my heart guardians,

Mario Lasar and Pedro Lasar.

I, too,

present this as special “thanks!”

to the one I give my heart to, Dion Lamanepa


STATEMENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work

or parts of the works of other people, except those cited in the quotation and the

references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, 1 June 2016

The Writer


121214154

v


LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLlKASI

KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dhanna:

Nama : Aloysia Berlindis Lasar

Nomor Mahasiswa : 121214154

Demi pengembangan i1mu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dhanna karya i1miah saya yang berjudu1:



~

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan

kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dhanna hak untuk menyimpan,

menga1ihkan dalam bentuk media lain, menge101anya da1am bentuk pangkalan

data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau

media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya atau

memberikan royalti kepada saya se1ama tetap mencantumkan nama saya selaku

penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tangga1: 1 Juni 2016

Yang menyatakan


VI


vii

ABSTRACT

Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written

Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata

Dharma University. English Language Education Study Program, Department of

Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education,

Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Students of Theology Faculty in Bahasa Inggris I class B are considered

as second language learners. In that class, they were assigned to write reflections

related to topics discussed every two weeks. Using the writings, the researcher

analyzed learner language as defined by Ellis (2005). In writing a reflection, one

needs to use past tense appropriately so the message and values can be well

delivered. Using error analysis theory, this research elaborated learner language

further in order to complete the description with focus on errors of past tense

made by the students.

There were two questions to be answered. There were 1) how are the

written reflections of Bahasa Inggris I class B best described? and 2) to what

extent did the students’ personal experiences demonstrate their mastery of using

past tense as seen in the writing performance?

The research used qualitative inquiry. It was in a form of case study in

students of Bahasa Inggris I class B’s ten sets of writings as the sample of learner

language. To answer the first research question, a rubric of writing assessment

was used. In order to complete the description with specific focus of students’

mastery in using past tense, theory of error analysis also was used. To answer the

second research question, the researcher used interview as the data gathering

technique. In analyzing the data of interview, the researcher referred to notion of

source of errors proposed by Brown (1980).

The findings of this research were the description of the writings

completed with the result of error analysis in past tense and the analysis of

interview result. The description showed that these students achieved the lowest

point in terms of accuracy. The error analysis showed that most of them made

error in using form. As the confirmation, the analysis of interview result

elaborated that learners’ mother tongue, limited competencies in the target

language and context of language teaching that they had ever experienced impact

to the error making.

Keywords: learner language, written reflection, students of Bahasa Inggris I class

B, past tense, personal experience


viii

ABSTRAK

Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written

Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata

Dharma University. Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan

Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan,

Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Mahasiswa di Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B Fakultas Teologi memelajari

bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Di kelas tersebut, mereka diberi tugas

membuat refleksi tertulis berdasarkan tema-tema yang didiskusikan di kelas

setiap dua minggu sekali. Menggunakan tulisan-tulisan tersebut sebagai obyek,

peneliti menganalisis bahasa pelajar berdasarkan definisi yang diperkenalkan

Ellis (2005). Dalam menulis refleksi, penggunaan past tense harus tepat agar

pesan dan nilai refleksi bisa tersampaikan dan dimengerti dengan baik. Dengan

menggunakan teori analisis kesalahan, penelitian ini juga mengelaborasi lebih

jauh bahasa pelajar untuk mendukung deskripsi tersebut. Penjelasan itu

kemudian difokuskan pada kesalahan penggunaan past tense yang ditemukan

dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut.

Dalam penelitian ini, ada dua rumusan masalah: 1) Bagaimana refleksi

tertulis mahasiswa Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B di Fakultas Teologi dideskripsikan?

dan 2) Sejauh mana pengalaman pribadi para mahasiswa tersebut dalam belajar

bahasa Inggris mendemonstrasikan pemahaman mereka tentang penggunaan past

tense seperti yang tercermin dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut?

Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dalam bentuk studi

kasus terhadap sepuluh set refleksi tertulis dari para mahasiswa di kelas B

Bahasa Inggris I sebagai sampel dari bahasa pelajar. Untuk menjawab

pertanyaan pertama, peneliti menggunakan sebuah rubrik untuk mengevaluasi

tulisan-tulisan tersebut lalu kemudian dideskripsikan. Hasil analisis kesalahan

pada penggunaan past tense kemudian melengkapi deskripsi tersebut. Untuk

menjawab pertanyaan kedua, peneliti melakukan wawancara. Untuk menganalisis

hasil wawancara, peneliti merujuk pada konsep mengenai faktor penyebab

kesalahan yang dijabarkan oleh Brown (1980).

Temuan dari penelitian ini adalah deskripsi lengkap dengan hasil analisis

kesalahan yang ditemukan dari tulisan-tulisan tersebut dan analisis pada hasil

wawancara. Deskripsinya menunjukkan bahwa performa dalam hal grammar

pada tulisan-tulisan ini merupakan yang terendah. Hasil analisis kesalahan pada

penggunaan past tense menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan terbanyak dilakukan

dalam penggunaan bentuk past. Sebagai buktinya, analisis pada hasil wawancara

menunjukkan bahwa bahasa ibu, keterbatasan pemahaman konsep bahasa kedua

dan konteks pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang pernah diterima dan dialami para

mahasiswa berpengaruh besar terhadap kesalahan yang mereka lakukan.

Kata kunci: learner language, written reflection, students of Bahasa Inggris I

class B, past tense, personal experience


ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Above all, I praise the Almighty God, Jesus Christ, Holy Spirit and

Mother Mary for the wonderful grace and unstoppable blessings upon my life. I

dedicate this as the biggest thank to my incredible parents, ema Oncu de Rozari

and bapa Yos Lasar for the irreplaceble love, care and sacrifice for me. My

thankfulness also goes to my beloved little brothers, Ais and Edo, for their

prayers, spirits and love, especially during the process of finishing my study. My

special gratitude also goes to tta Dion Lamanepa, for his love, presence and

‘lessons’ of how to be faith and tough. I believe that God’s blessing has been

granted for me within the presence of Bapa Romo Datus Du’u, Pr., Om Romo

Richardus Muga Buku, Pr., Bapu Anton Tukan and family, Bapa Ambar

Hadipurnomo and family, and Kaka Romo Yance Sengga, Pr. I highly thank

their super love and support during my study.

It is an honor to have Mr. Markus Budiraharjo, M.Ed., Ed.D., as my

thesis advisor so I dedicate my major gratitude for his precious and meaningful

guidance from the very beginning of my thesis writing process. I am deeply

grateful also for having Miss Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., M.Trans. St., as my

academic advisor. She has spent her bunch of precious time to take care of and

love me. I also grant my deep appreciation to all lecturers of PBI Sanata

Dharma University. I am blessed to be the part of this big family and to get the

chance of being their student. I would like to adress my great thankfulness also to

all students of Bahasa Inggris I class B, Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma


x

University, academic year 2015/2016, especially for Fr. Nade, SSCC., Fr. Lius,

CMF and Fr. Jorgi, SCJ. May God always be with them.

I thank my constant companions in PBI ’12 Class F for accepting and

supporting me so my dream of being a teacher has grown very well. For all

members of English Mass Community and Campus Ministry I dedicate my

deep gratitude for giving me chance to grow better as a person. I also would like

to present my thankfullness to all members of Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa

Universitas Sanata Dharma Kabinet Menyala and the whole committee of every

event we had held in unforgottable togetherness. I learned how to be a leader and

‘a man for all’ from all of them. I address my appreciation and thankfulness also

to the big family of Flobamorata Paingan USD, where sweet memories,

unforgotten love and meaningful experiences I found. I thank to all members of

Rejoice Choir for boosting my mood and spirit everytime I am lost. For all my

friends in Kuliah Kerja Nyata, Program Pengalaman Lapangan, Titanium

SPD class, and Thesis class, I blow my special thanks also for standing beside

me through the whole process. All crew of English Action Days, Undergraduate

Conference, PROCESS 2013/2014, Gerakan 6000 Buku, would always remind

me the meaning of being a servant whole-heartedly so I thank them deeply. Last

but not least, I will never forget the presence of a true friend within Vania. I thank

her for her support and never ending patience upon me these years.

Finally, I would like to express my appreciation and gratitude for those

who had helped me during my study and living in Yogyakarta, whose name

cannot be mentioned one by one in here. All of them had painted beautiful


xi

pictures and written incredible stories in my life. I hope all of them still will be the

proofreaders for the living book I am writing. May God bless them all.

Sincerely,



xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................ i

APPROVAL PAGES .................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ........................................... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ......................... vi

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................... vii

ABSTRAK ....................................................................................................... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. xii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................ xv

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES .............................................................................. xvii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background .......................................................................... 1

B. Research Problems .............................................................................. 5

C. Problem Limitation ............................................................................. 6

D. Research Objectives ............................................................................ 6

E. Research Benefits ................................................................................ 7

F. Definition of Terms ............................................................................. 8


xiii

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description ....................................................................... 11

1. Analysing Learner Language ........................................................ 11

2. Error .............................................................................................. 15

a. Definition of Error .................................................................... 15

b. Types of Error .......................................................................... 16

3. Sources of Errors ........................................................................... 19

4. Past Tenses .................................................................................... 21

a. Simple Past ................................................................................ 21

b. Past Continuous ......................................................................... 21

c. Past Perfect ................................................................................ 22

d. Past Perfect Continuous ............................................................ 22

B. Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 22

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Research Method ................................................................................. 24

B. Research Participants .......................................................................... 25

C. Research Setting ................................................................................... 26

D. Research Instruments .......................................................................... 27

E. Data Analysis Technique .................................................................... 28

F. Research Procedure .............................................................................. 29

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Research Results ................................................................................. 32

1. Description of the Writings ........................................................... 32


xiv

2. Error Analysis on the Writings ..................................................... 36

3. Learners’ Personal Narratives ....................................................... 42

B. Discussion ........................................................................................... 57

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Conclusions ......................................................................................... 64

B. Recommendations ............................................................................... 66

REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 69

APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 71


xv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Types of linguistic knowledge ......................................................... 12

Table 2.2 Regularization errors in the misformation category observed in second

language learner production ........................................................... 19

Table 3.1 Error analysis on each learner presented in frequency and precentage

......................................................................................................... 29


xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Average Point Achieved by the Students in Each Category .................. 34

Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Average Point of Each Student ……………................ 36

Figure 4.3 Sample of Errors Identified in Writings ........................................ 40


xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A. Interview Transcription ................................................................. 71

Appendix B. Learners’ Errors ......................................................................... 80

Appendix C. Rubric for Writing ...................................................................... 89

Appendix D. Frequency of Error Type ........................................................... 92

Appendix E. Sample of Students’ Written Reflections ................................... 94


1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This research deals with the analysis of learner language produced in

writing and how the personal narratives of the writers demonstrate their mastery

on past tense. This chapter consists of some parts namely background of the

study, research problems, research limitation, research objectives, research

benefits and the description of terms.

A. Research Background

Facing the rapid development of technology and science these days,

English as it is used as a contact language - or is generally known as a lingua

franca- is becoming more important for everyone. It is used widely to

communicate among countries. Even literatures, verbal and non-verbal vital

communication nowadays are internationally conducted in English. People then,

who compete in the global areas from almost all of occupations, are required to

master English well. In other words, whether we like it or not, English is

becoming the minimum requirement to manage ourselves to survive.

In Indonesia, English is used as a second language. It is offered in our

formal education system from the early grade of schools, as a second language.

As it is important for international communication purposes, English then is

considered urgent to be introduced in academic processes. When the students

could manage themselves to master English properly, at least they can later have a


2

chance to break the challenge in global life competition. English proficiency

brings along that chance.

According to Brown (2007), “learning a second language is a long and a

complex undertaking. It makes the person will fully be affected by the struggle of

switching culture, feeling, way of thinking and acting from the mother tongue into

the second language” (p. 15). Further, Krashen (1981) introduces that language

acquisition is very similar to the process children use in acquiring their first and

second languages. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language in

which speakers concern not with the form of their utterances but with the

messages they are conveying and understanding. It shows that we still have the

way to accomplish a good result of second language acquisition among the

complexities.

These days, learning English is not merely perceived as an instrument by

nature. More than that, it also deals with some soft skills, such as self-reflexivity,

or discussions on values or morality. Those activities are in order to provide what

so called as meaningful interaction in the target language Krashen mentioned.

Therefore, even though the process of helping our second language learners

acquire English surely might be complicated, we have so many theories and

researches to help us. We are going to find the most suitable methods for the

learners of second language. Yet, the most important point to remember is that

we, ourselves, hold the control of constructing meaning towards the teaching and

learning processes. That is then surely hanged on teachers‟ hands. For the early

stage, as what Krashen (1981) believes, one of the ways to help the learner


3

acquire the second language easier is to provide the chance to get in touch

meaningfully with the target language. Teachers are required to be able to do that.

There are four skills required in language learning named speaking,

listening, reading and writing skills. According to Hyland (2003), writing is

among the most important skills that second language students need to develop.

Moreover, Troyka (1987) explains some reasons for it. First that writing is a way

of thinking and learning. Second, it is a way of discovering. Third, it can create

reading. Through writing, one expresses thoughts and learns to compose ideas.

During the process one can also discover things in many aspects since writing

itself requires the awareness of grammar and the skill of communicating ideas

using words. As the result, writing produces sources of information that can be

read by other people.

Borrowing Canale and Swain‟s (1980) framework, a second language

learner writer at least needs: grammatical competence – a knowledge of grammar,

vocabulary, and the language system; discourse competence – a knowledge of

genre and the rhetorical patterns that create them, sociolinguistic competence – the

ability to use language appropriately in different contexts, understanding readers

and adopting appropriate authorial attitudes; and strategic competence – the

ability to use a variety of “communicative strategy” (Hyland, 2003). Norrish

(1983) also states that when writing was the only of storing information, it was

vital that people should be educated to construct grammatically acceptable

sentences and be able to spell correctly (para. 8).


4

This research is conducted on the accomplishment of a language learner in

second language acquisition process through writing. Ellis (2005) explains some

types of data that can be studied in second language acquisition researches related

to the skill that a language learner required to accomplish. “One of the types is

non-linguistic performance data which involve measuring learners‟ non-verbal

responses to linguistics stimuli” (p. 15). Further Ellis (2005) explains:

They include measures of learners‟ reaction times to linguistic stimuli,

non-verbal measures of learners‟ comprehension of linguistic input, and

measures of learners‟ intuitions about the grammaticality or acceptability

of sentences. These measures enable inferences to be made about learners‟

linguistic knowledge based on their ability to process language

receptively. (p. 15-16)

The measurement offered by Ellis then would be used to construct an

overview on the learners‟ mastery of the language represented in their language

production. Specifically, the product would be writing. The objects of this study

are the students in an institution which enrolls education for Catholic Priests

candidates (a Seminary). For these seminarians, reflection writing is a habit

implemented for all of them from the early grade even as a part of daily activity.

Yet, it generally is conducted in Bahasa Indonesia. Referring to the concept which

holds a belief where providing the second language learner a medium to get in

touch with the target language meaningfully is beneficial for second language

acquisition processes, these students are introduced to write the reflection using

English. The introduction activity is conducted in their English class, by Mr.

Markus Budiraharjo, as a part of the subjects taken in their first semester.

Referring the idea of reflection writing as a habit for these students, writing


5

English reflection then is considered properly as a tool to provide a meaningful

activity in the process of acquiring English as their second language.

