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A Comprehensive Scoping and Assessment Study of

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Policies in

Namibia

30 APRIL 2014

BY

Prof Irvin DT Mpofu and Dr Patricia N. Petrus P Bag 13301

Namibia Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

Commissioned by

The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis

Network (FANRPAN)

mailto:[email protected]

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Contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5

1.1. Country overview of land, agriculture, and food security issues ................................... 5

1.2. Methodology ................................................................................................................... 6

2. Farming systems and CSA technologies and practices .......................................................... 7

2.1 Farming systems in Namibia ............................................................................................ 7

2.1.2 Climate in Namibia .................................................................................................... 7

2.1.3 Soils in Namibia ......................................................................................................... 8

2.1.4 Natural Vegetation in Namibia ................................................................................. 8

2.1.5 Main determinants of agricultural production in Namibia ...................................... 8

2.2 What CSA practices & technologies have been adopted or implemented? ................... 9

2.2.1 Intensive use of soils and use of hybrid seed and fertilizers .................................... 9

2.2.2 Soil fertility and fertilizers management .................................................................. 9

2.2.3 Use of conservation technologies ............................................................................. 9

2.2.4 Post harvest technologies ......................................................................................... 9

2.2.5 Fodder flow systems for animals ............................................................................ 10

2.2.6 De-bushing as panacea for bush encroachment .................................................... 10

2.2.7 Top hamper management ...................................................................................... 10

2.2.7 Drinking water provision for animals and humans ................................................. 10

2.2.8 Assisted Animal breeding technologies .................................................................. 11

2.2.9 Agricultural marketing ............................................................................................ 11

2.2.10 Disease control: .................................................................................................... 11

2.3 Why and how are the CSA technologies climate smart ................................................ 12

2.4 What are the key CSA programmes and projects that have been implemented? ...... 13

2.5. Who are the stakeholders involved in past and present CSA activities, and their roles?.............................................................................................................................................. 14

2.5.1 What were the drivers for their successful adoption? ........................................... 15

2.5.2 What were the constraints to their adoption? ....................................................... 16

2.5.3 The constraints faced by the farmers and opportunities in using the CSA techniques. ....................................................................................................................... 16

3. CSA Policy framework in the country – effectiveness and equity ....................................... 18

3.1What are the key policies and institutions relevant to CSA in the country? .................. 18

3.2 How effective have these activities and policies been? ................................................ 21

3.3 How have CSA practices and policies had an impact on gender equity? ...................... 21

4. Conclusions and recommendations ..................................................................................... 23

4.1 What are the key challenges to implementing CSA in Namibia .................................... 23

4.2 What opportunities remain untapped, and why? How could they be explored?......... 23

4.3 Recommendations; Any particular policy recommendations? .................................... 23

4.3.1 Strategies for successful CSA Policy Development ................................................. 24

5. Annexes ................................................................................................................................ 25

APPENDIX A: List of Stakeholders contacted ....................................................................... 25

APPENDIX C: Summary of Related Policies to CSA in Namibia ............................................ 30

Appendix D Climate-smart agriculture opportunities in Namibia ....................................... 31

6.0 References ......................................................................................................................... 32

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Acknowledgements The authors of this scoping study on Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Namibia are greatly indebted to a number of people, amongst them staff of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Ministry of Lands and Resettlements, Desert Research Foundation of Namibia, Meat Board, University of Namibia (UNAM), Agronomic Board, National Training Authority (Agriculture), Horticultural Authority of Namibia, Namibia Farmers Union, Emerging Farmers Association of Namibia and individuals who took part in the small focused group discussion for their support during this CSA scoping study. FANRPAN provided all the financial and logistical support for the study to succeed. The views expressed in this document are those of the authors and FANRPAN will not be held responsible for any inaccuracies recorded.

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Abbreviations CBLRM Community Based Natural Resource Management CSA Climate Smart Agriculture DRFN Desert Research Foundation of Namibia FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FANRPAN The Food Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network GHG Green House Gas GRN Government Republic of Namibia Ha Hectares IK Indigenous knowledge LSU Livestock Unit MAWF Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism MT Metric Tonnes NCCC Namibia Committee on Climate Change UNAM University of Namibia UNDP United Nations Development Program UNDP-IPC-IG UNDP International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change V&A Vulnerability and adaptation (V&A) assessment

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1. Introduction

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is crop and livestock production that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes greenhouse gases (mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals. CSA encourages the use of all available and applicable climate change solutions in a pragmatic and impact-focused manner. The Food Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN) commissioned this scoping study on CSA with the overall objective of creating a policy environment that increase agricultural productivity and strengthen the resilience of vulnerable smallholder farmers to the impacts of climate change.

