a comparison of the verbal transformation effect in normal
TRANSCRIPT
University of Central Florida University of Central Florida
STARS STARS
Retrospective Theses and Dissertations
1976
A Comparison of the Verbal Transformation Effect in Normal and A Comparison of the Verbal Transformation Effect in Normal and
Learning Disabled Children Learning Disabled Children
Ellen E. Kissel University of Central Florida
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A COMPARISON OF THE VERBAL TRANSFORMATION EFFECT I N NORMAL AND LEARNING DISABLED CHILDREN
Ellen E. Kissel B.A., Florida Technological University, 1974
THES I S
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts: Communication
in the Graduate Studies .Program of the Col 1 ege of Social Sciences Florida Technological University
Or1 aado, Fl ori da 1976
Acknowl edgements -.. - . I.. . - *.! ... % . -,- $. .2;;>:.., :
,~= . fy+. :~25 :2
8p ;,.; , .*. . - . ...-
I would l i ke t o express my thanks t o Gateway and
Delaney Schools f o r a1 lowing me t o draw subjects from t he i r
1 anguage-del ayed c l asses.
Thanks go a l s o t o those members of the universi ty who
he1 ped me accompl ish this t a sk , my comni t t e e members, Dr. David Barr,
Dr. Davld Ingram and Dr. A1 bert Pryor.
I would a l s o l i k e t o thank Maggie Richardson f o r typing and
preparing t h i s manuscript.
to Dr. Thomas A. Mu1 1 tn for h is guidance as
educator and f r f end, and t o my parents,
Dr. and Ws. B. C. Kissel, f o r their
consTan7; encouragement and support.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
L I S T OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i
INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I
Cognt tive Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Neurophysl'ol ogical Imp1 ications . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Phonetic Consi deratlons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Perceptual Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Learning D l sorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Neurological Aspects o f Learning Disabil i t i es . . . . . 11 Auditory Processing D i s o r d e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Materfal s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Statistical Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Physlol ogical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Classroom Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Implications for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . . . . o . a . . w . . . . e . * 29
APPENDIX A . Number o f Transformations and Di f fe rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Words Per Subject 31
. . . . . . . APPENDIX B Directions Given to All Subjects 33
REFERENCES . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
Analysis of Yari ance o f Verbal Transformations in Normal s and Learning Disabl ed Groups to Three Test Words . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . 20
Incidence: of Yerbal Transformationi. According to Test Group and Chronologfcal Age . . . . 21 An Analysis o f the Number of Different Words Verbal i zed by Normal and Learning Disabl ed -Groups to each of Three Test Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Introductfon and Rationale
Locke (1894) se t down a principle for perception i n which
conttnued stimulation w i t h an unchanging pattern will lead t o
illusory changes, o r under some conditions t o pebceptual fadf ng and
disappearance. T h i s principle applies t o auditory stimul i as we1 1
a s t o visual stimuli (blarren and Warren, 1966). If a person
, repeats a word over and over, he will generally experience a lapse
of meanlng called semantic o r verbal satiation. Mhen a person
repeats a word aloud such as "ace" w i t h o u t pausing, the stimulus
shoul d be acoustical ly equivalent t o "say1' repeated.
Warren and Gregory (1958) concluded i n their preliminary
studies that passive 1 istening t o repeated words produces both
phonetic and semantic labil i ty whereas repeating words t o one's
sel f produces only semantic effects w i t h o u t i l l usory change t o
other phonemes. Warren (1961a) termed his auditory i 11 usion,
based on 1 istening t o recorded repetition, "the verbal transformation
effectu. The "verbal transformation effect" i s a means of studying
factors under1 ylng perceptual organization of speech sounds (Warren,
1971). It is suggested t h a t verbal transformations reflect
skilled reorganizational mechanisms employed during connected
discourse as an a id to comprehension (Warren, 1968).
Verbal transformations are i l 7 usory effects which occur while one
is 1 i s t en ing t o recorded repe t i t ions of c l e a r l y pronounced s i n g l e
words (Warren, 1966a). Warren presented singl e utterances (words
and non-sense syll ables) two times per second f o r a period of three
minutes. Subjects were instructed t o c a l l out the word they heard
i n i t i a l l y , and then t o ca l l out each change as i t occurred, Warren
(1966a) concluded from these s tudies t h a t verbal ;ransfonnations .
occur w i t h a l l syl lab les and words, t h a t they usually involve
considerable d i s to r t ion of c l ea r auditory stimuli , t h a t they vary
g rea t ly w i t h individuals , and t h a t they usually invoke more than
four d i f f e r e n t responses. . .