In this study, students‟ writing as the product of learning process is

analyzed especially in terms of how student use past tense. As they write

reflection, past tense presence matters. The role of past tense in the reflective

writing is important to reveal the story and ideas. That is why, it is important to

see the capability of the objects here in this study; how they understand the use of

past tense and to what extent they apply their knowledge about it in their writings.

Further, as Hillier (2005) states that people not only have different level of

experience and knowledge relevant to what we are having as the process of

learning activities, they also have different ways of it. This works the same in

their preferences. The notion gives the researcher idea to think about asking the

students for their personal narratives. This may give information to help

researcher forming a pattern of each student, to clarify their level of mastery in

using past tenses.

B. Research Problems

Referring to the previous explanations, there are some problems need to be

solved. Those are:

1. How are the written reflections of Bahasa Inggris I class B students best

described?

2. To what extent did students‟ personal experiences demonstrate their

mastery of using past tense as seen in the writing performance?


6

C. Problem Limitation

This study is limited to ten sets of written reflections and also personal

experiences of first-semester students of Theology Faculty, Sanata Dharma

University Academic Year 2015/2016. The sets of writings are reflection upon

four different topics. The reflections are in various forms. Two of them are in

forms of personal reflection, including personal opinion which is related to

personal experience. Another two are in forms of homily (type of reflection made

by clergy, to be shared and/or spoken). In those writings, the students are expected

to retell stories (based on video/children story presented in class and Bible stories

as well) then reflect them with their own opinion and finally relate it to deliver

particular value or message to the readers. Therefore, the presence of past tense is

important to be taken into account. The researcher considers past tense as the

focus for that reason. While personal experiences that are meant in this study were

revealed by the students which generally discussing their experience of learning

English as second language, being introduced to concept of past tense, the

learning process that they had ever got in the past and their mother tongue.

D. Research Objectives

This study is aimed to provide model of learner language in second

language learner‟s writing products. The results of error analysis would help

readers to have a glimpse of possibility error made by the learners and to complete

the description of the writings. Further, by analyzing these students mastery of

using past tense then defining their personal experience that demonstrate it, this


7

study contributes to informing the students (of Bahasa Inggris I class B) about

what should be improved in terms of their English and English writing skills.

E. Research Benefits

This research would be beneficial for some academic parties. It is expected

that this study would bring some benefits for the researcher, the students of

Bahasa Inggris I class B Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University

Academic Year 2015/2016, the ELESP students as the candidate teachers for

second language learners and also future researchers. Further would be elaborated

as follows:

1. For the researcher

This study is useful for the researcher in gaining the real model of second

language learner‟s writing production. It helps the researcher to get deeper

understanding on how second language learning process actually can be designed

later on if it is dealing with writing activity. Referring to its focus, which is past

tense, this study provides data of learner‟s common error. As it represents their

mastery of it, this supports the best description of learner language itself.

2. For the students

For the students of Bahasa Inggris I class B, this study can bring them

some enlighten in terms of their works. It is to identify their errors and reflect the

causes so that they can improve. Moreover, they also can consider writing

reflection as a regular activity outside class meeting as they can find the benefits:


8

easy way of learning English and also deepening their ability to reflect more and

more.

3. For the ELESP students

As English teacher candidates, students of ELESP also can gain some

benefits from this study. It can be in form of better knowledge of second language

learner‟s learning strategy and an option of teaching second language method.

Those might be helpful for them later on when they are about to implement

certain strategies of learning in their classes. May the result of this study also can

give them sort of guideline in understanding theories in second language learning.

4. For future researchers

For the future researcher, this study can be a reference to support further

research on the relevant topic in the future.

F. Definition of Terms

In order to help the readers having the same understanding of this study,

there are some terms that needed to be explained. Those terms related to this study

are:

1. Learner Language

Ellis (2005) describes learner language is the oral or written language

produced by learners. For the study of Second Language Acquisition, learner

language serves as a primary data.

2. Written reflection


9

There are 10 sets of written reflections used here in this study. The written

reflections were the products required by the lecturer of English subject (Bahasa

Inggris I class B), Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University, Academic

Year 2015/2016. Each set was written under four different topics related to

themes or issues discussed in the class. Two of the topics are related to Holy Bible

(in forms of homily), and the other two related to personal experience, opinion

and arguments about learning strategies and children stories.

3. Students‟ personal experience

In this research, the researcher conducted interview towards some

participants in order to gather data. The interviews were conducted under the

general topic namely „personal experience in learning English‟. The result of the

interview then called as personal experience.

4. Students of Bahasa Inggris I Class B

There were 22 male students undergoing their first semester in Theology

Faculty of Sanata Dharma University and taking Bahasa Inggris I class with Mr.

Markus Budiraharjo as the lecturer, Academic Year 2015/2016, when the data

were gathered. However, only 10 out of those 22 were taken as the objects of this

study. Those ten students are called here in this study „the students of Bahasa

Inggris I Class B.

5. Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University

Theology Faculty is one of the faculties in Sanata Dharma University

which enrolls undergraduate and postgraduate in Philosophy and Theology. The


10

male students that are studying in the faculty are generally Catholic priest

candidates (seminarians).


11

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter consists of some theories from related literature that are used

by the researcher to conduct the analysis in this study. The major parts of this

chapter are theoretical description and theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

Researcher reviews on some literature to find out some theories of learner

language and the language competencies required to describe written reflection of

Bahasa Inggris I class B students in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma

University and to define their personal narratives. Researcher found some major

theories that meet to support the analysis on this study.

1. Analysing Learner Language

According to Ellis (2005), learner language serves as a primary data for

second language acquisition research. For many SLA researchers the goal of SLA

is the description and explanation of L2 learners‟ competence and how this

develops over time.

Further he explains that there are implicit and explicit knowledge that

cover what so called learners‟ competence. Implicit knowledge is the kind of

knowledge we gain from our L1 (mother tongue). The implicit knowledge we

produce is unconcious and spontaneous.


12

Implicit knowledge is the kind of knowledge we possess of our mother

tongue. That is, it is unconscious and is proceduralized so that is available

for automatic use in spontaneous production. (p. 5)

While explicit knowledge is the vice versa. Ellis explains that explicit knowledge

is produced under learner‟s consciousness.

Explicit knowledge is consious and declarative. It consists of both

conscious awareness of the same minor and major schemas that figure in

implicit knowledge (but represented in an entirely different mental form)

and of the metalanguage that can assist in verbalizing this analyzed

knowledge (p. 6).

Table 2.1 Types of linguistic knowledge

Type of Knowledge Sub-types Definitions

Implicit (procedural) Formulaic Sequence of elements that are

stored and accessed as ready-

made chunks

Rule-based Unconscious knowledge of

major and minor schemas

consists of abstract linguistic

categories realizable lexically

in an indefinite number of

sentences/utterances

Explicit (declarative) Analysed Conscious awareness of

minor and major schemas

Metalingual Lexical knowledge of

technical and non-technical

linguistic terminology.

However, Ellis (2005) raises a big question about what kind of

performance of a learner‟s language that provides the most reliable and valid

source of information. According to him, there are many ways of it. A researcher

may depend on his intuition in term of judgements about the grammaticality of

sentences presented in discovering what the learner knows about the language.

Other researchers may prefer to collect samples of learner language and analyse

the grammar produced.


13

On one hand some SLA researchers choose to rely on learner intuition (in

the form of judgements about the grammaticality of sentences presented to

them) to discovering what they know. Other researchers, especially those

of a more functional orientation, prefer to collect sample of learner

language. Not surprisingly analyses based n grammaticality judgements

and on learner language frequently produce different results. (p. 6)

As the heterogeneous of the linguistic performance in learner language,

Ellis also offers several options of solution. Tarone (1983) says it is “to redefine

competence as its variable” (as cited Ellis, 2005, p. 6), or to identify one type of

performances as the preferred source of information about competence, or to

recognize the need of multiple sources of performance data and look for points of

confluence as evidence of what learner knows.

In analysing learner language, Ellis also states that we can view the learner

language in two entirely distinct ways; learner language viewed as the expressions

and as the content. Both views may serve distinct forms of information. As

researcher, Ellis states, one can choose whether, first by examining the linguistic

forms produced by the learners as the evidence of what they know about the L2.

Second, by viewing it as the set of propositions relating to whatever topics which

are being communicated about. First view gives researcher information about

learners‟ beliefs and attitudes to the target language and also their behaviour that

they gain through the process of learning the language. (Ellis, 2005).

In this research, error analysis was chosen in order to analyze learner

language as Ellis describes. Corder (1974) then proposes the following points as

the steps a researcher can do to analyse the error (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 57).


14

a). Collecting a sample of learner language

In this step, Corder (1974) suggests that the researcher should be aware that the

nature of the sample that is collected may influence the nature and distribution of

the errors observed (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 57). However, Corder also shares

other possibilities that a researcher can do to keep the originality of the data. He

suggests that a researcher may wish to sample errors more generally by collecting

a broad sample reflecting different learners, different types of language and

different production conditions.

However, it is advisable to provide full and explicit description of the

learner productions that make up the sample so that the effect of different

variables on errors can be examined post hoc. (p. 58)

b). Identifying the errors

In order to identify the errors, Ellis states that the researcher should

involve the comparison between what the learner produced with what a native

speaker counterpart would produce in the same context. In this research, the

researcher uses general concept and rules of English past tense as what so called

„a native speaker counterpart production‟ as what Ellis mentions.

c). Describing the errors

Corder (1974) writes that “the description of errors is essentially a

comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances and the

reconstructed utterance” (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 60). Again, he emphasizes that

to describe the errors, the researcher needs to identify how the forms produced by

the learner differ from those produced by the native‟s speaker counterparts.

Further, he mentions these two steps: “the development of a set of descriptive


15

categories for coding the errors that have been identified and recording the

frequency of the errors in each category” (p. 60).

d). Explaining the errors

In here, Ellis explains that the rule of identifying source of errors works.

He mentions psychological and sociolinguistic sources of errors as what are used

in research for second language acquisition. Meaning to say that, Ellis proposes

that in explaining the errors, the researcher elaborates why do the students make

certain errors. Further in this researcher, the researcher also looks at what other

experts say about errors source in language learning process. Later would be

discussed more in the part of sources of errors.

e). Evaluating errors

Ellis states this is not so much a stage in the analysis of learner errors as

supplementary procedure. A reseacher needs to involve other steps in order to

conduct an evaluation of errors (para. 67). In this research, the researcher only

want to describe the writings and specifically the errors in order to provide models

for language teacher about learner language. Therefore, this step is considered as

not necesarry to be done here in this research.

2. Error

a. Definition of Error

Corder (1974) writes: “the description of errors is essentially a

comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances and the

reconstructed utterance” (p. 128). So the description of error involves the

identification of the difference between what is produced by the learner and the


16

one produced by the native speaker. Here researcher refers to the two taxonomies

that are introduced by Dulay, Birt and Krashen (1982).

According to Dulay and Krashen, errors are the flawed side of learner

speech or writing. People cannot learn language without first committing errors.

To analyze error, here are the taxonomies that James (1998) states that those had

been used; (1) a linguistic taxonomy and (2) a surface structure taxonomy.

However, James also states that it is also possible to combine those two. Dulay

and Krashen mention the other two taxonomies used for the descriptive

classification of errors. Those are comparative analysis and communicative effect.

Further it is explained that the discussion of these descriptive taxonomies is

served to some major aims. Dulay and Krashen say:

Discussion of these descriptive taxonomies is guided by two major

purposes: to present error categories which rely solely on observable (rather

that inferred) characteristics for their definition; and to report the findings

of research conducted to date with respect to error types observed. (p.146)

b. Types of Errors

1). Error Types Based on Linguistic Category

The errors are classified based on the language category which includes

phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), semantics and

lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).

2). Error Types Based on Surface Strategy Taxonomy

According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen‟s (1982: 150) surface taxonomy is

based on „the ways surface structures are altered‟ in erroneous


17

utterances/sentences. There are four principal ways in which learners modify the

target language:

a). Omission

Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must

appear in a well-formed utterance. Even generally any morpheme or word in a

sentence is possible to be omitted, some of them are more often to appear

compared among others. Content morphemes (nouns, verbs, adjectives and

adverbs) are included. For example:

Mr. Kopong is now our new Physics teacher.

The words, Mr. Kopong, Physics, our, teacher, are the content morphemes that

carry primary meaning. Reader can still understand if one says

Mr. Kopong our Physics teacher

On the contrary, it could not be understood if it is only grammatical morphemes

(including articles, verb auxiliaries and preposition):

is new

Dulay and Krahsen state that language learner omits grammatical

morphemes much more frequently than content words.

b). Additions

Additions are characterized by the pressure of an item which must not

appear in a well-formed utterance. Language learners, both in first and their

second language have been observed to add in three ways. First is double

marking, which is a type of error that occurs when learner produces double

marker in the utterance/sentences. For example: one says


18

We didn’t went there.

Because two items marked for the same feature (didn’t and went indicate past

tense), it is called double marking error. The second is regularization is a rule

typically applies to a class of linguistic items, such as the class of main verbs or

the class of nouns. For example, when learners produce sheep in form of plural as

sheeps, the same way in producing words like fishes, putted, or cutted as if they

are applied the same rule as the regular plural nouns. The third is simple addition

errors. Actually books say that no particular features characterize simple addition,

as long as the additional element is not double marking error nor regularization

error.

- c). Misformation. It is a type of errors which are characterized by the use of the

wrong form of the morpheme or structure. Unlike in omission errors where

learner supplied nothing, in misformation learner supplies something although it

is incorrect. In misformation that are some sub-types there are first, regularization

errors. Regularization errors are those in which a regular marker is used in place

of an irregular one, such as in runned for run or gooses for geese. The second is

called archi-forms which are the error made in using form. For example, the

learner happens to select just one of the demonstrative adjectives in producing

noun phrase.

That dog

That dogs

So that here is selected to accompany both singular and plural form of noun. The

third sub-type is alternating form. Learner may alter the morpheme in incorrect

place for example the using of don’t + verb is alternated with no + verb.


19

Table 2.2 Regularization Errors in the Misformation Category Observed in Second

Language Learner Production

Linguistic Item

Misformed

Examples*

Reflexive pronoun Hisself (himself)

Regular past I falled (fell)

Plural Gooses (geese)

Childs (children)

*these examples are taken from raw data collected by Dulay and Burt via the

Billingual Syntax Measure (lower and upper grade version) and unstructured

natural conversation, unless otherwise specified.

Source: Language Two. Dulay and Krashen page 159.

d). Misordering. It is type of errors which is characterized by the incorrect

placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance/sentence. For

example, he is all the time late instead of he is late all the time.

3. Sources of Errors

Brown (1980) proposes three primary points as sources of errors that

commonly affect the process of one‟s language learning. There are interlingual

transfer, intralingual and context of learning. These three factors are used as the

basis of analyzing learner‟s personal experience to answer research question

number two. Furthermore, Corder (1973) also proposes similar concept of factors

that make a learner produces an error namely nature of mother tongue, basis

analogy, nature of teaching and teaching materials. Generally, they are quite the

same with what Brown has proposed.