1.1. Country overview of land, agriculture, and food security issues

According to Namibia Statistical Agency’s 2012 estimates, agriculture and forestry in Namibia contributes 5.1% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and livestock alone contributes 3.5% which is a contribution of 68.63 % to the Agricultural GDP. As one of the driest countries on this planet, crop production is second to livestock in importance due to the presence of perennial grass species which are resistant to moisture stress. Therefore, cattle play a vital role in the agricultural economy of Namibia. To alleviate extreme poverty, mitigate and adapt to climate change Namibia has pronounced that the crop-livestock sector must be developed through science and technology endeavours and used as a vehicle for sustainable rural development. The government of Namibia through the Fourth National Development Program (NDP4) and Vision 2030 aims to gradually diversify crop production and commercialize livestock farming in the northern communal areas (NCAs) to accentuate social and economic development in the communal areas. Cattle signifies the owner’s social status and, to a certain extent, social security in cases of monetary need or emergency taking the homestead through dire straits. Although, Namibia is regarded as a middle income country, on the ground disparities in income exists such that there is a bloated lower income group accounting for over 70% of the population that relies on subsistence agriculture.

The number of animals per year from commercial farms marketed through Meatco to high price markets in Europe have declined from 215 000 (in the late 1990s); 158 000 (in 2004); 114,150 (in 2011) and 102 260 (in 2012) (Meatco annual report 2011/12; Meat Board of Namibia, 2012). The decline is due to bush encroachment on commercial farms and also due to rangeland degradation in the communal rangelands. This has impacted on productivity by reducing grazing capacities to 16 ha/LSU on commercial ranches and 30 ha/LSU in communal rangelands. Bush encroachment in Namibia has increased drastically over the last 30 years. In 1957 it was reported that some 4.56 million hectares were infested with encroacher bush and this had increased to some 26 million hectares by 2002 (de Klerk, 2004). Three types of land tenure exist and these are (i) are exclusive communal farms (3 million hectares), Open access communal (14 million hectares and (iii) freehold (14.5million hectares) on most commercial farms. This complicates grazing capacity management issues as no single policy can be applied across the board to deal with the dwindling grazing.

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1.2. Methodology

Country and study guidelines followed This report is a result of participatory data gathering done in Namibia through desktop study, gap analysis, inventory analysis of CSA policies or CSA related policies, focus group discussions (FGDs) and in depth interviews with twenty four (24) stakeholders. The list of stakeholders interviewed is listed in Appendix A. The guiding research questions used were: 1. What is known on CSA and what are the gaps based on national, regional and international CSA literature? 2. What are the current CSA related policies in the country (including environmental, water, agricultural, land, trade and development policies)? 3. What are current CSA development and research programme initiatives in the study country? 4. What are the national CSA institutional arrangements and key stakeholders in place? 5. What are the major gaps in the current CSA policies? 6. What is needed to ensure that CSA policies are improved in terms of relevance and effectiveness? Desk top study Relevant literature from previous studies on the subject matter, data from secondary sources like journals, national policy documents, statutes, university and ministry of agriculture library resources as well as newspaper publications were used. The scope of the desktop study also covered national, regional and global literature on CSA. Data gathering A semi-structured questionnaire (Appendix B) was used as a research tool to collect qualitative data for both the IDIs and to guide FGDs. The qualitative data gathered by means of FGDs and IDIs was analyzed through thematic analysis. The process of analysis considered the words, the context and all comments made by the respondents.

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2. Farming systems and CSA technologies and practices