Numerous researchers (Locke, 1894; Bryan and Harter, 1897;
Lashley, 1951; Brain, 1962; Taylor and Henning, 1963; Feder and
Bever, 1965; Fay, 1966; Fenelon and Blyden, 1968; Huey, 1968; Warren,
Obusek, Farmer and Warren, 1969; Green, 1971; Obusek, 1971;
Warren and Warren, 1971; Harper, 1972; Naiser, 1972; Warren, 1972a;
Warren, 1972b; Mi 1 cox, Neisser and Roberts, 1972 ; Warren and Obusek,
1972; Obusek and Warren, 1973a; Warren and Ackroff, 1974) have
invest igated t h e re1 ationships between verbal transformations and
cogni t ive f a c t o r s , neurophysiologi cal fac tors (Bryan and Harter, 1899;
Brain, 1962; Paul, 1964; Feder and Bever, 1965; Warren and Warren,
1966; Savin and Bever, 1970; Obusek, 1971; Harper, 1972; Nalser,
1972 ; Warren and Obusek, 1972; Obusek and Warren, 1973a; Warren and
Ackroff, 1974), phonetics (Miller and Kick1 ider, 1950; Warren,
1961a; Evans arid Kitson, 1967; Evans, Longdon, Newan, and Pay, 1967;
Chase, 1971; Clegg, 1971; Lass and Golden, 1971; Warren, 197%;
Warren, 1972c; Lass and Gasperini, 1973; Lass, West, and Taft,
1973; Obusek and Warren, 1973b; Warren, 1973a; Narren 1973b;
Go1 denstein and Lacher, 1974; Warren, 1974a), and speech perception
(Broadbent, 1958; Warren and Gregory, 1958; Hirsh? 1959; Ladefoged,
1959; Ladefoged and Broadbent, 1960; Axel rod and Thompson, 1962;
Chrtstovich, 1962; Norman, Taylor, and Henning , 1963; Amster, 1964;
Barnett, 1964; Garrett, 1965; Natsoul as, 1965; Garrett, Bever, and
Fodor, 1966; Warren and Warren, 1966; Evans and Wilson, 1968; Bever,
Lackner, and Klrk, 1969; .Warren, Obusek, Farmer, and blarren, 1969;
Warren and Narren, 1970; Warren and Obusek, 1971; Ben-Zeev, 1972;
ChapTn, Smith, and Abrahamson, 1972; Tekiele and Lass, 1972;
Warren, Obusek, and Ackroff, 1972; Berl i n , Lower-Be1 1, Cul len, and
Thompson, 1973; Lass, S i l v i s , and Seattle, 1974; Warren, 1974b;
Warren and Sherman, 1974).
Cogni tSve Factors
Mfller (1962) maintains that the repeated verbal stimuli used
-in verbal transformation research is quite different from the
presentation of stimuli found i n normal speech. Hence, drawing
general concl usions regarding verbal transformations and perceptual
o r cogni t tve organization under these special conditions is risky.
M i e r suggested that the verbal transformation effect will a t
least evidence some of the complex organizational mechanisms which
under1 i e speech perception and cogni t l on .
Warren (1970) expl owd the effects o f "identification" o r
"reaction" ttme i n verbal transfoimations on perceptual o r cognitive
synthesis of speech. He maintained that the comparison of
identiftcation ttmes for targets w i t h i n speech cap be used t o
elucidate the temporal course of speech perception and the units
employed i n perceptual processi.ng. I t appears that synthesis of
speech into syllables must precede analysis i n t o the component items.
In this study he concluded that 1) detection o f phonemes probably
does not involve access to an echo-box short-term for search
directed towards the trace of speech sounds corresponding t o the
target phoneme, 2) i t does not correspond t o a teasing apart of
joined features so that the sensory i n p u t correspondi ng t o these
components can be i dentift ed.
Inversely, Mamen and Obusek (1971) studied cognitive and
perceptual factors i n regard to "phonetic restorations" which i s the
omission of speech counds i n context. Warren and Obusek proposed that
phonemic restorations offer promise as a method for investigation of
the effect o f -verbal context upon perception and for probing the
mechanisms used for temporal integration o f speech. Their
research indicated that phonemic restorations seem to involve
ski1 1 ed storage of auditory information, w i t h final perceptual
synthesis dependent upon prior and subsequent context,
Neurophysiol ogical Imp1 ications
There have. been only a few studies regarding the neuro-
physiol ogical imp1 ications of verbal transformation. Paul
(1964) s t u d fed levels of cortical i n h i b i t i o n and illusory changes of
distinct speech upon repetition. Perl (1970) studied verbal '
transformation effects and their appl9 cation t o cerebral
dominance studies. I t was predicted that right-ear presentation
of a word stimulus would produce more reported change than
left-ear presentation, and vice-versa for a tone tape. I t was
fdund that the two types of stimuli used i n this experiment, words
and tones, seem to interact differently w i t h the two hemispheres.
Presumably, the parameters of the effect are different f o r words
and tones. Perl relates ear effects i n dichotic listening t o the
length o f the perceived stimuli. He suggests that verbal material
presented to the l e f t ear passes t o the r i g h t hemisphere before
being sent back across the comnisures t o the lef t hemishpere,
whereas verbal material from the r i g h t ear only has to cross once
t o reach the l e f t temporal cortex.