Hence, in this study, the researcher used the theory of Brown. Where

interlingual transfer can cause learner‟s errors for the interference of his/her

mother tongue (L1). The strong influence of a learner‟s mother tongue can raise


20

confusion in producing same, for instance, sentences in the target language. For

example, when a Bahasa speaker is learning concept of the use of past tense. He

might be confused to understand that the form of a verb would be changed when it

is used in a sentence, based on the time mark (tense), whether by adding –d or –ed

(if regular verbs) or by using the other form (for irregular verbs). Since in bahasa,

there is no concept alike. When the time is different, the words is replaced by

another new word instead of having form changing in a verb as we have in

English.

Intralingual as mentioned by Brown (1980: 173) makes learner produces

an error for the nature of the target language. There might be confusion on the

learner as the presence of rules and formulas in the target language. Afterwards,

Brown also stated that intralingual cause of error can be identified when there is

kind of overgeneralization in using certain rules in a language done by a learner.

The third, as Brown proposed is the nature of language teaching. This

includes material, method and teacher of the language itself that can make learners

misunderstand the concept or essence of the language or can also cause the learner

to hold false belief in learning the elements of the language.

In Second Language Acquisition scope, Ellis (2005) states that their

concern in analysing learner language is psychological source of error. He

elaborates as errors that made relating to the processing mecahnism involved in

L2 use and to the nature of the L2 knowledge system (Ellis, 2005 p. 62) which

similar to what Brown proposes above. Hence, we can use either what is in

Brown‟s and Ellis‟.


21

4. Past Tenses

Azar (1999) defines past tense as tense that indicates an activity or

situation that began and ended at a particular time in the past.

a. Simple Past

1). Simple past form of a verb is V2. Example: lived for live, started for start,

wrote for write, died for die. Murphy (1985), explains that often the past simple

ends in –ed for regular vers and many other does not ends in –ed (those are

irregular verbs).

I

She

They

enjoyed

saw

went

2). In questions and negatives we use did/didn’t + infinitive. Examples:

3). The past of be (am/is/are) is was/were. Examples:

I/he/she/it was/wasn’t

We/you/they were/weren’t

b. Past Continuous

We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of

doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started

before this time but had not finished. The formula is:

was/were + V-ing

Examples:

Did

you

she

they

enjoy?

see?

go?

I

she

they

didn’t

enjoy

see

go

Was I/he/she/it?

Were We/you/they?

I/he/she/it was

We/you/they were

Playing

Doing


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c. Past Perfect

We use past perfect to talk about things that happened before a certain

starting point. For example, when Sarah arrived at party, Paul wasn’t there. He

had gone home. So the starting point meant is when Sarah arrived. It happened in

the past. The formula for past perfect is:

had + past participle (V3)

Examples:

- When we got home last night, we found that somebody had broken

into the flat

- At first I thought I had done the right thing, but I soon realized that I

had made a serious mistake

d. Past Perfect Continuous

We use past perfect continuous to talk about things that happen in the past

during certain period of time. For example: It was not raining when I looked out

of the window; the sun was shining. But it had been raining before. That’s why

the ground is wet. The formula for past perfect continuous is:

had + been + -ing

Examples:

- When the boys came into the house, their clothes were dirty, their hair

was untidy and one of them had a black eye. They had been fighting.

- I was very tired when I arrived home. I had been working hard all day.

B. Theoretical Framework

Writing is a complex skill. It requires not only the way of thinking and

imagining what ideas to write about but also how to write it. In order to be able to

produce a good writing, one is required to master various elements of the

language itself so that the ideas can be delivered well. Students of Theology


23

Faculty of Sanata Dharma University had been introduced and accustomed to

activity of writing and reflecting (as a part of daily activity in Seminary),

eventhough it is conducted still in Bahasa. Mr. Markus Budiraharjo who was

teaching English in Bahasa Inggris I class B, Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma

University, academic year 2015/2016, proposed set of assignment of writing

reflection using English for the students to be done. The researcher then

considered writing as the suitable tool to enrich students‟ (of Bahasa Inggris I

class B) experience in learning English as their second language. Here in this

study, using the theory of analysing learner language by Ellis (2005), the

researcher is trying to provide a full description of the writing produced by those

students. The rubric was formed with adaptation from what proposed by Brown &

Bailey (1984) entitled „analytical scale for rating composition tasks‟. The rubric

helps the researcher to describe the writings of these students.

Further, the researcher considers the use of English past tense in the

activity of writing reflection hold an important role. One could not reflect and

retell the experience or events (in order to reflect or flashback) properly in writing

without having a well understanding about the use of past tense. Using the theory

of error analysis, the reseacher described the writings and mapped the students‟

mastery of past tense. Afterwards, Brown‟s theory which elaborates the source of

error in a process of language learning is used to help researcher analyse the

learner‟s personal narrative. By conducting interview, the researcher then find out

the source of errors from the writers and retell their experience that clarify their

mastery of English past tense as reflected in their writing.


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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher discusses how the research was conducted.

The chapter consists of six parts which are research method, research participants,

research setting, research instruments, data analysis technique, and research

procedure.

A. Research Method

The research method used in this study was qualitative research.

Qualitative research is defined by Lichtman (2003) as a way of knowing that

assumes that the researcher gathers, organizes, and interprets information with his

or her own eyes and ears as filter. Lichtman (2003) also mentions that qualitative

research often involves in-depth interview and/or observations of humans in

natural, online, or social setting.

Further, Lichtman (2003) explains that in qualitative research, the

researcher constructs the reality and he/she is the central. The interpretations that

might appear are based on the researcher‟s experience and background. The

purpose of this method is to understand and interpret social interaction.

This research was in the form of a case study, which according to Yin

(2012) the case serves as the main „unit of analysis‟. The case study research is

not limited to a single source of data. Therefore it also enables the implementation

of triangulation evidence from multiple sources.


25

Sherman (1930) states that the purpose of “a qualitative research is not

verification of a predetermined idea, but discovery that leads to new insights”

(p. 5). Therefore, the researcher in qualitative research depends on natural setting.

In this study, the research used content analysis as the method in interpreting the

data. Silverman (1993) says that textual analysis which includes in content

analysis method is used to understand the participants‟ categories. Therefore, the

use of this method is considered relevant since this study specifically describes

learners‟ writing and analysis the learner language.

B. Research Participants

The researcher chose 10 first-semester students of Bahasa Inggris I class

B in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University, academic year 2015/2016,

who took the class with Mr. Markus Budiraharjo as the participants of this

research. Since only those ten that have already done writing in four topics

assigned by the lecturer. The rest of the class did not complete the four topics. The

four topics are namely: “Learning Strategy”, “Experience of being Forgiven”,

“Homily based on the Bible” and “Reflection on Children Stories”. The

participants did not know that their writings were intended to be analyzed in term

of their mastery on English past tense. That was done on purpose as the researcher

wanted to keep the learners produce their writing as what it is. Also this brings

them chance to write with their pure understanding of past tense. Then, three out

of these ten were interviewed to find the answer of question number two. Later, in


26

the discussion part, due to keep the neutrality and to respect these participants,

they are then called as P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, and P10.

C. Research Setting

The research was conducted in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma

University. It is because the students of Theology Faculty are all Catholic priest

candidates who have accustomed to reflection writing activity. The researcher

then believes that the data, which are the writings of the students, are relevant to

the study. Further, the location of the campus where the participants are studying

is reachable for the researcher. That was very helpful since the researcher also

needed to meet the students to gather the data.

The researcher gathered the writings which were sent from the lecturer‟s

email. The data started to be gathered on September 26th

2015 of which are the

writings of first topic “experience of being forgiven”. The writings with the

second topic which is “learning strategies” were received via email on November

4th

2015. After that, on November 13th

2015, the third writings on topic “reflection

on children story” were received. The fourth writings on topic “homily based on

the Bible” were received on November 23th

2015.

All data were analyzed during November 2015 until February 2016. The

interviews towards three participants were conducted in three different places and

time. The first interview was conducted to P2, on Saturday, 16 April 2016, at 11

a.m. in Realino stage, Kampus I USD Mrican. The second interview was

conducted to P9, on Monday, 18 April 2016 at 11 a.m. in Kampus V USD


27

Kentungan. While the last interview was conducted to P1 on Wednesday, 20 April

2016 at 3 p.m. in Scolatikat SCY, Kentungan.

D. Research Instruments

1). Document

Merriam (2009) defines document as „a ready-made source of data easily

accessible to the imaginative and resourceful investigator‟ (Merriam, 2009 p.

139). Further, Dalen (1979) explains that the materials used in document analysis

can be in form of „official records or any written, printed, verbal, or pictorial form

(para 290). In this research, the documents are the students‟ sets of written

reflection. The writings were gathered by the researcher through email. All the

writings were sent by the students via email to the lecturer then were forwarded

by the lecturer to the researcher. After gathering the data, the researcher classified

the writings according to the topics and the writers. In analyzing the writings, the

researcher then adapted a rubric proposed by Brown & Bailey (1984) entitled

„analytical scale for rating composition tasks‟ as the standard used to assess the

writings.

2). Interview Guide

In order to gather the data for answering the second research question, the

researcher made use of interview guide as one of the instruments in this research.

Ary et. Al (2010) mentions some advantages in using interview to collect data in a

qualitative research. According to him, the first advantage is for the researcher. By

conducting an interview, a researcher can gain „large volume of in depth data‟ in


28

relatively short time. In this research, the researcher conducted interview typically

semi-structured interview. It is chosen for its flexibility and appropriateness in this

study. Merriam (2009) states that semi-structured interview enables the researcher

to give response directly upon the answers of interviewee. Ary et. al (2010) agrees

that the interview which conducted in qualitative research typically more probing

and less structured than that in quantitative research. However, in this research,

the researcher still used questions list as a guide to keep the allure of the interview

on the track, as can be seen in Appendix A.

3) Tools

In gathering the data, the researcher also used some tools. Those tools are

notebooks for taking notes, pen, and a voice recorder to record the interview.

E. Data Analysis Technique

The data gathered were analyzed in the form of description. Yet before

that, the researcher had done some important steps. First, the researcher collected

the writings and divided them based on the topics by looking at the title of the

writing. Second, the researcher read the writing one by one to confirm the topic

and to make sure that the four topics were already complete. Third, the researcher

made a list of the fixed writing and put codes. Then, the researcher went to the

writing one by one to read and assess them using the rubric (see Appendix C). The

rubric was adapted by the researcher from „analytical scale for rating composition

tasks‟ by Brown & Bailey (1984). Then, to clarify the points the researcher read

the writings for about two to three times each. The researcher also spent some


29

times to see and consult the result to the advisor. After that, referred to points

achieved by each student, the researcher read again and started to mark errors in

using past tense that found in the writing and took notes of it. After that, using the

instruments presented below, the researcher starts to mark the error and then

analyzed it. The theory that was used in this step is Dulay‟s on Surface Strategy

Taxonomy (Dulay & Krashen, p. 146-192). The result of errors finding then was

used to describe the writings of the students. Afterwards, the researcher

interviewed the students and collected the answers as the data. The analysis was

done using the theory of Brown (1980) on sources of errors in language learner.

In describing the writing, below is the instrument that has been made by

the researcher. The table was used to sum up the error found in the writings. The

aims is to present more complete description of errors in using past tense made by

each student.

Table 3.1 Error analysis on each learner presented in frequency and

precentage

Subject Number

of errors

made

Type of error

made

Frequency Precentage

(%)

Dominant

type of error

P1

TOTAL 100

F. Research Procedure

In order to conduct this research, the researcher has done some procedures.

The procedure of conducting this research from the beginning until the end is

listed as follow:


30

1. Selecting Topic

First the researcher met the advisor to consult and discuss on the possible

issues related to the researcher‟s interest. After some discussion sessions with the

advisor, the researcher looked for possible sources of data and references of

theories briefly. As the supporting possibilities collected, the researcher pointed

specific topic to be studied through the research.

2. Finding Research Questions/Problems

After having the topic, the researcher set some questions to help the

research constructing the meaning of the research itself. However, the researcher

also had asked for advices and had some personal consultation with the advisor to

construct it.

3. Reviewing Related Literatures

The researcher searched and referred to related literature that support the

questions, methods, and findings in the research. The way to provide those

supporting ideas is by reviewing it. Researcher tried to read as many book as

possible to collect various references that are relevant to the topic. In the practice,

some related literatures were found when all the data have been collected and

started to be discussed. This was because the researcher found possibility of

improving and developing ideas during the process of conducting this study.

4. Collecting Data

The researcher then collected the data based on the topic, both written and

oral. Written data were collected via email and the oral were gathered via

interview. The interview was done three times with three different interviewees.


31

The date and the time were also different one another due to each interviewee‟s

difference of available time. The interviews were conducted using open-ended

questions. Therefore, the questions forms are not the same one another. They were

asked based on the answers of each interviewee. However, the researcher still

used the same guideline in forming the question due to keep the allure of the

interview itself consistantly on the track.

5. Analyzing Data

After all the data have been collected, then the researcher analyzed the

data using the related literatures and theories to support. Sometimes, the

researcher consulted the progress of analysis to the advisor. On the process of

analysing the data, the researcher also did some rearrangement and revision due to

mistakes or errors, especially in elaborating the data and its discussion.

6. Making Conclusion

Conclusion was drawn based on the findings, supported by the related

theories and statements from the experts. Here in this report, the researcher also

put some points as the summary of the whole research that had been conducted,

followed by some recommendations related to the topic of this study.


32

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter contains of two major parts namely research result and

discussion. In the part of research result there are description of the writings and

personal narratives of the writers related to their experience of learning past tense

in English presented. While in the part of discussion, the points as the result of

discussing on the findings supported by related theories are provided.

A. Research Results

1. Description of the Writings

There are ten sets of written reflections which serve as the data here in this

study. Those reflections were written under four different topics by ten different

students in the class. The first topic is ‗experience of being forgiven‘. Under this

topic, the students were asked to retell their experiences in forgiving and being

forgiven. In their written reflections, these students shared their stories and

reflected it with their opinion. They were allowed to put themselves as a candidate

of priest in writing reflection under this first topic.

The second topic was ‗learning strategies‘. Under this topic, the students

were asked quiet the same. They were expected to retell their experiences in

learning and to share their difficulties as well as their strategies in solving those

challenges. In their written reflections under this second topic, these students tried


33

to suggest and recommend tips and reflected the DOs and DON‟Ts in learning

based on what they have experienced so far.

The third topic was ‗reflection on children story‘. In this topic, the students

were shown children stories in forms of videos in class. After that, the lecturer

opened discussion in general regarding to those stories. As the assignment, the

students were asked to choose any children story to be used in their reflection.

They wrote about that particular story they have chosen and related it to their own

experiences. As the result, in their writings under this third topic these students

deliver the messages and values of the stories which have been related to their

own opinion.

The fourth topic was ‗homily based on the Bible‘. This last topic is closely

related to their future profession. The lecturer asked them to choose any reading

for Holy Bible and arrange a reflection in forms of written homily. Under this

topic, these students worked freely based on how they interpret the readings, retell

their related experiences and reflected them altogether.

On all four topics, these students worked with the primary structure of a

writing which at least contains of an opening, the main body and closing. Ellis

(2005) states that the goal of a research in Second Language is the description and

explanation of L2 learners‘ competence. Therefore using the rubric for writing

proposed by Brown and Bailey (1984), the researcher assesses those written

reflections. There are four main terms that Brown and Bailey (1984) emphasized

namely grammar, which here in this study is called as accuracy, logical

development of idea or content, organization and diction.