2.1 Farming systems in Namibia

The main farming system practiced by 70% of the population is one where farmers have exclusive rights to small areas that usually surround their homes. Livestock is largely grazed on open access commonage pastures and woodlands, from which people harvest firewood and natural plant products. Each farming unit is centered on a single household consisting of an average of 6 or 7 people. While different family members play greater or lesser roles, farming is largely a family affair. Women do most of the work on arable land. Communal farmers grow three main cereals; pearl millet (mahangu), sorghum and maize and rear cattle for draught power, meat, milk and for financial and social security. Almost all households plant mahangu in Omusati, Oshana, Ohangwena and Oshikoto regions. Maize is mainly grown in Kavango and Zambezi regions. Sorghum is also less frequently planted in Zambezi and Kavango. Farming is subsistence with a typical farming household of six people planting three hectares of mahangu, and rear 30 goats and 5 cattle. They can harvest a maximum of 900 kilograms of mahangu in a year valued at USD200 (from a minimum of 147 days of labor) giving a maximum daily rate of return on labor of USD1.36. From livestock an annual sales or in-kind values from slaughtering 5 goats and 1 cow give USD300. With a few tens of US dollars which could be added from vegetables and legumes, it is clear that the total production of such a farming system is low and that returns from inputs are small. There is however, a notable degree of variation from household to household which means the potential of improvement is there. While most households plant between one and four hectares each year, some richer households have fenced enclosures (of pastures) around their homesteads of between 5 to 20 hectares. Less than 10% of all households use fertilizers, while more than 50% boost soil fertility using limited amounts of manure. Other crops that are grown in small quantities are beans, cow peas, bambara nuts, groundnuts, pumpkins, water melons, tomatoes and spinaches and cabbages. In the communal areas of Namibia, cattle generally graze communally, watered at a river or drinking trough at a borehole or piped watering point and are kraaled each evening. Breeding is not controlled and calving rates are usually below 50%.

2.1.2 Climate in Namibia

Namibia’s land, agriculture and food security issues are broadly products of interaction between farmers and their environment, which comprises their social and economic circumstances and their natural semi-arid world. Rainfall amounts and distribution dominates all other climatic factors in Namibia. Rainfall patterns are such that figures are very low in the Namib Desert (western Namibia) receiving less than 100mm per annum. The wettest and most tropical areas are in the north-east in Zambezi region (formerly known as Caprivi) with averages annual rainfall of above 650mm. The availability of water for plant growth thus varies geographically, is extremely variable and there is much variation from year to year. Therefore, crop, pasture and tree growth is stunted in poor years, but vigorous in years with adequate rain. Extreme shortage of rain (or droughts) are now common as are flooding in the northern communal areas due to over flow from Angola and also in the Zambezi flood plains due to the Zambezi river overflowing its banks.

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The National Drought Policy and Strategy of Namibia defines drought as “weather conditions that are extreme or protracted that they are beyond what can be reasonably dealt with in terms of normal risk management practices, and are expected to occur once in 14 years” using an analysis of rainfall records collected continuously over many years. From a food security point of view it is a bit complicated because drought occurrence can take place in one region and not in the other within the same country. For instance, in those years with less than 300 mm in the Zambezi region a drought will be declared whereas in central regions like Khomas region a drought year will be one with less than150 mm.

2.1.3 Soils in Namibia

The Namibian climate has been semi-arid (and in some parts of the country practically arid) for millions of years as a results soils are shallow and not that developed, and hence contain less nutrients. So soil fertility constrains crop farming much as rainfall does. Landscapes across much of Zambezi, Kavango, Ohangwena, Oshikoto, Omaheke, and eastern Hardap are flat because of the Kalahari sands (arenosols) which are extremely poor in nutrients. Plant growth is constrained not only by shortages of phosphorous but also by the fact that low levels of phosphorus affect the availability of nitrogen. Soil qualities are very patchy in these regions. It requires farmers to be good in selecting those patches most suited to crops. To worsen the problem some nearby soils are too salty, alkaline or clayey, or have hard layers of clay below the surface, which makes the ground hard to plough and they can be waterlogged easily after heavy rain.

2.1.4 Natural Vegetation in Namibia

Agricultural conditions are most generally determined by climatic and soil characteristics, but natural vegetation provides limitations and opportunities in Namibia. For example natural vegetation determines whether you can farm with small stock or cattle. Cattle are predominantly grazers and do best in areas where pastures are most abundant. The southern and western parts of the country offer little in the way of grass fodder. Sheep and goats therefore, replace cattle in those arid areas. The small stock browses substantially on shrubs and hence thrives in areas where cattle can only be farmed at very low stocking rates.

2.1.5 Main determinants of agricultural production in Namibia

Rainfall is the main determinant of crop yield, grass biomass and cattle production. Cattle require large areas for adequate grazing. Namibia is regarded as a cattle country given that the country is a natural cattle producer and has one of the highest per capita numbers of cattle of 1.2 animals per person. Out of 2.8 million cattle in Namibia, 1.6 million cattle are in the communal areas and yet they do not form part of the national account mainly because of poor nutrition and feeding practices. The off take in NCAs is low (generally lower than 10%). Off take from the commercial farms which are south of the veterinary cordon fence (VCF) is high i.e. up to 20%.