Phonetic Considerations -- -
In the f i r s t detailed phonetic analysis of the verbal
transformation effect, Barnett (1964) concl uded that the
art1 cul ation posi tions of both vowel s and consonants were
relatively lab i le and subject t o frequent illusory changes.
Cl egg (1971), using 18 separate repeating syll abl es foll owed by the
vowel /i/ concluded that the syllables share the features of -
voicing, nasality and afriction, but not of duration and place
of articul ation. It was found that the small est organizational
groupings seemed to be meaningful words for the aged, Engl i s h I
phoneme sequences for young adults, and individual phonemes for
children. This study suggested that verbal transformations
ref1 ect ski1 led reorganizational mechanisms employed during
connected conversational speech as an aid to comprehension.
More specifically, Warren (1968) noted that from ages six to ten,
nonsense words are frequently reported having speech sound
sequences not found in English; such as the initial /sr/ blend.
Young adults (18 to 25) however, seem to organize t'n terms of
phoneme cl usters as perceptual units. These young adults
report nonsense words, but cluster phonemes according to the
rules of English. Adults over 60 years of age generally imply
meaningful Engl i s h words in their verbal transformations. 1- rren
(1968) found that the number of phonemic changes decreased with
increasing age and concl uded that perceptual reorganization
involved finer and finer distinction with advancing age.
Perceptual Factors
Other research i n verbal t ransformat ions and age groups .
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s illusion i s based upon mechanisms employed f o r
comprehension o f spee.ch. Warren and Warren ( 1 966) showed t h a t
v i r t u a l l y no i l l u s o r y changes were experienced a t the age o f f i v e .
By t h e age o f s ix , almost h a l f o f t h e subjects heard i l l u s o r y
changes a t a r a t e cons is ten t w i t h o l d e r ch i ld ren . A t e ight , a l l
subjects heard the i l l u s o r y changes. The average number o f verbal
t ransformat ions f o r a1 1 subjects was 34 dur ing the . three minute
presentat ion.
Un l i ke t h e phonemic aspects o f verbal transformations,
i n d i v i d u a l s aged 18 t o 25 repor ted i d e n t i c a l average changes (31)
t o t he 8 t o 10 year o l d group. The 62 t o 86 year o l d group was
found t o have f a r fewer, 1 ess than s i x such changes (Warren, 1961 ) . Warren observed t h a t t he e f f e c t s o f aging on verbal transformation
suggests that : (1 ) t h i s il l u s t i o n r e f l e c t s reorganizat ional
processes normal ly leading t o t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f e r r o r s i n speech
perception; and (2) t h e age d i f f e rences observed f o r verbal t rans-
formations m i r r o r changes i n processing s t ra teg ies over our l i f e
span i n keeping w i t h changes i n f unc t i ona l capaci ty.
B ra in (1962) p o i n t s o u t t h a t "meaning o f a word which
appears e a r l i e r i n a sentence may depend upon the words which fo l low
it." Chis tov ich (1962) noted i n her s tud ies t h a t i t i s no t on ly
meaning t h a t depends on con tex t b u t t h a t subjects who attempted t o
repear; speech as quickly as possible manifested many errors i n
phonemes. She maintained that these errors reflect the temporal
course of speech identification.
Warren suggested that these i l l usory changes ref1 ect reorgani - zations which occur normally when part of a continued message i s
i
not confirmed by context. W i t h repeated words there can be no
stabi 1 i r i n g grammatical and semantic environment provided by
surrounding words (Warren, 1970). Hence, the repeated word i s
subject to successive reorganizations. Warren (1 966b) states that
these ski 1 led reorganizational processes could not appear u n t i 1
language sk i l l s had attained a .certain level i n children. The
author indicated that the normal child aeneral Jy achieves this level
by the age of six or seven.
When studying the inverse of verbal transformation, phonemic
restoration, i t i s easier t o understand why this i l l u s i o n , verbal
transformation, takes place. In phonemic restoration, the context
i s clear, b u t a portion of the verbal stimulus i s absent. In these
studies a portion of a clear statement i s replaced by an extraneous
sound. I t appears i n these studies, that the delay i n perceptual
organization accompanying phonemic restoration causes the earl i e r
portion of the sentence to appear as sirnul taneous w i t h the extraneous
sound. In essence, closure i s performed automatical ly. Warren
and Obusek (1971) discovered that i f the extraneous sounds replacing
the missing phoneme are el iminated, phonemic restorations are
inhibited. Here, the authors maintain that the processes underlying
verbal transformations and phonemic restorations are re1 ated and
supplementary . Verbal transformations seem to represent a
mechanism employed normal ly for correcting errors in initial
perceptual organization and for solving ambiguities.