34

As the result of the assessment on those writings, here is the big picture

that the researcher found as can be seen in the following figure.

Figure 4.1 Average Point Achieved by the Students in Each Category

The highest point is achieved in terms of content, followed by in terms of

organization then diction. The lowest point is in terms of accuracy. Referring the

rubric, the researcher assesses the ideas and illustrations that are delivered by the

students in the writing as the content. Then the results showed that these students

are able to perform the best in terms of it compared to the other terms. In the view

of researcher the content of these writings are more likely good. These students

generally have ideas and issues in composing their reflection and homily. Their

ideas are generally interesting and fairly well developed. There is always a story

in it. It probably gives big impact on how they manage to deliver the ideas. They

put allure on the story and some went smooth. The correlation between their

illustrations and the intended topic also exist significantly. Yet, most of them still

miss some points so the ideas appeared to be incomplete.


35

In terms of organization, the researcher focuses on how these students

arranging ideas. The average point in terms of organization as can be seen in the

figure above represents the presence of adequate title and introduction in those

writings. It works the same with the conclusion drawn there. However, these

students apparently provided lack of evidence that can support the content.

Generally, these students present minimally recognizable introduction. They also

are sometimes not clear in stating the opening which gives impact to severe

problems in ordering ideas. Some of them also provide limited supporting

evidence to form more solid conclusion and logic of their reflection.

While in terms of diction, these students perform fairly low average point.

The researcher found that these students still misused the vocabularies. Some

registers are not suitable used in expressing their ideas. For example as what is

produced by P5 in one of his writing as follows:

This example is very easy, but turns to be difficult when I am not

consistency.

This student is misused the word consistency which is a noun while in his

sentence, it should be a adjective.

Then as the last, in terms of accuracy which is the lowest performed by

these students, the focus of assessment includes minimum requirement,

punctuation, tenses and sentence structure. There are many run-on sentences

found in those writings. Some fragments also found. Errors in tenses also

appeared significantly. As can be seen in the figure, these students perform the

lowest for average point in term of accuracy.


36

The detail performance of each student is presented in this following

figure. It is the smallest scope that the researcher in trying to provide in order to

describe these students‘ written reflections.

Figure 4.2 Average Point of Each Student

The individual point presented in the chart has been accumulated from the

points of the four writings. The researcher summed up all the four and divided

them by 4 so ended up with an average point. The average point in that way

represents the performance of the writer. In terms of content based on the result of

assessment, all ten students achieve the average point between 50 and 70. Most of

them even reach above 60. While in organization there is less than four who reach

50 and above. In term of diction, all of them achieve the average point between 44

and 71. Then for accuracy, among ten students, there is only one who achieves

more than 70. Other three are in between 50 to 59 and the other six are below 50.

One out of the six even is below 40.

2. Error Analysis on the Writings

Based on the finding discussed in the previous section, in this section the

research would report and discuss the error found in the writing, limited to error


37

made in using of past tense. This analysis would further give more detail data and

explanation of the description of these writings.

According to Ellis (2005), teachers need to know that their students have

not yet mastered certain forms but are capable of self-correcting them. In this

research, the researcher analysed the errors made by the students in using past

tense to map their mastery of past tense itself. Later, in the next sub chapter, the

researcher would also discuss whether these students also able to do self-

correcting towards what they have produced using the personal narratives that

clarify it.

The following points are elaborated as referred to what Corder (1979)

proposes about the steps on error analysis. The report and discussion are presented

in the way those steps were done.

1). Sample of learner language

In order to collect the learner language as the sample in this researh, the

researcher took ten sets of written reflection with 4 topics in each set. The sets of

writing were written by ten different students in Bahasa Inggris I class B who had

been assigned in writing activity as the part of their English learning process in

class with the lecturer. The researcher chosen four sets on purpose. First, as what

Ellis has stated that in order to avoid the influence from the nature of the sample

itself towards the distribution of error made in that sample, the researcher needs to

sample error more generally by collecting a broad sample reflecting different

learners, type of language and different production conditions (Ellis, 2005 p.57).

Second, four is considered properly to map the learner‘s mastery. Technically,


38

when an error is found in the first writing, the researcher considers it as an error if

it is found also in another writing (written by the same person) or in other word it

is repeatedly appeared. That is why, four would be enough to make sure whether

the writter made an error or only a mistake. In differentiating mistakes from

errors, we may take a look as what experts say.

Brown describes mistakes as what refers to a performance error either

random guess, fatigue, inattention or a slip of tongue (Brown, 1994 p.209). While

error as noted by Norrish (1978, 7-8) related to language teaching and learning,

are caused by learners on the processing of knowledge in the second language rule

systems. This happens because the learners still have lack of competence in the

rule systems of the language they are learning. Therefore, they would not be ready

to correct their errors. In this case, when the same errors are found in more than

one writing (written by the same person) or even in all four writings, the

researcher may be sure of the existence of errors.

The first topic given is about learning strategy. In giving this first topic,

lecturer asks the students to write about their experience in forgiving and being

forgiven. Second, it is about students experience in learning something. In that

writing, specifically the students are asked to also elaborate their obstacles and

challenges then share their strategy to overcome them. Third topic is reflection on

children story. In this topic, lecture gives the students some children stories in

form of videos than after brief discussion in class, the lecturer asks the students to

write a reflection on the story, related to their existence as a person in living their


39

lives. As the forth writing, the lecturer asks students to pick certain reading from

Gospel and write a homily based on their own interpretation and further reflection.

Generally, these students write about a half page as the minimum and one

and a half pages as the maximum. Those writings are typed and collected via

email. The lecturer gave these topics to write to the students in every couple

weeks. There were no written feedbacks between the period of assigning and the

time when this report is done.

b). Identification of Errors.

From the sample, the researcher identified the errors using the concept of

error types based on surface taxonomy described by Dulay, Burt and Krashen

(1982: 150). The error types found in the writings are omission, addition (double

marking), archi-form (misformation), regularization (misformation), alternating

form (misformation), and misordering.

Omission errors made by five writers. Generally, they omitted

grammatical morphemes, in this case in past form. The example of omission

errors made by P3 is:

I (was) very scared to tell it to the others, ...

He omitted was as the to be in past form. The writer might understand that

past form already marked by the presence of scared. The word scared, which is

an adjective in this context might be understood as a past form (the presence of –

ed). Therefore, the writer might think that this sentence needs no other past forms.

The same form of omission error occurs twice in P2‘s writing. The figure below is

an example of erroneous sentences made by one of the students.


40

Figure 4.3 Sample of Errors Identified in the Writings

Addition errors also found in some writings, especially in form of double

marking. The writers double the past form or marks in certain sentences. For

example the one that is made by P2:

I used to woke up late every day.

P2 understands that past form is used to every event or action that happenned and

done in the past. Yet, he doubled the mark of past form itself without consider

other rule of forming a habitual past sentence. This is clarified by his personal

interview as follows:

Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang tahu adalah bahwa

sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan past tense.

Dan kalau ada –ed berarti itu waktunya sudah lewat. Jadi indikasinya ya

itu. Pokonya asal ada tanda bentuk past, nah bagi saya itu sudah benar.

(I understand that we use past form for every thing that had happened in

the past, even if it is just a second ago. The –ed form indicates the past. As

long as I have the past form in a sentence, I consider it as right—form of a

past)


41

Six out of ten made the same error (double marking). This clarifies that generally,

these learners might have same concept of what P2 has. As they understand that

past is applied in event or action happened and done in the past, other rules are not

taken into account.

Archi-form (misformation) is significantly found in these writings. All the

learners produced this type of error. For example the one that done by P9:

When the words were saying, I should think about the meaning.

Vaguely, the sentence above is grammatically correct. But, in the context of the

writing, P9 misformed the phrase were saying. From the previous paragraph we

know that he is telling about his difficulties of understanding a new vocabulary in

English (topic: Learning Strategy). He is trying to say that when a new word is

saying, he needs to think first to find the meaning. Yet, he ends up with producing

the sentence above in past form. Although the fact that he is talking about is still

happening until now. That is why his phrase above considered as an error in

misformation. Other archi-form error also done by P1 as follows:

Have you ever find yourself in front of a strong block and it seemed you

are going to give up?

This sentence is considered as an imparralel because the writer misformed the first

clause. He should mark both clauses with same tense (past tense).

Regularization errors found also in some of these writings. Yet, the

intensity of its occurance is much less than archi-form errors that found. As an

example, regularization errors found in P2‘s writing. He wrote,

When I am watching this movie, ...


42

Actually, he is explaining what he had been feeling during the video watching.

Yet, he misform the to be as present instead of a past. In personal interview he

claims that he is still confused in using past tense. Although he knows the rule and

understands the concept, he sometimes still produce sentence like the one above

even again and again.

Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang saya tahu adalah

bahwa sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan

past tense. Dan kalau ada –ed berarti itu waktunya sudah lewat. Jadi

indikasinya ya itu. Pokonya asal ada tanda bentuk past, nah bagi saya itu

sudah benar. Tapi dalam aplikasinya, kecenderungan menggunakan

present. Tensenya, menggunakan present.

(I understand that we use past form for every thing that had happened in

the past, even if it is just a second ago. The –ed form indicates the past. As

long as I have the past form in a sentence, I consider it as right—form of a

past. But in its practice, I still tend to use present)

As the result, the most regular error made by the students is archi-form

(misformation). Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1981) defines archi-form

(misformation) is an error made by the learner in using form. Further, why do

these students mostly made archi-form error in their writings would be elaborated

in the following sub chapter.

3. Learners’ Personal Narratives

In order to answer the second research question, this section presents the

result of interview done by the researcher toward three students in Bahasa Inggris

I class B. Ellis (2005) states that errors involve determining their sources in order

to account for why those errors were made. Knowing the reasons of why the

students make errors is considered as an important part in SLA research. In this

research, then the researcher interviewed three of ten students related to their


43

personal narratives in learning English especially in mastering the concept and the

use of past tense. Beside to find out why do they make errors in their writings, the

researcher also want to draw some clarification to the description of these

students‘ writings.

These three interviewees are P1, P2 and P9. There is a reason why the

reseacher chose these three students out of ten subjects here in this study. These

three students‘ writing descriptions represent each general division in terms of

their points. P1 achieves the highest score among all. He performs as the best

compared to the other nine in terms of accuracy, content, organization and diction

(see Chart 4.1). Therefore the researcher considers P1‘s level as best. While P9

represents those who achieve lower points in accuracy especially, and also

content, as well as the organization and diction (see Chart 4.1). Yet, P9‘s errors

are much less found in using of past tense. The errors commonly found are related

to other elements of English (preposition, subject-verb agreement, etc). So he

performs fairly good in term of past tense. The researcher considers P9‘s level as

good. P2 represents those who achieves lower points in accuracy, and the error

analysis result confirms that P2 produces fairly lot of errors in past tense. The

researcher considers P2‘s level as poor. By having the representative of each

level, the researcher expects a fairly result to clarify their performance in writing,

especially here in this study. That is why these three subjects then were picked up

to be interviewed.

There are some sources of error explained by Brown (1980) namely

interlingual transfer, intralingual factors and context of learning. While Corder


44

(1973) proposes the similar concept. He explains there are four factors that give

impact to a learner in making errors while learning language namely mother

tongue, basis analogy, nature of teaching and teaching materials. The questions

that have been asked to the interviewee are to clarify it.

First of all, the interviewees were asked about when they learned English

for the first time. P1 states that he learned English for the first time when he was

in fourth grade of Elementary school. English lesson that he received at that time

was a formal English since it was taught at school. The other interviewee, P2

experienced the same. He managed to know English when he was in fourth grade

of Elementary school. Interestingly, both P1 and P2 claim that they got additional

class for English in the same time (fourth grade of Elemntary school).

P2: Pertama kali belajar bahasa Inggris itu SD kelas empat kalau tidak

salah e, tapi itu bukan formal.

I: Berarti kursus?

P2: Kursus, iyah kursus. Kursus tapi itu cuman berapa bulan e, tiga

bulan, dua kali pertemuan tiga bulan, setelah itu saya off.

Membosankan..membosankan.

(P2: I learned English for the first time when I was in the fourth grade of

Elementary school but it was not the formal one.

I: Was it an English course that you join?

P2: Yes, it was an English course. But, it was just for about moreless three

months with two meetings each month if I‘ve not mistaken, then I quited.

It was very boring for me.)

Yet, different from P2, P1 did not quit that early. He finished his English course

until he was in sixth grade of Elementary school. P1 claims that he even had

learned about past tense –and other tenses in that English course program.

P1: Eeh, di sekolah ada (bahasa Inggris, red). Terus gue dapat tambahan.

I: Nah itu maksudnya. Berarti frater les-lesan bahasa Inggris gitu pas SD?

P1: Iya. Tapi bener kan, pas SD kelas 4 itu gua udah dapat pelajaran

yang namanya bahasa Inggris. Cuman kalau past tense ya di les-lesan itu.


45

(P1: Eeh, I got English at school. But also I got additional English lesson.

I: Yes, that is what I mean. So you learned English when you were in

Elementary school right?

P1: Yes. I got English lesson when I was in the fourth grade of Elementary

school. But for past tense specifically, I learned it in that course—English

course)

While P9, because he was born in other country and just moved to

Indonesia when he was around 14 years old, he managed to know English little bit

later than the other two. Beside that his experience with English was not

interesting. He claims that the teacher used to ask them to memorize the English

words. P9 said:

saya mulai kenal bahasa Inggris waktu masih SMP kelas 1. Dan aah, saya

dapat bahasa Inggris, saat itu memang ya saya menganggap bahasa

Inggris ini kan satu pelajaran yang tidak terlalu apa juga untuk saya

karena belum ada orientasi ke depan seperti apa. Jadi semacam hanya

ikut dinamika bahasa Inggris, kelas bahasa Inggris. Dan, yaah, belum

belajar, waktu itu yang pertama kali belajar bahasa Inggris itu adalah

untuk vocabulary, kata-katanya walaupun sampai sekarang tidak hafal-

hafal juga (tertawa). Itu mulai kenal bahasa Inggris mulai kenal seperti

ini, kata-katanya seperti ini terus , ehh, kalau mau tau banyak harus hafal

kata-kata disuruh guru untuk hafal kata-kata saat SMP itu. Dan

pengalaman pertama memang, belajar bahasa Inggris itu sesuatu yang

menurut saya sulit ya, untuk lebih bisa pahami lebih dalam lagi mengenai

bahasa Inggris yang bisa dipraktekan.

(I managed to learn English for the very first time when I was in the first

grade of Junior High School. And for me personally, at that time, I didn‘t

consider English as an important subject because I didn‘t have any

orientation for my future. So, at that time, I just follow the lesson and the

activities in the class without really be involved. The first thing about

English that I learned was vocabularies. Even though until now, I still have

lack of vocabularies (laugh). That‘s how I know English for the first time.

At that time, our teacher always ask us to memorize those vocabularies.

Which for me, as the first experience with English, it became very

difficult. Moreover how to understand and than apply it (Eng).)