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2.2 What CSA practices & technologies have been adopted or implemented?

2.2.1 Intensive use of soils and use of hybrid seed and fertilizers

Compared to arable soils elsewhere in the world, those rated best in Namibia have rather limited potential. The Agricultural Policy of Namibia promotes the growing of drought tolerant crops. Several varieties of the popular staple crop, pearl millet (mahangu) and also sorghum seed have been bred to improve production under Namibian conditions. The best known of these is a mahangu variety called Okashana-1. Okashana -1 grows more rapidly than traditional varieties. Farmers now spread risk by planting a mix of traditional and improved seeds as advised by the Directorate of Engineering and Extension services. This has largely been driven by the vision 2030, NDP4 policy statements and the Agricultural Policy of Namibia. The practice of spreading risk by planting a mix of traditional and hybrid seed varieties have largely been driven by indigenous knowledge systems. The farmers also overlap the growing periods by planting some seed, early and some late into the rainy season and this is driven by both policy and traditional wisdom.

2.2.2 Soil fertility and fertilizers management

The use of organic fertilizers (kraal manure) has largely been driven by traditional practices though the prevailing extension services (through the Agricultural Policy) promotes its proper processing and use and this has proved to be of importance and value. Due to a system of mixing organic and inorganic fertilizers, maize yields of above two (2) tonnes per hectare have been achieved by some communal farmers in Zambezi and Kavango with some few farmers managing to achieve or even exceed 5-6 tonnes per hectare yields. The use of animal manure and compost (organic fertilizers) adds organic matter to the soil. Stakeholders contend that chemical fertilizers are needed to quickly supply a crop with required nutrients. In contrast to organic fertilizers, chemical fertilizers help the plants immediately. With organic manures it takes a little time for the benefits to be realized because first the decaying materials have to be broken down into nutrients before they can be utilized by the plants. Implementing conservative tillage or zero tillage is climate smart agriculture because it conserves water underground and lowers risks of inadequate moisture posed by rain fed agriculture. For example, repeated disc harrowing pulverizes the structure of the soil, creating a shallow hardpan layer, and hence destroy the organic matter and fauna in the soil. This effectively breaks up the natural nutrient cycle and the soil loses organic matter which is needed to improve water retention apart from improving soil structure.

2.2.3 Use of conservation technologies

Other less expensive technologies mainly driven by agricultural policy include (i) the incorporation of crop residues into soils rather than allowing them to be grazed, and (ii) Some practices like zero or minimum tillage are being promoted through extension services.

2.2.4 Post harvest technologies

Harvesting of mahangu, maize and sorghum – as the dominant rain fed crops is done 4-5 months after planting. Harvesting is done quickly to prevent post-harvest losses due to pests, especially redbilled queleas in some seasons. Grain surpluses are kept in various storage containers, the most elaborate of which are the traditional reed woven basket

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granaries in Ohangwena, Oshikoto, Oshana and Omusati region. This old age practice has a storage capacities ranging from 0.7 to 2.0. tonnes and can store mahangu for up to three years. Such long-term storage facilities and post-harvest technology are traditional and have evolved and molded from indigenous knowledge from experiences of severe past famines.

2.2.5 Fodder flow systems for animals

Fodder conservation is an important tool for evening out peaks and troughs in pasture production and better matching feed supply to demand across seasons. This constitutes an important component of fodder flow systems. Hay making is the most common fodder conservation practice especially on commercial farms. Crop residues and even poor quality hay are treated with urea fertilizer in large quantities and are fed to cattle during the long dry season (9 months). Silage making is not common. Because most of the livestock farming is done on extensive rangelands, farmers have adopted low input, optimum production strategies so that they do not destroy the feed base. Fodder flow systems are promoted by the Agricultural Policies. Advocacy is through government extension services, farmer mentoring programs by non-governmental organisations (NGOs).