Phonemic restorations ,verbal transformations, and much of ve, - -
and non-verbal auditory perception, require the abil i ty to dis-
ti ngui sh between different temporal arrangements of the same sounds
(Warren, 1968).
Learni ng Di sorders
Tarnopol (1 971 ) maintains that learning disabilities consti-
tute the most pervasive medical problem of children in the United
States. Depending upon how 1 earning disabi 1 i ties are defined,
it appears that this difficulty affects between 5 to 20 percent
of the nonretarded child population. Usually children with
1 earning disabi 1 i ties appear normal unti 1 they enter school . Research indicates that learning disabil ities appear to be
associated with minimal brain dysfunction (Tarnopol, 1971 ) . Compared wi th the bl ind, deaf, cerebral pal sied, severely emotional ly
disturbed, and mental ly retarded, the nature of these dysfunctions
in learning disabilities tends to be subtle. Overall, the term
learning disabilities is used to distinguish the problems of those
children who* are not mental ly retarded but who have difficul ty
1 earning due to mild central nervous system dysfunctions.
Terminology and the identification of these children was t-he
concern of the Task Force Dysfunction i n children. This
comi t t ee was composed of nine physici ans , two psycho1 ogi st-
educators, . .:and an agency executive. The resul ts were pub1 i shed i
by the National Insti tute of Neurological Diseases and B l indness
(now the National 1nsti tute of Neurological Disease and Stroke).
Thirty-seven different terms had been found which designated this
condi ticn, including dyslexia, perceptual defici t , hyperkinetic
behavior syndrome, organic brain damage, minimal cerebral palsy,
and 1 earning disabil i t i e s (Clements, 1966). From this array, the
Task Force selected the term minimal brain dysfunction and fssued
the following statement:
" I . Brain dysfunction can manifest i t se l f i n varying degrees of severity and can involve any or a1 1 of the more specified areas, <g., motor, sensory,- or intellectual . T h i s dysfunction can compromise the affected child i n learning and behavior. -
2. The t e n minimal brain dysfunction will be reserved for the child whose symptomology appears i n one or more of the specific areas of brain function, b u t i n mild, or sub- cl inical form, without reducing overall intell ectual functioning to the subnormal ranges. (Note: The evalu- ation of the intellectual functioning of the "culturally disadvantaged" chi 1 d , though perhaps related, represents an equal ly complex, b u t different problem." (Tarnopol, 1971).
Unfortunately the problem of terminology has not been settled.
Physicians tend t o prefer a tern such as minimal brain dysfunction,
which points to the medical nature of the problem. Educators tend
to prefer a term such as l earning disabil i ty, educational handicap,
or perceptual dlsorder, which indicates that the problem i s
educational i n nature. Parents, on the other hand often decry
terms which incl ude such words a s brain, neurological , cerebral,
or even handicap or dysfunction. They tend to prefer neutral
terms such as learning problem (Tarnopol , 1971).
Neurological Aspects o f Learning Disabilities
In the past it was assumed that a child would 1 earn adequately
if he had adequate hearing and vision and al l of h is mental capacities.
B u t unll'ke the gross functional disabilities of brain-injured
adul ts, the neurological 7 earning disabilities i n chi 1 dren are not
necessarily the result of brain injury; some may be genetic, many
are the result of just an "imperfection o f nature", some are due,
perhaps, t o a maturatfon delay; and some no doubt may be the result
of actual brain i n jury (Calvachini and Trout, 1971).
Dysfunctions i n the brain causing learning disabil i t ies are
not necessarily due t o damage yet may be developmental o r hereditary
i n nature (Mykl ebust and Johnson, 1962). For educational purposes,
designatfons of these damages seem unweildy as i t is easier t o
interpret them as behavioral manifestations instead of t o the degree
of involvement i n the brain. Johnson and Myklebust (1967)
maintain that initial ly these manifestations are most often
behavioral , not neurological and that the more observable symptoms
are psychological i n nature.
In assessing the CPI teria f o s as
different from other handicapped children, it is assumed t h a t
those chi 1 dren having a psychoneurol ogi cal 1 ea ty
have, as a group, adequate motor abi 1 i ty, average t o high E& 1
intell i gence, adequate hearing and vis ion , and adequate emotional
adjustment together w i t h the deficiency i n 1 earning (Johnson and
Mykl ebust, 1967) ; however, specf f ics remain t o be cl arifi ed. For
fnstance, a child w i t h learning disabilities might also have minor - .
i \ - . .. =. - 73.
motor djsabil i t i es coupied. wi tn $i &wee of emotional disturbance.
The defici t i n learning m u s t also be qualified and quantified.
The most commonly recognized deficits i n learning are those that
pertain to academic success, The deficiencies i n ability t o
comprehend the spoken word, t o read, t o write, and t o do arithmetic
have, therefore, received the most attention. In addi t ion to these
forms of verbal learning there are also nonverbal forms of learning
such a s social perception (Johnson and Myklebust, 1967).