46

P2 and P9 have similar case in term of mother tongue. P9 was born in

Timor Leste and raised there until he was around 14 years old. Therefore, he

speaks Tetun (local language). But, he explains that Tetun itself has various type

namely Tetun Terik and Tetun Portu. Tetun Terik mostly adapts many words from

Indonesia to be used while Tetun Portu mostly adapts many other words from

Portugesee. P9 used to speak those two types of Tetun. As he explains:

Bahasa ibu saya bahasa Tetun. Hhm. Bahasa Tetun. Setelah itu saya

masuk eeh, SD, itu saya dibawa ke Timor Leste dan Tetun saya itu Tetun,

eehh, campuran. Saya dari Tetun yang Terik ke daerah yang Tetun Portu,

mau tidak mau saya harus, ehh, beda lagi. Saya harus menyesuaikan

dengan Tetun Terik saya dengan Tetun, eeh, Portu.

(I spoke Tetun as my first language. After I entered Elementary school, I

was taken to live in Timor Leste. Therefore I started to speak mix-Tetun

(Terik and Portu) Both of them are different so at that time I had to adapt.)

While P2 speaks bahasa Adonara (East of Flores‘ local language). He also

has various type of bahasa Adonara. For its variety of dialects and some lexical or

morphemes as he explains:

Bahasa daerah bahasa pertama saya. ... Baru saya kan basicnya, bahasa

(L1) kan ada beberapa bahasa memang, jadi ehm, bahasa ibu ada

beberapa bahasa, ada bahasa dialek Flores Adonara-Adonara Barat,

kemudian Flores Adonara Timur, dan Adonara tengah. Itu kan,

maksudnya masing-masing punya dialek yang berbeda. Ya, saya gunakan.

Ketika berbicara dengan orang Adonara Barat, ya, sambung, kemudian

Adonara Timur juga harus menyesuaikan dengan mereka.

(My first language is our local language. Basically our local language is

different one another even compared among disctrict. The dialects are

different. For example, the one that I used to speak at home is bahasa

Adonara-Barat, then also bahasa Adonara-Timur and bahasa Adonara

Tengah. Each of them, based on the location, has its own dialect and I

used to use all of them depend on whom I speak with)


47

Different from what P2 and P9 have, P1‘s first language is bahasa

Indonesia. Eventhough he comes from a Javanesse family, his parents decide to

use bahasa Indonesia as the language for communication among family members.

P1 explains:

Bahasa ibu saya, ya bahasa Indonesia. Kami keluarga Jawa tetapi tidak

memraktekkan adat Jawa semuanya. Jadi walaupun Jawa, kami di

keluarga tetep ngomong bahasa Indonesia.

(My mother tongue is bahasa Indonesia. We are Javanesse, but we don‘t

practice all things as what a Javanesse family usually do. Eventhough we

are Javanesee, we still use bahasa Indonesia as a language for

communication in our family)

In dealing with learning English, a learner‘s mother tongue impacts a lot.

As what Brown (1980) explains about interlingual transfer as one of three sources

of error, it is proved. P2 and P9 claim that it was fairly difficult to start learning

and understanding English past tense because of the big difference concept of

their mother tongues and English itself. P2 states:

Secara teori paham tetapi secara ketika practice nya itu yang sulit.

Kadang, mungkin karena konsepnya dalam konsep Indonesia ya sehingga

misalnya, “saya juga:,” I also”. Gitu, Begitu. Jadi konsepnya dalam

bahasa Inggris sehingga ketika hendak memikirkan untuk membicarakan

sesuatu, pasti menterjemahkan dulu, ya terbawa, konsepnya terbawa,

sehingga harus terjemahkan dulu dari kata per kata, sehingga kadang

membingungkan juga untuk menerapkannya dalam tense.

(Theoretically I understand but to apply them, I think it‘s difficult.

Sometimes it is because I still hold Indonesian concept, for example, ―saya

juga‖, -he translates- ―I also‖. I find that in English we have different

concept but everytime I try to use English, I translate it into bahasa first.

That is why sometimes the concept follows. I end up with my own

confusion then)

Similar to that, P9 also states:

Aahh, SMP kelas 2 itu saya sudah diperkenalkan dengan tenses. Dan

waktu itu tenses dasar yang saya tahu itu simple present, present


48

continuous dan past. Past pun simple past. Itu SMP. Itu dasar, kira-kira

saya SMP kelas 2 lah, kira-kira seperti itu. Hhm, dan saat itu, saya hanya

bisa menangkap simple-nya (read: present tense). Tapi past-nya itu masih

sulit. Past-nya memang sulit, saat itu memang sulit. Saya pikir itulah

kesulitan bagaimana merubah, bagaimana merubah satu kata sederhana

simple ke past itu, saat itu memang kesulitan saya sejak awal, tentang

seperti itu, perubahan kata. Karena konsepnya berbeda, dari bahasa

Indonesia)

(I was introduced to English tenses when I was in the second grade of

junior high school. But it was just the basic. And, at that time, I think I

only could understand well about present tense while past tense even is

still difficult until now. How to change the form in present to past is

difficult for me. Because from the very beginning, my problems is in

changing the form of a word and it is different from what we have in

bahasa)

The different concept between English and their mother tongue here specifically

goes to the changing form or a verb based on the time marking of a sentence. In

Tetun, bahasa Adonara and even bahasa Indonesia, we do not change the verb

eventhough the time is different when a certain sentence is uttered or produced.

This creates bunch of confusion when they are to deal with English tenses

concept.

Among their confusion, these students admit that English then was

becoming higher and higher required as they entered their Congregation. P2

explains:

Tapi ketika masuk kongregasi kan memang tuntutan utama harus bahasa

Inggrisnya karena bahasa Internasional. Jadi sempat membuat saya

kewalahan juga dengan basic bahasa Inggris yang ala kadarnya

kemudian yang sampai ke tingkat itu yang waktu SMA itu, eh, waktu di

Kongregasi itu bulan-bulan e, tahun pertama itu kami dapat tiga dosen

bahasa Inggris. Itu, grammarnya guru khusus, dosen khusus, kemudian

ehm, pronunciationnya juga khusus kemudian dia dalam membuat tulisan

juga khusus. Itu.

(But when I joined Congregation, English became the main requirement.

So it was little bit difficult for me to adapt since the basic knowledge of


49

English that I got from high school was not adequate. In our Congregation,

for initial months we had helped by three lecturers for English. Each of

them helped us in grammar, pronunciation and writing of English)

P9 also explains that, in Seminary, not also English that he got to learn more and

deeper but also reflection activity. He tells:

Dalam seminari, kami diwajibkan membuat refleksi setiap hari. Itu dari

tingkat awal masuk sudah begitu. Dan itu nanti sampai tahap akhir

memang harus punya refleksi tertulis setiap hari. Maka boleh saya

katakan, kami sudah cukup terbiasa dengan kegiatan berefleksi. Dulu

ketika awal, saya masih awal, saya membuat refleksi selama satu bulan

penuh, setiap hari, dalam bahasa Inggris. Setiap hari satu halaman. Dan

dari situ, paling tidak secara praktis saya bisa membuat tulisan-tulisan

bahasa Inggris karena terbiasa. Sampai sekarang, dalam satu minggu,

setiap hari Kamis, saya membuat refleksi dalam bahasa Inggris sehingga

kebiasaan dengan bahasa Inggris. Di komunitas juga kami memiliki hari

bahasa Inggris itu hari senin, selasa dan kamis. Jadi semua repertoa doa-

doa dan misa pada hari-hari tersebut, kami pakai bahasa Inggris. Kecuali

kalau hari selasa, karena kami misa dengan umat sehingga bahasa

Indonesia. Tetapi untk ibadat pagi, doa-doa dan nyanyian semua dalam

bahasa Inggris. Dan hari Kamis, itu kami membuat refleksi dalam bahasa

Inggris untuk disharingkan dalam komunitas. Jadi refleksi tertulis itu bisa

disharingkan kepada saudara-saudara dalam komunitas.

(In Seminary, we are required to write a reflection every day, from the

very beginning. So i can say that we are accustomed to reflection writing.

At that time, in my initial period of entering Seminary, I used to write

English reflection. But it was only for about one month. But I think it is

helpful for me in learning how to write a reflection in English. Until now,

every Thursday,I still write a reflection using Englis. In our community –

Congregation- we have English days, which are Monday, Tuesday and

Thursday. So every activity are in English such as daily mass, brevire and

prayers. Except when we have mass with other people from outside –

Congregation- we use bahasa. But other than that, we use English. Every

Thursday, we also have to share our English reflection to other members.

So on Thursday, we share what we have written in our reflection to other

brothers in community, using English)

The fact that, not only required but in Seminary or their Congregation, the

exposure of English is constructing through various activities. Based on P9‘s

experience, the activity of reflecting using English also done to help them getting


50

involved to English more and more. P1‘s experience then is quiet the same. He

tells that in Seminary, they got a pretty good practice in tenses, including past

tense. He explains:

Itu beneran agak nambah waktu di kelas 1. Karena dia jago banget. S3.

Gurunya di Mertoyudan. ... H‟mm. Jadi dia itu pake buku yang udah lama

banget, dan itu buku itu semacam kumpulan tenses gitu. Itu cetakan lama.

Setiap pembahasan ada soal-soal kayak kalimat gitu.

(In first grade of high school in Seminary, I got more (of English). Our

teacher was very fluent, Mertoyudan (High School Seminary). He used to

use an old book, typically a compilation of English tenses. It was

published long time ago, I guess. Each part of discussion, there are

questions to answer)

When these students are asked about their own understanding in English

past tense, each of them answered in quiet the same way. Most of them are not

very comfortable to say that they understand and master it well. While, the thing

that differ them one another is their experience of learning it in the past. They

share what they had and learned before. P2 for instance, explains his learning

experience at school as he began to learn English intensively.

Ya, monoton, ikut di buku, kemudian tugasnya pun paling

menterjemahkan, Sekedar terjemahkan dan itu kesannya membosankan

dari kelas satu sampai kelas dua, kemudian kelas tiga, ganti guru tetapi

itu saya rasa bahwa gurunya itu terlalu pintar berbahasa Inggris

sementara tidak menyesuaikan dengan kami yang pemula. Jadi itu juga

kesannya membosankan. Lalu waktu masuk SMA di Seminari, memang

menarik di Seminari itu pada saat bulan-bulan awal itu kami belajar

mulai penggunaan tenses, grammar iya, tenses-tenses, Itu, tapi karena

gurunya kan Pater, iya kan, jadi hampir setiap hari itu hanya bahas

mengenai tenses, sedangkan aplikasinya dalam, misalkan untuk buat

tulisan ataupun itu kurang, hanya belajar saja, itu SMA Seminari, kelas

satu hingga dua.

(It was monotonous. Our teacher just copied what written in books and

only gave us assignment on translating. Translating is so boring for me,

from my first until second grade of senior high school that was only


51

activity our teacher gave. Then in third grade the teacher was changed.

But, I think he was too smart so that the method that he used was quiet

difficult for us to understand. So it was also so boring. When I entered

Seminary, English became more interesting. The lecturer, whose a priest

taught me abou tenses, and grammar. But, the activities were also in

practicing questions on that. We never had practice to really use it in

speaking or writing. I feel that it was not enough for me to be able to apply

those tenses appropriately then.)

Further about his understanding in past tense P2 states:

Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang tahu adalah bahwa

sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan past tense.

I:Kalau Past continuous?

P2: Past continous sampai sekarang masih membingungkan. ... itu juga

saya sampai sekarang saya tidak tahu kapan menggunakan have been,

kapan menggunakan has been, itu masih suatu kesulitan bagi saya.

(My understanding in using of past tense as far as I know is if it is

something that had happened in the past, even it is only about seconds, we

should use past form.

I: How about past continuous?

P2: Past continuous is confusing for me. ... I also don‘t know when to use

have been and has been. Those are still difficult for me.)

The similar story is revealed from P9 when he was asked the same

question. P9 explains that his teacher in junior high school tends to give them

command to memorize the vocabularies as well as the tenses or rules in English.

He tells:

Dulu itu kan kalau di SMP, guru omong apa ya kita peracaya saja.

Metode yang digunakan oleh guru saya waktu itu adalah menghafal. Dan

bagi saya saya merasa itu tidak cocok. Kalau untuk orang yang gamapang

menghafal ya baik, tetapi kalau seperti saya yang tidak suka menghafal itu

sangat sulit. Guru saya selalu suruh kami hafal, misalkan contoh kalau

present itu formula nya harus subjek tanpa predikat dan itu, dan itu harus

dihafal. Formulanya harus dihafal dan kekurangan saat itu adalah praktis

formula, yang masuk dalam praktek, misalkan saya diajarkan formula

past tense, tetapi untuk masuk dan menggunakan past tense itu kurang.

Apalagi bicara, itu kurang. Sehingga formula itu hanya semacam untuk

belajar saja begitu. Kita diberi untuk menghafal tetapi tidak pernah


52

dilakukan. Untuk mendalami itu secara terus menerus, kalau tidak praktis

kan susah.

(When I was in junior high school, we obliged whatever teachers say. The

method in teaching English that was used for us is memorizing. And for

me it doesn‘t work much. For those who can easily memorize things, it

probably would be okay. But for me, I don‘t like memorizing. Though, our

teacher used to ask us to memorize, for example the formula for present

tense or other concept. The teachers asked us to memorize without real

practising. So it turns to be very difficult for me to apply it in a sentence.

For example in past tense. I only memorized it without really understand

the function of it. In my opinion, in order to get the understanding of the

concept, we really need to practice how to apply it into real form. If it is

not, it would be difficult.)

Both P2 and P9 claim that their teacher in high school tend to give kind of

boring activities and only focus on the materials without further consider the

students‘ understanding. Add, they reveal that the method for them are helpless

since need more chance to practice and further explanation to understand instead

of memorizing and drilling with written questions.

While P1 experience some difference in learning English since his very

first time. The English course that he took when he was in Elemnetary school

helps a lot for its method of finding ‗shortcuts‘ in understanding concepts in

English. As he explains:

Saat itu tuh, ada bahas „pedang bengkok‟ itu buat present. Pedang

bengkok itu S, jadi kalau S kan pedang bengkok. Jadi kami hafalinnya itu.

Jadi kalau present gitu kan pakai pedang bengkok. Misal, Ogi takes ... nah

ini ni pakai pedang bengkok. Kalau nggak, kalau misalnya di double atau

dia apa gitu, nah itu nggak pake pedang bengkok. Saat itu tuh, gue

ngerasa nah itu gua udah tahu tuh. Nah, jadi Alfa itu menyediakan cara

yang lebih mudah gua ngerti dan inget.

(There was a part of discussing something called ‗pedang bengkok‘ as a

representative of letter ‗s‘. So, we were taught that if it is in present than

the ‗pedang bengkok‘ should be used. For example, ―Ogi takes‖, nah, there

‗pedang bengkok‘ exists. If it is not in present than the ‗pedang bengkok‘


53

should not be used. So, Alfa (the English course that P1 joined) provides

easy ways of understanding concepts in English. It was helpful for me)

As what he explained, can be seen that P1 experience different method compared

to what is experienced by P2 and P9 and the fact claims that the method that

applied when P1 started learning English helps him more in understand concepts

in English.

The researcher then tried to ask these students about their experience if

doing the writing reflection assigned by the lecturer in their Bahasa Inggris I class

last semester. Each of them answers differently.

P2 states that actually he expects a written feedback for what he had

written. Since for him, written feedback is easier to remember so that he will

know his mistakes and errors. He says:

kemarin yang buat refleksi itu bagus, itu memang sangat membantu sekali

ya untuk membuat refleksi dalam bahasa Inggris. Tetapi ketika di sana,

hanya sekedar mengumpulkan. Tidak ada feedback, kemudian tidak ada

memberi kami untuk, menyampaikan kepada kami gambaran sedikit apa

yang sudah kami sharingkan itu. Sehingga, istilahnya, mentok di situ.