2.2.6 De-bushing as panacea for bush encroachment

Large areas of central and eastern Namibia are now covered with bush. Bush encroachment has become a major challenge especially on freehold farms in northern Otjozondjupa where rainfall is higher compared to the south. Bush encroachment causes reduced grass biomass. Cattle are unable to reach grass beneath and between impenetrable bush and more often small stock are trapped within acacia bushes and eventually die of hunger and thirsty. The most prevalent and problematic invasive bushes that cause losses which runs into millions of Namibia dollars are black thorn, purple-pod terminalia, sickle bush and mopane. So, hot fires are used to kill young bushes. On commercial ranches fire guards as policy have to be erected along fences to control fire from spreading uncontrollably.

2.2.7 Top hamper management

Pastures in the north-eastern areas are burnt frequently (through controlled fire management) to remove top hamper (moribund material) and stimulate vegetative re-growth. If not done properly fire causes substantial loss of grazing areas and in some cases cause changes in the composition of grass communities hence destroy biodiversity. Policies against rampant use of fire in grazing management advocate for severe penalties if wanton use of fire is done.

2.2.7 Drinking water provision for animals and humans

Clean drinking water for both cattle and humans is a critical natural resource in Namibia. The majority of cattle obtain their water from underground sources pumped into reservoirs and drinking troughs, or from thousands of small dams constructed on ephemeral rivers and streams. Much of these water provisions have been made possible by the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, development agencies like NOLIDERP, Millennium Challenge Account –Namibia and Meatco Foundation to mention a few. This has been done through the Water Policy. The availability of water or the water supply situation in Namibia is such that the country shares several large rivers, such as the Orange River in the South as well as the Zambezi and Okavango Rivers in the North. The main problem with these rivers

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is that they are far away from the high population centres. As a result the cost of tapping them for irrigation agriculture and drinking water supply is very costly. Only the Kunene River, which is shared with Angola, provides drinking water for four Northern regions of Namibia and some agricultural purposes.

2.2.8 Assisted Animal breeding technologies

Breeds that form the back bone of Namibia’s cattle populations are Brahman, Afrikander, Simmentaler, Bonsmara and Sangas and crossings between them. Other breeds which occur in smaller numbers are Brown Swiss, Santa Gertrudis, Beefmaster, Charolais, Hereford, Pinsgauer and South Devon. Sanga, is the collective name for indigenous cattle to southern Africa and are gaining popularity because of fertility and adaptability. Livestock breeds have been selectively bred over many years under local conditions, with the result that they generally calve regularly, have good growth rates, and produce meat of high quality without destroying the rangeland if the correct stocking rate is used.

2.2.9 Agricultural marketing

Provision of markets is critical in CSA because if farmers adopt certain techniques and end up with products they cannot sell then this is not sustainable. For Namibia this is important because 80-92% (average 85%) of livestock products are exported, mainly to South Africa, the European Union, and Norway. The remaining 8-20% is for the local Namibian market. Of all the exports, about 54% of cattle are exported as live weaners to South African feedlots, only about 27% is exported as carcasses or processed meat to South Africa, and 19% goes to European and Norway markets. As a matter of policy alternative markets are being sort elsewhere in countries like Hong Kong, Singapore, the US, Switzerland, Canada, Bahrain, Malaysia, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, China, Mexico, Qatar, Russia, Indonesia and Iran. The Ministry of Industry and Trade recently proclaimed a policy that encourages diversification of export meat markets by saying Namibia should not depend on one market by a market share of more than 50% (New Era 3 July 2012. http://www.trademarksa.org/news/namibia-govt-embarks-market-diversification). The Meat Board of Namibia has therefore identified 15 countries as possible new export destinations for local beef, mutton and goat in its quest to diversify Namibia's markets.

Namibia concerned by the prospects of losing breeding stock restricts the cross border live trade with neighboring countries like Angola to an annual five herd of cattle per farmer per year. The Meat Board of Namibia recently introduced the Farm Assured Namibian Meat Scheme (or FAN Meat) as an additional method of guaranteeing quality. Meat can be traced to the farm of origin. The Meat Board has also introduced the free range beef scheme in the NCAs which is a marketing incentives to communal farmers by guaranteeing access to lucrative retail markets in South Africa (mainly to Woolworth stores).