Several indices of the extent of the efficiency have been
used w i t h varying degrees o f success. Johnson and Myklebust
(1967) assert that the comnon index has been whether the chiyd ., . . . I 8 , ,. . .- " , , - 8
- - . . - , , , . < , , , , ,I ! - . - - .+ . > - 7 - - - . r -> ; ,>, s . . - ;::,,. , ;;-,;;::-{,.;L\: ::;.:i#;,-Ti-..;: , . fa-,:- 2L,,. :". , ; ' - - ' - .. -, ..-, ! i ' . , , , .J 8 ....-
,:+; .' .:,*..\ ,, : *-: : ,, .< .- ,>.: . . ,7 1- . . .. . -- ., '. ' : 7%> '. - ...., , ,. , $ -- ,,--+; ::,+*~,,:~<~ ..,::, ?:=;:.. ,-: .. , *--i > - " - ' I .,...,=,,;, 1 , ' . '- . , ,. ,, - . ' --A .%>
.,. . , ,
:-?;,?;.;ls one::gear or ,more "bhfow t h e f evbf bf ei6ectdncy. I t must be'
remembered that for the majority of children the mental and 41'Y ;."qp.*c WV-T $f&pygpg??
chronological ages are essentially equtva ent. Those below 90 IQ
are usual ly excl uded, however, some children w i t h learning
disabtltties are far above average i n intelligence any may not fall
below the level o f expectancy when metal age is used as an indtcation
o f the learning level that should be attained. Therefore, Johnson
and Myklebust (1967) state t h a t the most satfsfactory ratio, the
most accurate manifestation of re1 ationships between attaf nment
and level of learning i s expected, is obtained when achievement i s
related t o mental age, termed the Learning Quotient, (10).
The deficit i n 1 earning can either be verbal or nonverbal i n
nature. Because disabil i t ies predominantly verbal i n nature
are more comnonly observed and because measures of these functions
are more firmly established, they are considered f i r s t and i n
greater detail. The three primary areas i n which these functions
are obse.rved are through the i n p u t and o u t p u t processes invol ving
tntergration (Johnson and Mykl ebust, 1967).
The i n p u t system col 1 ects and transmits environmental
information, both external and internal, t o the integrative system.
O f the five senses which collect environmental informatlon, three
are of prime importance i n learning: vision, hearing, and somesthesis,
the cataneous and proprioceptive sensation. The ou tpu t system.
i s responsi b l e for observable behavior, that is, muscle movement
and the functioning o f the autonomic nervous system. The o u t p u t
system i s responsive t o the integrative and i n p u t systems..
Feedback through the three primary sensory modalities give the
integrative system control over its end product. These relationshtps
are fundamental t o learning. The presumption i s t h a t learning
i s systemattc and sequenttal and that the order of events i s for
o u t p u t t o follow, not t o precede i n p u t . Johnson and Myklebust
(1967) maintain that t h i s principle of learning i n tems of i n p u t
and o u t p u t is stated primarily i n tems of i n i t i a l learning
processes because, after a level of competence has been attained,
words may be learned through usage.
Another consequential manner i n which l earning disabi l i ties
can be considered i s by the sensory modalities through which a
given type o f learning occurs and through which the learning
processes mf ght be deficient.
The integrative system i s the most complex and exists a t all
levels of the central nervous system, including the spinal cord,
brainstem, and the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex i s
the most complex level of the integrative system and the s i te of
higher cortical functions such as thought processes. The
integrative system deals w i t h recognition, selection, integration,
storage, and use of information. I t i s responsible for perception,
cognition, memory, intellect, formulation of motor activity, and
awareness (Johnson and Mykl ebust , 1967).
A number of investigators have reviewed the neurophysiological
correlates of learning. Galambos and Morgan (1960) have sumnarized
the data and p o i n t o u t that before conditioning, what is t o become
the cond.itioned stimulus causes a variable evoked response i n afferent
sensory tracts and a1 so i n 1 imbic structures. These responses,
1 i ke their cortical counterparts, become 1 arger, more complex, and
more stable i n learning. The new cortical activity i s matched by
novel events i n 1 imbic and reticular structures that are all
probably simi 1 ar i n kind. Thus, 1 imbic, retjcul a r and cortical !
structures are al l involved i n learning.
Auditory Processins Disorders
In recognizing auditory perceptual disorders, a mu1 ti tude
of factors must be consi dered; f i gure-ground segregation, auditory
short-term storage, reversi bl e figures such as f i gure-ground reversal
and changes i n orientation, perceptual changes such as pitch,
1 ntensi t y , duration, and complex tones, 1 oudness perception
considering frequency, dura t ion , and summation, tonal i t ies
such as timbre, vol ume and densi ty , audl tory patterns perception,
auditory space perception such as sound 1 ocal ization (binaural
Intensf ty differences and binaural time differences) distance
judgements of sounds and inversion of auditory space (Chapin, 1972).
fried1 ander (1970) states t h a t auditory 1 anguage disabi 1 i t i es are
more w i del y d i s t r i buted among chi 1 dren than are vi sual
disabil i t ies.