(In doing the reflection assignment, I think it was very helpful. That

assignment gives me chance to practice writing reflection in English. But,

there was no feedback from the lecturer. Even any explanation about the

‗DOs and DON‘Ts‘ which actually we expect as the follow up of that

assginment. So it was not improved.)

P9 shares something different. He says that in doing the assignment, he

actually avoided using past tense. He did it because he is still confused about how

and when to apply past tense in sentences especially in writing a reflection. It is

seen as he explains:

Kalau refleksi, seingat saya itu saat menyusun itu, hal yang saya pikirkan

begini, saat ini saya menulis, saya akan mengatakan kepada orang, atau


54

memberikan materi kepada orang, memberikan renungan ini kepada

orang sudah di waktu yang akan datang dan saya akan bekerja di hari ini.

Saya membawa teks yang hari ini saya kerjakan untuk hari esok. Artinya,

teks ini untuk hari esok itu sudah past. Itu kesulitan pertama yang saya

temukan. Dan menggunakan past tense secara tertulis seperti itu, saya

menemukan kesulitan. Awalnya, bagaimana mengatakan ini, apalagi

ambil lagi ayat dari kitab suci yang sudah ditulis beratus-ratus juta tahun

yang lalu untuk dihadirkan di sini dalam waktu present nah itu sesuatu

yang sulit dan itu membuat apa, semacam, ya saya bisa katakan bagi saya

membingungkan juga karena saya berpikir, masih, masih seperti ini,

karena itu tadi, membawa sesuatu yang masa lampau ke saat ini itu sulit.

Nah tapi saya berusaha dengan paling tidak apa yang bisa saya buat lah.

Jadi waktu itu saya memang tidak banyak menggunakan past tense. Teks

saya itu tidak banyak menggunakan past tense, lebih banyak saya

membawa ke present karena itu saya bisa lebih pahami dan saya merasa

lebih mudah untuk menyampaikan karena itu saat ini. Sehingga memang

banyak kesalahan-kesalahan yang sebetulnya itu kalimatnya harus past,

saya buatkan present. Saya semacam menghindari untuk buat jadi past

karena susah untuk saya mengerti.

(In doing the assignment, I thought like this. When I write that reflection, I

share reflection, experience and materials to people in the future. So, when

this written reflection is about to use in the future and the tense that I use is

present that would be irrelevant. Then, the reading that I use in my

reflection comes from Bible which speaks abouth events that had

happened in thousand years ago. That makes me so confused in

determining the tenses I use in that assignment. But I tried my best at hat

time, in doing that assignment. I worked on it but I avoided using past

tense. That is why there in my reflection, you may find lots of present

form instead of past form. Using present makes me easier to write and

understand my own allure of the reflection. I admit that some errors I

made commonly happen when I use present instead of past in telling

events that had happened)

As the final statement, the researcher asked these students to share their

opinions about how important to understand English well not only verbal, but also

written, for them as the candidate of Catholic Priest. They also share their

expectation of method in teaching and learning English based on what they had

experienced before.


55

As what has been quoted previously, that P2 expects feedback in the

process of learning English, especially the written one. He further also refers to

what he had experienced when he was in junior and senior high school that

teachers should not be changed as the students moved to next grade. He thinks

that if there is only one teacher that teach them English from the first until the

third grade, the process of learning English would be more effective. Since the

teacher would be able to monitor students‘ progress and also control the materials

that are given in the process of learning. As the result, there will not be any

repetition in giving materials and teacher also can improve the method and

technique in teaching based on students‘ progress and need. His opinion can be

seen as he explains:

Satu problem nya itu juga bahwa setiap guru kan tiap kelas, setiap tingkat

berbeda. Kelas satu guru berbeda, kelas satu gurunya berbeda, kelas tiga

gurunya berbeda. Jadi guru yang bawa kami dari kelas satu itu

maksudnya tidak mengover apa yang sudah kami pelajari di kelas satu

sehinga nanti di kelas dua itu kecenderungan tetapi ulangnya dalam hal

yang lain. Ulangnya dalam hal yang lain sehingga dalam, membuat kami

bingung. Tercampur aduk, tidak fokus. Sehingga guru yang satu dengan

dia punya kapasitas yang satu nanti dia punya cara mengajarnya begini,

nanti berikutnya kami sudah merasa ya setidaknya sudah merasa in

dengan guru ini tapi nanti ketika naik kelas dua ganti lagi guru lagi. Guru

ini dengan dia punya type yang begini, cara mengajarnya begini, jadi itu

yang buat saya bosan.

(One problem for me is at school, teacher that teaches us English is

different each grade. The one in first grade is different from the one in

second and third grade. This makes some of our teachers could not

monitor the materials and control our progress. As the result, teacher then

repeats the materials that we have had before in the previous grade but in

different way or method. This creates chaos in our understanding about the

material itself and tends to be boring)

For the importance of English writing skill, P2 agrees that they –the candidates of

priest- need to learn and understand it well. As they have possibilities to receive


56

mission abroad. He thinks that English writing skill should be prepared from now.

P2 states:

untuk kami para frater, kemampuan bahasa Inggris tidak cukup kalau

hanya menguasai yang komunikatif saja, tetapi kemampuan menulis juga.

Siapa tahu besok-besok kami diberi tugas misi ke luar negeri, komunikasi

lewat tulisan juga pasti sangat penting. Makanya kami butuh itu, untuk

bisa lebih berkembang.

(for us as the candidates of priests, it is not enough to master only English

for communication. Writing skill is needed too. As if we probably would

required to go abroad and run our mission.)

P2 realises the importance of mastering English writing skill. He has future

orientation which is to become a misionarist. The similar thought also revealed by

P9 as he tells:

Ketika sampai di sini, ketika saya mendapat kelas ini, saya pertama

mendapat kelas ini, dan saya berpikir mungkin ada hal-hal yang baru

yang saya bisa dapatkan karena saya memahami bahwa saya dituntut

untuk mampu berhadapan dengan teks (teks bahasa Inggris, red). Karena

di Filsafat, kami mulai berhadapan dengan teoi-teori teologi dan konsep-

konsep teologi yang mau tidak mau harus dari sana, dari bahasa sana

(Latin, Yunani, Jerman, Italia, red) Memang bahasa Inggris tidak menjadi

bahasa dasarnya gereja tetai kebanyakan teks bahasa Latin itu

otentisitasnya itu ditentukan oleh bahasa Inggris. Jadi teks-teks dokumen-

dokumen itu Gereja, biasanya selalu dalam bahasa Latin dan bahasa

Inggris. Dan mau tidak mau harus salah satu bahasa.

(As I arrived here and joined this class (English class, red) I think I could

get more knowledge. I realise that here I am required to be able to

understand texts. In Theology, we are facing theories which provided

mostly in English. Eventhough English is not the original language that

Church is using but, generally, its documents that originally written in

Latin, Greece, Germany, Italy) are first translated and verified firstly in

Latin and English. That is why, whether we like it or not, we need to

understand one of them)

As what is explained by P9, the fact that these students‘ future profession

requires also direct contact to written document in other languages. Interestingly,


57

P1 even believes that English can be a transfer language to those other languages.

He tells:

Yaa, karena buat gua penting banget sebenarnya paham grammar tu. Buat

calon Imam, soalnya kita butuh buat baca tulisan ilmiah, iya kan, banyak

juga nih skripsi kakak-kakak pake bahasa Inggris. Dokumen-dokumen

gereja. Nah, kalau nggak ngerti grammar ntar orang ngertinya beda ya.

Dan orang itu kan, lha, biasanya Inggris itu yang kedua ya. Dalam

dokumen-dokumen itu biasanya yang pertama, Prancis, Jerman, Latin,

Italia. Nah, mereka begitu tahu, satu kata merea terjemahkan begini, lalu

ketika ke bahasa Indonesia, nanti maknanya bisa beda lagi. Sehingga

setidaknya kita harus tahu versi yang mendekatinya itu apa. Nah tu

biasanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris yang kedua itu. Maka paling tidak

kita harus tahu, biar ngerti. Kalau kita nggak tahu yang kedua itu, kita

nggak bakal tahu makna yang paling mendekatinya itu apa. Maka, buat

gua, penting tuh metode yang menekankan grammar buat kita calon Imam.

(For me understanding English grammar is very important. For priest

candidates it is important because we need to read scientific articles and

journal. Moreover, our seniors‘ thesis are almost written in English.

Apostolical documents are also presented in English. If we cannot

understand the grammar, we cannot understand the document well.

Generally, English is second language that is used. The documents are

originally written in France, Deutch, Latin, Italy, etc. It is important to

understand every single word and its context. If not, then the translation

might be different, when it is taken to bahasa Indonesia. English helps us

to understand at least the approximate meaning. If we don‘t master the

transfer language, we would misinterpret them. So in my opinion, the

method that emphasizes the grammar understanding in important for us as

the priest candidates)

B. Discussion

Learning language nowadays is not merely focused only on the technical

things. Many experts try to elaborate that grammar, tenses and many other rules

are not longer be the final goal of teaching and learning language process.

However, in preparing a learner to survive with future profession or occupation,

language skills including writing matters. In producing a good writing, one needs


58

to master the language‘s rules, concept, formula or in other words what people

generally called it as grammar or structure. Yet, this study would not be focus on

grammar or structure as the goal of a teaching and learning language process. It is

used to describe learner language and map their mastery in one of English feature

called past tense.

This study analyses written products specifically written reflection.

Therefore, past tense then is considered as important to master by the writers. As

we know that in reflection, one shares ideas, values which related to experience.

Obviously, past tense here should be used properly so that the messages and the

value that the writer is sharing can be well transferred and understood. Moreover,

by seeing how the learners as the subject of this study write their reflection and

then analyzing the error of past tense that occurs, researcher than would be able to

provide a model of learner language. The involvement of these learners‘ personal

narratives in experience of learning English generally and past tense specifically

would complete the model of learner language a sort of clarification. From that, it

is expected that either language learners as well as language teachers of English

can learn from the data and the analysis in this study.

In order to describe the writings as the subject of this study, the researcher

use a rubric. Refering to the explicit knowledge of a learner language proposed by

Ellis (2005), the researcher forms a rubric that is used to assess the writings. The

rubric, as had been explained in the previous section contains of four focuses

namely accuracy, content, organization and diction.


59

Generally, these students achieves best points for content. Based on the

data, these student achieves in average 58.45 for accuracy, which is the highest

average point among all four terms that assessed. Content here as the element that

is assessed in these writing covers what are the ideas and illustrations of messages

that these students use in writing their reflection. It is clarified that they actually

have been accustomed to reflecting, orally and verbally. Three interviewees claim

that they are required to have a written reflection every day which produced using

bahasa, even since the first day they started studying and living in Seminary. By

having reflection writing as a habit, there is no doubt that these students could

perform fairly good in picking their ideas to share. However, referring to the

rubric proposed by Brown & Bailey (1984), 58.45 cannot be considered as good

enough. There are still quiet lot of grammatical problems appeared and influenced

reader‘s understandings toward the writings. Students of Bahasa Inggris I class B

need to consider this point as what to be improved.

The second best point is achieved mostly all of them in term of

organization with the average point is 54.57. Generally, these students faced

problem in organizing their ideas. They are more likely missed to put some

particular ideas in the appropriate part, such as illustration is in the body of their

writing instead of in the opening or introduction part. Or in other cases, some put

conclusion in the early part without confirming it again in the next paragraphs.

This creates confusion when the ideas mentioned in the beginning never showed

again until the end. Also, sometimes, the writer even forgets their main ideas. The

main ideas are not even stated clearly. In the contrary, some of them repeat the


60

same ideas quiet a lot. Much more that it should. The repetition then blurs the

main idea that the writer is actually going to deliver. Through the rubric used in

this study, the average point then confirmed that students need to develop more on

the ideas and pay attention more on the existence of the idea itself.

In diction, these students achieves quiet low with the average point is 52,9.

In the writings, still found relatively lot of vocabularies misused. The students

need to improve their awareness of part of speech of each word in English. Yet,

the lowest average point is in accuracy. The point for accuracy is 52,72. Through

the rubric, it can be seen that these students still produce run-on sentences. Even

the messages are getting through the readers but that problems affect the

understanding and later the communication between writer and the readers.

As the result error analysis, mostly the errors found in past tense are

typically archi-form (misformation). According to Dulay (1982), archi-form errors

are made by the learner in using form. Based on the findings, most of the errors

made by the students are in using form. Even there are some of the students found

to make errors only in using form. The personal narratives of the three persons

that have been interviewed show and clarify it. In order to make it clearer, the

discussion on this would be elaborated based on source of errors explained by

Brown (1980).

1. Interlingual transfer

Brown (1980) defines interlingual transfer is one of the source of learners‘

error in learning a language. Corder (1973) uses the term mother tongue. Both of

these experts explain that a learner can make an error because the impact of the


61

mother tongue of the learner itself. Two out of three subjects that had been

interviewed used to speak their local language as their mother tongues. Both of

them even speaks their mother tongues in more than one types in terms of dialect.

The first one started to learn bahasa Indonesia before he formally attended

elementary school and then started to know and learn English when he just

attended junior high school. Therefore, his mother tongue is his local language,

then bahasa Indonesia becomes his second language and English becomes his

third language. The second one also claims the same. His first language is his

local language as well as his second language (bahasa Indonesia) and his third

language which is English. Only one of those three that has bahasa Indonesia as

his first language and then English as his second language. The first two (P2 and

P9) perform not as better as the third (P1) does. In their personal narratives, also

claimed by those who have local language as the first language that it is difficult

to understand and apply concept of past tense once they are learning English. That

is because they don‘t have such the same concept of tenses in their local language.

While, the third one, whom perform much better in using past tense compared to

other two claims that it is quiet easier to apply the concept of past tense in English

because it is similar to his first language (bahasa Indonesia).

2. Intralingual

According to Brown (1980), students can produce an error because of the

nature of the target language. In cases of the three subjects that had been

interviewed found that intralingual is one of the sources of errors they produce. P2

and P9, beside that they have local language as first language, they also did not


62

have as long period of time in learning English as P1 has. P1 has already

introduced to English tenses (including past tense) when he was in Elementary

school. It is obvious that the longer a learner learn the target language, the bigger

chance of him to understand the concept of that language. In performance, P2 and

P9 produce more errors in forming past tense compared to P1 does. When it is

clarified in the interview, P2 and P9 claim that they find it difficult to understand

the concept of past tense due to the lack of practice and chance to apply that

concept into real sentences, orally and verbally. They expect more practice adn

drilling in using it (past tense) instead of only learn about it theoretically.

3. Context of learning

Brown (1980) mentions context of learning as the third possible source of

error that made by a learner. This refers to the materials and method of teaching in

the target language that received and experienced by the learner. The personal

narratives of the three interviewees are quiet similar one another. Each of them

reveals that their experince in learning English from the very beginning is not

always interesting and challenging. Most of them tells the same story when

talking about their learning experience in the past. P2 sees that the method of

teaching English that was used by his teacher both in Elementary and Junior high

school is always boring. While his experience in Senior high school, as he sees,

that there was lack of chance to really practice and apply what they have learned

from books and drilling. The focus of the discussion was mostly in the theory of

tenses itself (including past tense). P9 emphasized his experience of being asked

to memorize words and rules of English in his early period of learning English as


63

boring and frsutrating. Since he claims that he is not good in memorizing things

then that sort of method in teaching him English creates no improvement in his

English. P1, even though doesn‘t clearly states about his opinion in the method of

his teachers that teach him English, also mentions that he expect more from it.

Especially in the portion of practising and appyling what he was learning about

English and its tenses, including past tense.


64

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter contains of two parts. The first part provides the conclusions

derived from the findings and the discussion. The second part provides some

recommendations drawn by the researcher for some related parties. All are

adressed within the scope of the case study on learner language in written

reflection produced by ten students of Bahasa Inggris I class B in Theology

Faculty-Sanata Dharma University.

A. Conclusions

Based on the findings and discussion, it can be concluded these following

points:

1. Writing description

Generally, the students of Bahasa Inggris I class B perform well in

pouring content in their writings. As the impact of having a habit in writing

reflection, they could extract the value and relate it with their own reflection.

While in term of organization, not all of them could perform well. There are some

misplacing and repetitions of ideas. They need to be more careful in forming each

part of a writing such as opening, body and closing. Those three are the primary

parts of a good writing. Based on what are found and assessed in their writing,

these students tend to miss some points in each part. In term of diction, these

students also need to improve. There are still found some unsuitable words and


65

terms used in the writings. In term of accuracy, the average point achieved by

these students is the lowest among the other three. Since in accuracy, grammar

and structure are the focus and the writings are typically reflection, then past tense

is considered as a feature that holds important role. Therefore, further analysis is

conducted on errors made in using past tense to clarify this description. Personal

narratives of the students later also used to complete the clarification.

2. Analysis of the error in using past tense

Based on the analysis, it is found that mostly these students make errors in

using form or as Dulay explains called as archi-form (misformation). It happens

when the learner use wrong form of words, in this case past form, in sentences.

There are some other errors that are made by these students namely, a). double

marking (addition) where the learner doubles particular morphemes or words or

time marker in forming sentence with past tense, b). misordering where the

learner put wrong order of a lexical or morpheme in a sentence with past tense,

c). regularization in misformation where the learner misform a past form of a

word, d). omission where the learner omits any past morpheme in sentences, e).

alternating form where learner put or alter a morpheme in incorrect place. Yet,

above all, the archi-form (misformation) is the most significant errors that found

made by these students.

3. Clarification from the students’ personal narratives

Based on the result of interview, it is discussed that learners experience in

learning English gives impact in how they perform in their writing. In case of

error in past tense they have made, they claim that nature of mother tongue, nature


66

of the target language (English) and context of learning influence how they

understand and master the concept of past tense as well as the ability of applying

it in their writing. Referred to what Brown (1980) explains about those sources of

errors, it is clarified that:

a). nature of mother tongue can bring confusion when the learner has to deal with

concept in the target language, which in this case, is really different one another,

b). nature of target language also can bring confusion to the learner when the

learner is not accustomed enough to learn and apply that concept in real practices,

c). context of learning that forms the allure of leaning experience especially in

English concept also can lead the learner to confusion. When it is only focus on

the theory to be memorized or to be drilled without any further real practice and

application, the learners find it difficult to understand and later to be able to use

the feature (past tense) in their language production.

B. Recommendations

In this part, the researcher would like to give some suggestions to some

parties. They are the students of Bahasa Inggris I Class B, future researchers and

the English Language Education Study Program.

1. The Students of Bahasa Inggris I class B

This study has explained some description of the writings produced by

these students. Based on what have been found the students of Bahasa Inggris I

class B better to spend more time to practice writing in English. As the candidate

of priest, later, they would be required to master not only English for


67

communication but also for reflection, both oral and written. Besides that, it is

needed for them to practice more in applying tenses as possible as the can. Since

practicing would give them chance to improve day by day.

2. Future researchers

For future researchers, this study can be used as a reference in conducting

other research related on Education and learner language as well as second

language acquisition. There are some findings found in this study that can be

researched further. For example in the writings of the students, also found errors

in subject-verb agreement, prepositions, and any other feature of English. Future

researcher might conduct a research which focuses on that related to how a learner

language improves in the process of learning the target language. Also, we have

found that there are some factors that give impact learners’ errors during the

process of learning a language. In those factors there are various forms or aspects

that found as the sources of errors. Future research probably may conduct research

in that aspects to help both students or language learners and language teachers

improve their method in teaching and learning English.

3. The English Language Education Study Program

This study can help the study program to consider teaching practice or

internship for students of ELESP as an English tutor or teacher in other

departments (such as theology, math education, or other departments in Sanata

Dharma University) in a quiet long period of time, as a part of a compulsory

subject offered in the study program. Since the internship later can provide real

model of learner language and broader background of language that other


68

departments’ students hold. Different from what the study program has done these

years which called PPL, internship in other departments in campus provides more

complete experience. By involving the students of ELESP, which are expected to

be an English teacher in the future, to the real process of acquiring English as a

second language on those who are preparing for other profession than a teacher,

the experience and the knowledge of these teacher candidates may be enriched

and broadened.


69

REFERENCES

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New York: Hort, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Brown, H. D. (2004). Language assessment; principal and classroom practices.

Longman: San Francisco State University.

Corder, S. P. (1979). Techniques in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

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Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.

Dulay, H., Burt, M., & Krashen, S. (1982). Language two. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Ellis, R. & Barhuizen, G. (2005). Analyzing learner language. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Gass, M. S. (2001). Second language aqcuisition an introductory course. 2nd

Ed.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Harris, D. P. (1969). Testing english as a second language. New York:

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Hillier, Y. (2005). Reflective teaching in further and adult education (2nd

Ed.)

New York: Continuum.


70

Hyland, K. (2003). Second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Krashen, Stephen D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language

learning. Oxford: Oergamon Press.

Lichtman, M. (2003). Qualitative research education: a user’s guide. London:

Sage Publication Ltd.

Marshall, Catherine., Rossman, Gretchen B. (2006). Designing qualitative

research. 4th

Ed. California: Sage Publication Inc.

Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: a guide to design and

implementation. California: Jossey-Bass.

Murphy, R. (1985). English grammar in use. 2nd

Ed. London: Cambridge

University Press.

Norrish, J. (1983). Language learners and their errors. London: Macmillan Press.

Sherman, R. (1998). Qualitative research in education: focus and method. New

York: The Falmer Press.

Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data. California: Sage Publication

Inc.

Troyka, L. (1987). Handbook for writers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Inc.

Yin, R.K. (2012). Case study research. London: Sage Publication.


71

APPENDIX A

INTERVIEW

TRANSCRIPTIONS


72

Interviewee : P2

Gender : Male

Date/Time : Saturday, April 16th 2016.

I : Jadi, hal pertama yang saya ingin tahu, kapan pertama kali Frater

belajar bahasa Inggris?

P2 : Pertama kali belajar bahasa Inggris itu SD kelas empat kalau tidak salah

e, tapi itu bukan formal.

I : Berarti kursus?

P2 : Kursus, iyah kursus. Kursus tapi itu cuman berapa bulan e, tiga bulan,

dua kali pertemuan tiga bulan, setelah itu saya off. Membosankan..membosankan.

I : Lalu dapat formalnya?

P2 : Dapat formalnya SMP, SD kelas 6 sudah dapat tapi masih yang abjad,

nama-nama hari, yang dasar. Saya SMP nya di Santisima Hokeng, 2006. Di SMP

mulai belajar intensif, tapi cara mengajar gurunya yang kurang bagus.

I : Seperti apa tu? Maksudnya apakah monoton, ikut di buku atau?

P2 : Ya, monoton, ikut di buku, kemudian tugasnya pun paling

menterjemahkan,

P2 : Sekedar terjemahkan dan itu kesannya membosankan dari kelas satu

sampai kelas dua, kemudian kelas tiga, ganti guru tetapi itu saya rasa bahwa

gurunya itu terlalu pintar berbahasa Inggris sementara tidak menyesuaikan dengan

kami yang pemula. Jadi itu juga kesannya membosankan. Lalu waktu masuk

SMA di Seminari, memang menarik di Seminari itu pada saat bulan-bulan awal

itu kami belajar mulai penggunaan tenses, grammar iya, tenses-tenses, Itu, tapi

karena gurunya kan Pater, iya kan, jadi hampir setiap hari itu hanya bahas


73

mengenai tenses, sedangkan aplikasinya dalam, misalkan untuk buat tulisan

ataupun itu kurang, hanya belajar saja, itu SMA Seminari, kelas satu hingga dua.

Kemudian saya lanjutkan, saya kan dikeluarkan dari seminari jadi lanjutkan di

SMA di luar itu, SMA di luar itu bahasa Inggrisnya sangat membosankan, saya

keluar dari SMA Seminari kemudian lanjut di SMA Darius Larantuka, dan itu

yang sangat membosankan. Karena cara mengajarnya sama kaya Pak -----. Terlalu

tinggi, bisa dikatakan terlalu tinggi juga, itu dan hampir setiap hari mendikte,

sesuai dengan apa yang, apa yang dia mau. Jadi, jadi tidak memberi ruang kepada

kami untuk mengekspresikan pengetahuan Inggris kami. Bahkan untuk, ehm,

palingan disuruh menghafal paragraf lalu menceritakan kembali

I : Oya?

P2 : itu, SMA kemudian, tense itu juga tidak disentuh sehingga masih, masih

bingung.masih bingung penggunaan tense-tense nya itu. Lebih kepada mendikte.

Sehingga pelajaran bahasa Inggrisnya itu tidak terlalu mendalam. Saya kan

jurusan bahasa, saya kan jurusan bahasa tetapi lebih spesifiknya lebih tertarik

dengan bahasa Jerman. Hanya bahasa Inggrisnya memang kualitaas gurunya

bagus tetapi cara mengajarnya yang kurang bagus sehingga membuat saya tidak

ada daya tarik untuk tidak belajar bahasa Inggris. Tapi ketika masuk kongregasi

kan memang tuntutan utama harus bahasa Inggrisnya karena bahasa Internasional.

Jadi sempat membuat saya kewalahan juga dengan basic bahasa Inggris yang ala

kadarnya kemudian yang sampai ke tingkat itu yang waktu SMA itu, eh, waktu di

Kongregasi itu bulan-bulan e, tahun pertama itu kami dapat tiga dosen bahasa

Inggris. Itu, grammarnya guru khusus, dosen khusus, kemudian ehm,


74

pronunciationnya juga khusus kemudian dia dalam membuat tulisan juga khusus.

Itu.

I : Itu selama satu tahun frater?

P2 : Selama satu tahun. Selama satu tahun, satu minggu empat kali

pertemuan, tiga dosen empat kali pertemuan. Intensif, iya. Tapi itulah bahwa,

mungkin kelemahan kami di sana, kecenderungan, memang ada saat-saat untuk

berbahasa Inggris ya, tetapi kecenderungan untuk menggunakan bahasa Indonesia.

Sehingga lebih sering bahasa Indonesia walaupun itu aah, aturannya bahwa hari

itu adalah khusus untuk bahasa Inggris tapi nyatanya ehh, bahasa Indonesia.

Kemudian, waktu di ini juga kami diajarkan untuk membuat sharing-sharing

dalam bahasa Inggris, refleksi-refleksi dalam bahasa Inggris. Tapi masalahnya

ketika kami berbuat salah tidak dikoreksi. Tidak dikoreksi, iya. Misalnya dalam

tulisan waktu itu dia menggantikannya tetapi tidak memberi keterangan misalnya

ini kesalahan apa yang di sini, di sini, sehingga kurang memuaskan juga bagi

saya. Itu tahun-tahun pertama mulai belajar bahasa Inggris di kongregasi. Tetapi

memang waktu di dalam kongregasi saya merasa pengalaman bahasa Inggris saya

mulai, eh, sudah artinya di atas dari yang SMA lah, walaupun sedikit, ada

perubahan.

I : Lebih produktif?

P2 : Jadi, iya, lebih produktif, lebih banyak menulis dalam bahasa Inggris,

kemudian ada hari khusus berbahasa Inggris yang saya mencoba untuk berbahasa

Inggris tetapi itulah kecenderungan orang Indonesia. Jadi, satu yang, sesuatu yang

menjadi pergumulan bagi saya juga karena ketika berbicara bahasa Inggris tetapi


75

dialeknya masih Flores. Itu jadi satu dilema bagi saya untuk berbicara dalam

bahasa Inggris. Sehingga waktu ada, dua tahun yang lalu ada kunjungan dari

pastor-pastor dari luar negeri, itu yang memang benar kami dibanting habis-

habisan dalam satu minggu hanya khusus untuk belajar bahasa Inggris supaya

nanti bisa berkomunikasi dengan pastor-pastor itu. Tetapi hanya begitulah, hanya

percakapan-percakapan lebih-lebih dalam persiapan itu ya, persiapan untuk

berkomunisi dengan para pastor dari Inggris itu kami hanya diberi kesempatan

untuk bercakap-cakap, bercakap-cakap saja, sedangkan untuk mengoreksi kadang

campur aduk, ehh, itu, dia punya tensenya itu. Amburadul semua, mana yang itu

past, present, future.

I : Tapi pada dasarnya frater sebenarnya memahami? Secara teori paham?

P2 : Secara teori paham tetapi secara ketika practice nya itu yang sulit.

Kadang, mungkin karena konsepnya dalam konsep Indonesia ya sehingga

misalnya, saya juga, I also. Gitu, Begitu. Jadi konsepnya dalam bahasa Inggris

sehingga ketika hendak memikirkan untuk membicarakan sesuatu, pasti

menterjemahkan dulu, ya terbawa, konsepnya terbawa, sehingga harus

terjemahkan dulu dari kata per kata, sehingga kadang membingungkan juga untuk

menerapkannya dalam tense.

I : Bahasa ibu frater apa?

P2 : Bahasa daerah bahasa pertama saya. Ada perbedaan antara konsep bahasa

Lamaholot (interviewee’s L1) dengan bahasa Indonesia saja sudah beda, apalagi

dengan bahasa Inggris. Baru saya kan basicnya, bahasa (L1) kan ada beberapa

bahasa memang, jadi ehm, bahasa ibu ada beberapa bahasa, ada bahasa dialek


76

Flores Adonara-Adonara Barat, kemudian Flores Adonara Timur, dan Adonara

tengah. Itu kan, maksudnya masing-masing punya dialek yang berbeda. Ya, saya

gunakan. Ketika berbicara dengan orang Adonara Barat, ya, sambung, kemudian

Adonara Timur juga harus menyesuaikan dengan mereka.

I : Kita kembali sedikit ke past tense. Saya mau tahu secara umum

pemahaman frater tentang past tense bagaimana?

P2 : Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang tahu adalah bahwa

sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan past tense. Dan

kalau ada –ed berarti itu waktunya sudah lewat. Jadi indikasinya ya itu. Pokonya

asal ada tanda bentuk past, nah bagi saya itu sudah benar. Tapi dalam aplikasinya,

kecenderungan menggunakan present. Tensenya, menggunakan present.

I : Past continuous?