Statement of the Problem
Much research has been performed dealing w i t h verbal
transformation i n normal children and adults and normative data
has been establ ished for these populations. No 'research i n
-verbal transformation involving the learning disabled (LD) child
has been reported. The LD child has been found t o have disorders
involving phonetic, cognitive, neuro-physiological , and perceptual
problems. I t would seem that more information regarding verbal
transformations and the LD chlld may give more understanding of
these chi 1 drens ' behavioral problems, soci a1 re1 ations, 1 anguage
devel oprnent, and may have imp7 ications toward their general
educational management.
The purpose of this study was to determine the verbal
transformation abi l i t ies of LD children who manifested disabilities
especial ly pertaining t o auditory processing and 1 anguage
acquisition and abi 1 ity. An attempt was made t o determine
differences in verbal transformations of normal and LD individual s
and t o consider how such differences, if any, may have imp1 ications
for the overall management of this type o f child.
Method01 ogy
Subjects
Two groups of 10 male school children were used as subjects.
All subjects had SRTs of no poorer than 25dB for 'each ear. The
f i r s t group consisted of 10 children ranging i n age from six t o
twelve who manifested auditory processing disorders b u t were not
on any medication. The second group (control) consisted o f normal
six to twelve year old students who d i d not manifest any specific
auditory processing problems. The students from the f i r s t group -
were selected from two schools special izing i n the -education o f
learning disabled children.
Material s
A female speaker recorded three words of varying length and
compl exf ty, one nonsense and two real words : tress, see, and
seashore. Each word was then re-recorded approximately twice each
second for three minutes. A 15 second leader tape was spliced on
t o the three recordings so as t o allow lead times before
presentations. A1 7 stimul i were presented while the subject was
seated i n a sound treated booth (IAC 1200). All stimulus materials
were presented binaurally a t 40dB sensation level (re. SRT).
Stimuli was played from the recorder through a diagnostic and
cl inical audiometer (Grayson-Stadl e r Model 1702-A).
Procedure
Each stimulus tape consisted of a recording of a single word
repeated approxtmatley twice a second for a peridti of three minutes.
Each subject was required to call ou t the f i r s t word they heard t o
substantiate that they were i n fact recognizing the one word being
repeated on the tape. Then the subject was instructed t o call o u t
anything the voice seemed to be saying (Appendix B). Credit for
a transformation was given when 1 ) the subject called ou t any word
which differed from the original word and 2) when the subject called
o u t the original word after having called o u t a different word
imediately before. The subjects responses were tape-recorded
SO that different verbal organizations and the exact number of
transformations could be tabulated and stored for further analysis.
A rest break o f f i v e minutes was given after each presentation.
Stat ist ical Treatment
A two by three factorial analysis of variance was used to
analyze the effects of group (LD and normal ) and word (tress, sea
and seashore) on two dependent measures, These were (1) the number
of verbal transformations per stimulus and (2) the number of different
words called out.
A table of means was used -to compare the number of transform-
ations verbalized as a whole between d i f f e r e n t age groups i n both the
LD and control groups.
Results
A two by three factorial analysis of variance was used to
compute the number of transformations for each stimulus (Appendix A)
of each subject in the learning disabled group as opposed to the
number of transformations per stimulus of each subject i n the control
group. The analysis of variance is summarized i n Table 1.
Table 1
Analysis of Variance of Verbal Transformations in Normals and Learning Disabled Groups
to Three Test bfords
Source of Vari atlon SS d f MS
Between Subjects 2908 19 153.1
A (groups)
Subjects w l thin groups
Within subjects
B (words)
B X subjects within groups 1768 18 98.2
The control group verbal ized a significantly larger number of
- transformations than did the learning disabled group ( p e .01). - his
supports the hypothesis that there would be a difference in the
reported number of transformations between the normal and LD
subjects. i
The vari ance between the two groups according to chronol ogi cal
age is indicated in Table 2.
Table 2
Incidence of verbal -Transfornations According to Test Group and Chronological Age
LD Normal
6.0 - 8.6 years
8.7 - 12.4 years
39 (for a1 1 three stimuli)
This table of means indicates that there is a substantial
dtfference in the performance of verbalizing transformations for the
two age groups as well as between the two subject groups. lhese
results indicate that LD children do not start transforming, as a
whole, until after the eight year-seven month age level. Warren
and Warren (1966) indicated in their studies that all normal
children transform by the age of eight.
The number o f d i f f e r e n t words verbal ized by each subject
(Appendtx A) was a lso noted and computed usi,ng a two by three
fac to r i a l analys is as presented i n Table 3.