P2 : Past continous sampai sekarang masih membingungkan. Kalau dalam

penggunakan itu ya kadang saya temukana dalam pengalaman, misalnya kalau

sudah ada kata to, ada to di depan, berarti tidak, verb nya harus verb 1. Tapi itu

bukan dalam apa e, dalam pengalaman sehari-hari ketika dikoreksi oleh teman-

teman itu kemudian kalau untuk menggunakan, itu juga saya sampai sekarang

saya tidak tahu kapan menggunakan have been, kapan menggunakan has been, itu

masih suatu kesulitan bagi saya. Itu waktu teori, pernah diajarkan tapi kapan

menggunakan itu yang mungkin sudah diajarkan tetapi pada saat itu saya

ngelamun atau bagaimana saya juga tidak tahu. Iya, practicenya, practice memang

kurang.


77

I : Terus, eeh, kalau misalnya frater mulai bingung saat writing. Apa yang

frater lakukan?

P2 : Kalau untuk penggunaan have, has nya itu saya tahu. Kalau have kan

untuk orang pertama, orang kedua. Sedangkan has kan untuk orang ketiga

tunggal. Tapi kecenderungan itu nanti pada saat practicenya itu bingung. Pada

saat menulisnya. Meskipun have, has nya tetapi menempatkan pada saat mana

menggunakna ini yang tidak tahu. Itu yang tidak tahu,

I : setelah ikut kelas bahasa Inggris di sini, bagaimana? Semakin jauh atau

dekat pemahamannya dengan yang benar?

P2 : Merasa justru semakin jauh. Semakin jauh. Mengawang-awang. Baru

omong nya, mungkin karena, iya, lompat-lompat, itu sudah, dan kecenderungan

campur. Indonesia-Inggris, Indonesia-Inggris sehingga bingung. Ya bingung.

I : Lalu frater ingin seperti yang mana?

P2 : Kalau Inggris, sebaiknya Inggris semua supaya biar kita menganalisanya

kan juga bagus kan. Bisa berusaha untuk belajar dari yang sudah dia bicarakan itu

tadi tapi karena campur-campur sehingga bingung. Bukan Cuma untuk saya

sendiri, untuk teman-teman yang terkhusus dari confrik saya juga saya, begitu,

bahwa bahasa Inggrisnya Pak --- memang dia orangnya basicnya Inggris tetapi

terlalu tinggi untuk kami.

I : Kembali ke frater punya pengalaman belajar bahasa inggris dulu.

Apakah ada guru ideal yang cara mengajarnya paling nyaman dengan frater?

P2 : Itu kelas tiga SMA, eh, SMP, dan kelas tiga SMA tapi bukan baru satu

problem nya itu juga bahwa setiap guru kan tiap kelas, setiap tingkat berbeda.


78

Kelas satu guru berbeda, kelas satu gurunya berbeda, kelas tiga gurunya berbeda.

Jadi guru yang bawa kami dari kelas satu itu maksudnya tidak mengover apa yang

sudah kami pelajari di kelas satu sehinga nanti di kelas dua itu kecenderungan

tetapi ulangnya dalam hal yang lain. Ulangnya dalam hal yang lain sehingga

dalam, membuat kami bingung. Tercampur aduk, tidak fokus. Sehingga guru yang

satu dengan dia punya kapasitas yang satu nanti dia punya cara mengajarnya

begini, nanti berikutnya kami sudah merasa ya setidaknya sudah merasa in dengan

guru ini tapi nanti ketika naik kelas dua ganti lagi guru lagi. Guru ini dengan dia

punya type yang begini, cara mengajarnya begini, jadi itu yang buat saya bosan.

Saya juga termasuk orang yang cepat bosan. Saya kan bukan, harus aktif, harus

ada sesuatu yang dikerjakan begitu.

I : Bagaimana dengan metode yang frater harapkan?

P2 : Kalau untuk metodenya pak --- kemarin yang buat refleksi itu bagus, itu

memang sangat membantu sekali ya untuk membuat refleksi dalam bahasa

Inggris. Tetapi ketika di sana, hanya sekedar mengumpulkan. Tidak ada feedback,

kemudian tidak ada memberi kami untuk, menyampaikan kepada kami gambaran

sedikit apa yang sudah kami sharingkan itu. Sehingga, istilahnya, mentok di situ.

Mentok di kumpul, setelah itu mungkin dia ambil nilai, setelah itu sudah. Begitu.

Saja, tidak ada feedback untuk kami. Misalnya dalam hal ini, penggunaan ini, ini,

ha, kalau misalkan kemarin dengan ---- kan mantaplah, kita sampaikan, kita baca,

kemudian ada feedback nya nah itu yang biasanya kalau yang feedback nya itu

yang sering kita ingat, kan. Padahal untuk kami para frater, kemampuan bahasa

Inggris tidak cukup kalau hanya menguasai yang komunikatif saja, tetapi


79

kemampuan menulis juga. Siapa tahu besok-besok kami diberi tugas misi ke luar

negeri, komunikasi lewat tulisan juga pasti sangat penting. Makanya kami butuh

itu, untuk bisa lebih berkembang.

I : Oke, baik. Terimakasih frater untuk interview hari ini. Terimakasih

banyak frater sudah meluangkan waktu membantus saya.

P2 : Sama-sama. Sukses selalu.


80

APPENDIX B

LEARNERS’ ERROR


81

S Type

of

Error

Sub-

categor

y of

error

Erroneous sentences Researcher’s notes

P1 O -

A DM -

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi 1. Have you ever find

yourself in front of a

strong block and it seemed

you are going to give up?

2. I move gradually, step

by step.

3. They realize that the

true friendship is the

greatest teasure

Inconsistency

indicates the writer

doesn’t sure how to

use past tense in this

sentence.

In the previous

sentences, the writer

uses past tense

because the event

happens in this

sentence also had

already done in past.

So it should be

moved.

Idem.

Af -

P2 O - -

A DM 1. I used to woke up late

every day

2. However, we were tend

to say ...

3. If i got it, sometimes I

felt struggled or confused.

This should use the

concept of habitual

past. The writer

probably doesn’t

understand that used

to indicates the past

habit already so that

the verb 2 is not

needed anymore.

Add, the writer

shoul know that to-

form uses base verb.

That is why this is

considered as

misformation error

too (see the column

of misformation

error below)


82

It is doubled

because the writer

uses were before a

verb.

The writer doubles

the verbs here, also

this sentence raises

confusion to the

readers because it

inconsistency of the

tenses used. That is

why this also is

considered as an

error in

misformating.

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - One day my school have

planned a program, called

Jalan Santai.

The writer probably

misorders the phrase

have planned

because what

happenned in the

past is the school

had a plan of a

program. Not the

plan itself.

Mf RegMf When I am watching this

movie, ...

It happened in the

past so it should be

was

Archi 1. I used to woke up late

every day

2. If he got angry with me,

I just smile and said ...

3. I found the value

contained said, ...

4. Who also took part ...

5. If i got it, sometimes I

felt struggled or confused.

6. Because my desired to

follow the competition was

so strength, I gave much

time to improve my skill.

7. Finally, I can present a

This sentence should

be parallel. Smile

smiled

It doesn’t need to be

in verb 2 since the

idea discussed in

this sentence is

actually a general

turth.

The writer

misunderstood that a

noun cannot be

treated like a verb.

Can should be


83

silver medal for my group.

8. The other way is when I

faced some difficulties, I

am often asked how to

keep the difficulties that

can be overcome.

could.

Af -

P3 O - 1. I (was) very afraid

2. I (was) very scared to

tell it to the others, ...

3. I (was) very scared to

tell it ...

The writer omits the

to be

A DM 1. I’m was in pretending

area

2. ...when I go into the

monestary I was faced it.

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi 1. ..that among Jews has

become a culture when the

Sabbath one should not

engage in activities that

are very heavy.

2. ...when I go into the

monestary I was faced it.

3. I’m surprised ...

This sentence was

expected to tell the

event happened in

the past but the

writer didn’t use the

past form for the

verb go

Idem.

Idem.

Af -

P4 O - From the video, I (was)

impressed about the

loyality of Mary and

Joseph, especially to do

the best for the God plans.

A DM 1. Rosa was lived in her

cage.

2. This experience was

happened when I was

seven years old.

3. So, she can roamed

freely an grow up happily.

4. She was created of all

just for us.

5. God was gived in her

soul ...


84

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi 1. When she walk out from

the zoo, she thought and

cried “friends!”.

2. She met and disturbs the

ice cream vendor, the

seller of coconut, she

entered in the shop of TV

screen and also make a

traffic jam.

3. When I get my holidays

to home, he always

requested me to visit his

house and told me many

things.

4. I have feel it.

5. I was given food and

watch TV comfortably.

This sentence was

expected to tell the

event happened in

the past but the

writer didn’t use the

past form for the

verb go

Idem.

There is

inconsistency of

using the past form.

Idem.

Not parralel.

Af I gave a pocket money

before went to school or

many foods was given to

me when in my home

weren’t food.

P5 O - Jesus wants (to) invites us

to be seriously when we

are going to pray

A DM Jesus wants invites us to

be seriously when we are

going to pray

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi 1. Since we was a child ,

we got the love from our

parents.

2. After that, I am afraid to

meet with my father.

3. I try to be brave to meet

him and tell him my

mistake.

4. My father come to me

Missformed. Also

there is confusion

whether the writer

wants to use

singular or plural.


85

and said, “I loved you my

son, don’t be afraid

because you is the best

son.”

5. I prefer to my father to

be a good man in my

school.

Af -

P6 O - She (is) left by her

husband

A DM 1. They were had many

problems in their lives but

she has to pay the college

fee.

2. She was always happy

and gave me her cute

smile everytime I saw her,

The writer doubles

verb in past form

here.

The doubling

happens in the tense

used. Was indicates

past while always

requires verb base

(present usually)

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi 1. They were had many

problems in their lives but

she has to pay the college

fee.

2. I did angry with my

mother.

3. ... either she allow, or

did not allow me.

4. ... because my

behaviour that always

went home at midnight.

The verb should be

in past.

Wrong formation. It

should be a past to

be.

Af -

P7 O - -

A DM 1. I will knew purpose of

the experience what is said

to me.

2. I will brought come to

grief in my life every day

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - From the films were gave This might be a


86

teacher, ... misordering error.

Mf RegMf I misunderstanded them.

Archi 1. The meaning of this idea

is Jesus has gave notice

His life in the future.

2. When he said like that, I

am sure that people who

listened to His voice didn’t

understand His purposed.

3. From the films were

gave teacher, ...

4. I was knew as a naughty

boy.

5. I always apposed their

adviced.

6. I always looked for the

happiness time outside my

home.

7. I cannot controlled my

self.

8. They have start to study

it very well.

The form should be

verb 3; given

The writer probably

is confused with the

form of verb and

noun.

This might be also a

misformating error.

The writer misforms

the past form of

cannot.

It should be in past

form.

Af -

P8 O - -

A DM -

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi 1. Once upon a time there

is a man who works as a

fisherman.

2. One day, when the

fisherman goes to work,

the fisherman catches a

fish which can speak in

human language.

3. The magic fish asks the

fisherman to let him go.

4. When the fisherman

come back home, he tells

to his wife.

5. And you know, his wife

is very angry with the

fisherman.

6. When his wife hears a


87

news from the fisherman

about the magic fish, she

tells the fisherman to go

back again ....

7. The fisherman does that.

8. After that, the fisherman

stands in the shore then

telling it to the fish.

9. And the fish grants the

fisherman’s wife desire.

10. .. he sees that he has a

big house.

11. The fisherman’s wife is

not satisfy.

12. She sees that a big

house is not perfect.

13. She tells hers desire to

her husband again that she

wants a stone castle.

14. The fisherman goes

more with another will of

his wife: A stone castle.

15. The fish answers.

16. After that, the

fisherman goes back home

and he sees that there are

many servants, ...

Af -

P9 O - -

A DM -

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi When the words were

saying, I should think

about the meaning.

Related to the

context in the

paragraph, the writer

should use a present

instead of a past

because that is what

always the writer

does (it is a repeated

action)

Af -

P10 O - -

A DM -


88

Notes:

P1 stands for participant 1, the

rests are the same.

O stands for Omission

A stands for Addition

Mo stands for Misordering

Mf stands for Misformating

DM stands for Double Marking

RegA stands for Regularization of

Addition

SimpA stands for Simple addition

error

RegMf stands for Regularization

of Misformating

Archi stands for Archi-form

Af stands for Alternating form

RegA -

SimpA -

Mo - -

Mf RegMf -

Archi The little pianist has a

great desire to play piano

and dreamed of becoming

a pianist someday.

This sentence is not

parallel.

Af -


89

APPENDIX C

RUBRIC OF WRITING


90

Rubric of Writing as adapted from Brown and Baley (1984)

Elements ≥75 ≥50≤74 ≥25≤49 ≤24

Accuracy

(grammar)

Advanced

proficiency in

English

grammar;

some

grammar

problems

don’t

influence

communicatio

n, although

the reader is

aware of

them; no

fragments or

run-on

sentences, no

more than two

inappropriate

tenses used

Ideas are

getting through

the reader but

grammar

problems are

apparent and

have a negative

effect on

communication

; run-on

sentences or

fragments

present

Numerous

serious

grammar

problems

interfere with

communicatio

n of the

writer’s ideas;

grammar

review of

some areas

clearly

needed;

difficult to

read sentences

Severe

grammar

problems

interfere

greatly with

the message;

reader can’t

understand

what the

writer was

trying to say;

unintelligible

sentence

structure

Content

(logical

development

of ideas)

Essay

addresses the

assigned

topic; the

ideas are

concrete and

thoroughly

developed; no

extraneous

material;

essay reflects

thoughts

Essay

addresses the

issues but

misses some

points; ideas

could be more

fully

developed;

some

extraneous

material

present

Ideas

incomplete;

essay does not

reflect careful

thinking or

was hurriedly

written;

inadequate

effort in area

of content

Essay is

completely

inadequate

and does not

reflect

college-level

work; no

apparent

effort to

consider the

topic

carefully

Organization Appropriate

title, effective

introductory

paragraph,

topic is stated,

leads to body;

transitional

expressions

used;

arrangement

Adequate title,

introduction,

and conclusion;

body of essay

is acceptable,

but some

evidence may

be lacking,

some ideas

aren’t fully

Shaky or

minimally

recognizable

introduction;

organization

can barely be

seen; severe

problems with

ordering of

ideas; lack of

Absence of

introduction

or

conclusion;

no apparent

organization

of body;

severe lack

of supporting

evidence;


91

of materials

shows plan

(could be

outlined by

reader);

supporting

evidence

given for

generalization

and

conclusion

logical are

complete

developed;

sequence is

logical but

transitional

expressions

may be absent

or misused

supporting

evidence;

conclusion

weak or

illogical;

inadequate

effort at

organization

writer has

not made any

effort to

organize the

composition

(could not be

outlined by

the reader)

Diction Attempts

variety; good

vocabulary;

not wordy;

register OK;

style fairly

concise

Some

vocabulary

misused; lacks

awareness of

register; may

be too wordy

Poor

expression of

ideas;

problems in

vocabulary;

lacks variety

of structure

Inappropriate

use of

vocabulary;

no concept of

register or

sentence

variety

Source: adapted from ‘analytical scale for rating composition tasks (Brown &

Bailey, 1984, pp. 39-41)


92

APPENDIX D

FREQUENCY OF ERROR

TYPE


93


94

APPENDIX E

SAMPLE OF STUDENTS’

WRITTEN REFLECTIONS


95


96


97


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