Table 3
I
An Analysis o f the Number o f D i f f e ren t Words Verbal i zed by Normal and L. D. Groups t o
Each o f Three Test Words
Source o f Var ia t ion SS d f MS F
Between subjects 286 19
A (groups)
Subjects w i t h i n groups
Within subjects
B (words)
A X B 12 2 6
B X subjects w i t h i n groups 140 1.8 7.7
The r e s u l t s o f this analysis o f variance indicated t h a t there
was a s ign i f i can t d i f fe rence between the two groups. The normal
subjects verbal i zed s i g n i f i c a n t l y more different words than d id the
LD group (p <. 01 ) . This further supports the hypothesis that there
would be a difference in transformational perfonaance be- the
normal and LD groups.
As noted i n Table 3 , a significant F ratio was also obtained for
the number o f different words verbalized (pL.01). Evidently, the
length and complexity of the stimulus word given does affect the
- performance of transforming. Whether the stimulus was "real" o r
ltnonsense't appeared t o have no significance i n the ability t o
transform. The stimulus seashore produced the greatest number
of different words verbalized. The nonsense word tress gave the
second greatest number w i t h the real word - see g iv ing the least
number.
Outward behavior, other than transformations, was noted bo th
through written description of the subject du r ing testing and-
other verbal behavior was noted on tape recordings of each testing.
One of the most prevalent behaviors noted i n five of the six
LD children having dysnomia (word retrival problems) as their major
1 earning or 1 anguage disabi 1 i ty was that they continual ly repeated
the stimul us i n echo-1 i ke fashion rather than reporting changes they
may have heard. When questioned after each stimul us presentation
these chi 1 dren stated that the stimul us was difficult t o 1 isten t o
and that they were unable t o verbal ize any new word if they had
heard one. The sixth dysnomic child, dropped from the study due
t o his 1 ack of verbal ization, remained silent throughout a1 l three
stimulus presentations, however, he d i d relate, after the experiment,
that he d i d hear changes i n the words.
Each o f the above subjects repeated the stimulus i n varying
degrees of loudness, varying from loud continual repetftion t o barely
audtble whfsperl'ng of the stimulus pattern. Two of these five
dyrnomtc children d i d manage t o call o u t a transformation for one
of the three stimulus presentations ('Appendix A) The five who
had been echo1 a1 i c du r ing presentations were given one p o i n t credit
i n the category o f number of different words called ou t . Of
conslderable interest was the fact that a1 1 LD children displayed
r i g i d posture and several displayed body rocking and head-nodding
during stimulus presentations.
Discussion
I n reviewing the results of this experiment, i t i s evident that
these chi 1 dren w7 t h auditory processing disorders displ ayed
abnormal behavior regarding the appl ication of verbal responses t o
a verbal recepttve task Further research is needed t o ascertain
whether these chi 1 dren experience a breakdown o r retardation of
devel opment i n the receptive and/or expressive processes i n regard
to verbal transformations.
Overall, the normal subjects dtspl ayed significantly more
verbal transformations and rn~re~different words per stimul us than
d i d the LD subjects. There was no significant difference noted
i n the number of verbal transformations o r the number of words
called o u t between children i n the normal population i n the age
group of six years t o eight years-six months as compared w i t h those
children aged eight years-seven months t o twelve years. As seen
i n Table 2 , the younger normal group averaged 39 transformations for
a l l three stimuli as compared w i t h 37.4 transformations i n the older
group. The younger group called o u t 14 different words throughout
the experiment whereas the 01 der group call ed out 16.8 different
words. T h i s indicated that age i s not as an important factor i n
verbal transformation abi 1 i ty as i s normal cognitive ability.
In the LD group, the older subjects averaged 10 transformations
for a1 1 three stimul i compared w i t h ,016 transformations for a1 1
three stimul i i n the younger group. There was also a difference
found i n the number of words called o u t throughout the dura t ion
of the tes t between the two LD groups. The older group called o u t I
10.1 words whereas the younger group reported only two different
words. Warren and Warren (1966) noted that a1 1 normal children
verbalize transformations by the age of eight years. In the LD
group, however, transformations were no t uniformly noted u n t i 1
past the eight year-six month level. This could indicate a
delay i n processing growth and development o r perhaps t h a t the
child i s outgrowing his deficit o r that he is being effectively
trained. Any projection should be substantiated by further
research.
Physiol ogical Aspects
As -a whole, auditory processing disorders refer t o a group
of diverse problems i n which the auditory system is incapable of
providing the child w i t h acoustic information i n a normal manner
to the detriment o f his speech, language, and cognitive development.
The suditory system is viewed as being composed o f the neuro-
anatomical pathways extending from the end organ of hearing (cochlea)
to the auditory cortex (temporal lobe), and i n particular, Wernickeis
area a t the temporal cortex. Disruptions i n th is system may result
i n a variety of auditory disorders, incl uding reduced hearing
acuity, phonemic discrimination d i fficul t ies , d i s r u p t i o n s of the
temporal sequencing o f speech messages, and imperfect comprehension
o f spoken language related t o disturbances i n the auditory
association areas of the 1 anguage-dominan t hemisphere (Cl ements, 1966).
Since al l o f the LD subjects chosen f o r this experiment displayed
auditory association d i f f i cul t i es resulting i n 1 anguage deficiencies,
we m i g h t assume that the basis of their problems lay i n the language
dominant hemisphere. This, however, should be tested further i n
each child.
In recognizing the chi1 d ' s auditory 1 earning o r 1 anguage
problem we m u s t also tes t t o ascertain whether the disorder i
of auditory receptive 1 anguage abil i ty , including audi tory
comprehension, auditory memory span, receptive aphasia, sensory
aphasia, o r auditory verbal agnosia, o r one of expressive
Yanguage abil i ty, including reauditorization difficulties, auditory-
motor integration problems o r formulation and syntax difficultins.
We can justify t h r o u g h extensive testing t h a t each of L.e LD st jects
manifest many o f these problems. Dysnomia was just one most often
noted.
Verbal transformations may be a key t o p i n p o i n t i n g the degree
of verbal flexibil i t y i n each child and may be of great service a s
a screening tool i n locating audi tory processing o r language
disordered chtl dren in a school or community population.
Cl assroom Management
Classroom management of the. LD child has been studied for years.
The resul ts of this study indicate that verbal transformations may
be employed as a diagnostic tool for the differential diagnosis
between LD and normal children, and may indicate a basis for
1 ocating dysnomic or other specific auditory processing disordered
children. It may also lend itself to indicating a new approach
for teaching verbal flexibility to this type of child.
Imp1 i cations for Further Research
The development of a neurophysiological model to explain the
results obtained in this investigation would be a primary follow-up
of this research. Phonemic restoration in learning disabled
individual s, as a1 1 uded to earl ier, would certainly warrant study.
Further research should also test the use of verbal transformations
as a screening tool to diagnose LD children and as a device to
ascertain whether chi1 dren who manifest specific auditory processing
and/or language disorders are ready to return to a normal classroom
situation fo1 lowing remediation.
Summary and Concl usion
Verbal transformations (YTs) are an i l l usory effect which
involves the subject reporting what he hears from an ongoing tape
consisting of one word being repeated continually twice per second.
VTs have been used t o ascertain differences i n auditory perceptual
abi 1 l'ties a t various chronological 1 eve1 s i n humans. Warren and
Warren (1966) found that VTs are first noted i n children a t the
age of five and that by the age of eight, al l normal children
report such transformations.
Other perceptual differences noted a t various levels of
development are: 1 ) the child below 10 years of age reports real
and nonsense words i n their transformations b u t they often use le t te r
combinations not found i n Engl i s h grammar, 2 ) between 12 and 18 years
the young adult reports real and nonsense words which do remain
i n the confines of English grammar, and 3) adults over the age of
60 report only real words i n their transformations. These studies
have examined auditory perceptual abil i t i es i n normal subjects but
t o this date no research has been reported involving subejcts w i t h
abnormal auditory perceptual or cognitive abil i ties.
T h i s study explored the effects o f verbal transformations on
male subjects w i t h auditory processing disorders which manifest
themselves in 1 anguage and 1 earning disabi 1 i ties. It was
hypothesized that there would be a difference between normal
subjects and auditory processing disordered subjects in their
abi 1 i ties to transform.
Ten 1 earning disabled (LD) children between ,six and twelve
years of age were subjected to three one and one half minute audio
tape presentations of three words (tress, see and seashore). The
number of verbal transformations uttered by the subjects were tape
recorded and compared wi th responses from a normal (control)
group matched by age and sex.
Results of this experiment showed that there was a significant
difference (p <. 01 ) between the two groups in the number of transformations reported and the number of different words called '
out during the experiment.. Significant difference. ( p < .01) was
a1 so found between the three stimulus words in the number of
different words called out. This indicates that length and
compl exi ty of the word stimul us effects perceptual performance.
It is hoped that verbal transformations could be used as a
screenf ng tool to detect auditory perceptual disorders in chi1 dren.
Verbal transformations may also be o f 'value in determining the
progress of chi 1 dren enrol 1 ed in special programs for learning
disabilities.
LEARNING DISABLED NORMALS
To compute factorial ly, i t was necessary t o add a constant 0 5 to a l l scores.
APPENDIX B
Directions Given t o al l Subjects*
"You are going t o hear something on this tape that will be
said very fast . Call out the first word you hear as soon as
you can.
If the word changes, say the word was shoe, t o blue then you - -9
call out blue. - If - blue changes t o - snue, then call o u t snue as quickly as
you can.
You may hear changes o r i t may not change a t a l l .
Now, what are you golng t o do? 1) call out the first word,
and 2 ) call o u t any changes."
*Some of the LD children were unable to repeat these directions
and required several repetl tions of the directions.
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