2.2.10 Disease control:

Cattle are vaccinated against brucellosis, vibriosis, black quarter, anthrax and botulism. The vaccinations – together with treatments for internal and external parasites – contribute to high survival, generally over 97% per year on commercial ranches. For communicable

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunene_River

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diseases like foot and mouth disease (FMD) and lung sickness (CBPP) the VCF is there as an instrument administered by the Animal Health Act to control trans-boundary livestock diseases. As a result Namibia benefit over USD 100million annual from meat exports due to the control of FMD and CBPP. For plants broadly speaking, the three main types of infectious diseases affecting plants are:

Diseases caused by Fungi (Fungal diseases)

Diseases caused by bacteria (bacterial diseases) and

Diseases caused by viruses (viral diseases) The Agricultural Policy is against wanton use of chemicals that contaminate natural resources like water bodies or destroy the natural food chain (biodiversity). However, most of the climate smart disease control measures like biological control have not been adopted that much by the ordinary farmers due to lack of information on their usefulness and technical know-how.

2.3 Why and how are the CSA technologies climate smart

The Use of organic fertilizer is climate smart and it is necessary to make soil organic materials of farm origin more accessible. It mitigates against soil fertility depletion and help significantly with household food security goals by increasing crop yields per hectare.

Nitrogen in fertilizer form exist either as ammonium (in ammonium nitrate) or as urea. Most annual plants need little nitrogen in the early growing period. But most of their nitrogen requirements are in the periods of tillering and fast growth. It is therefore, recommended that nitrogen fertilizer application should be split rather than applying it all at the same time and this is climate smart through adaptation. Liming is the process of adding lime, steal slag or other materials to the soil to make the soil less acidic or to increase its pH level and to improve conditions for the growth of plants and microorganisms. A serious problem faced by many farmers in the Namibia like in any tropical country is the extreme acidity of their soil. A pH level lower than 5 means the soil is so acidic that it inhibits healthy plant growth. Aluminium toxicity is especially problematic. The soil can be made less acidic by adding lime. This is climate smart as it improves yields without destroying the environment. The Agricultural Policy of Namibia (administered through extension services) encourages the correction of soil factors for maximum crop production and for growing a variety of crop commodities to diversify agriculture in the country. Technology refers to skills, knowledge (information) and techniques. From a farming skills point of view, farmers in Namibia (especially on commercial ranches) use information and managerial skills to judge the condition of pastures more on the degree to which preferred, indicator grass species have been grazed than on the total amount of grass that has been eaten. These assessments are climate smart as they serve and prevent the permanent loss of the most valuable grasses and to spread grazing pressures across the grazing camps within their farms hence mitigate rangeland degradation that may ensue through over exploitation.

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2.4 What are the key CSA programmes and projects that have been implemented?

(i) The Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry and MCA- Namibia recently launched a booklet on the Community Based Rangeland and Livestock Management (CBRLM) in Windhoek, April 2013 (Mon, 8 April 2013 http://www.thevillager.com.na/articles/3761/Rangeland-and-livestock-management-target-set/). This farmer centred manual has CSA strategies and it is instrumental in the production of “free range beef” from the Northern Communal Areas that is now exported to Woolworth’s retail shops in South Africa. The program is slowly transforming communal area cattle keepers into business minded cattle producers. Such farmers are now showing more interest in mitigating climate change scourges by implementing timely de-bushing, preventing rangeland degradation through correct stocking and reversing it through reforestation, gully reclamation and fodder grass planting. (ii) One of the most profound studies done on climate change issues in Namibia is the Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment of Namibia. This study program was commissioned and funded by the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia and the Climate Systems Analysis Group of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. This report highlighted that “vulnerability and adaptation assessments (V&A), particularly at the local level, face limited knowledge about exactly what to adapt to”. For Namibia, it is very important to know what to adapt to where and when due to the country’s natural variability in terms of rangelands. (iii) One of the main objectives of the Third National Communication project was to carry out a greenhouse gas (GHG) emission inventory, evaluate present and future climate change impacts in Namibia and identification of mitigation measures and options to reduce GHG emissions. The main task of the project was to guide, provide and backstop the National V&A Working Group to ensure that a vulnerability and adaptation assessments in key sectors of water, agriculture, coastal zone, health, infrastructure and settlement, ecosystem are carried out.

(iv) The Southern African Development Community (SADC) Parliamentary Forum (with a secretariat in Namibia) and the UNDP International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (UNDP-IPC-IG) are working in partnership to implement a project titled A Green Guide (GG). A study was conducted entitled “In Depth Baseline and Perception Assessment of Southern African Development Community Parliamentarians on Climate Change, Green and Inclusive Growth Policy Planning and Implementation”. This study hinged on “Aligning political and social contexts for green and inclusive growth. The focus of the Green Guide project is “Going Green with Equity” and has strong elements of CSA. The project is funded by the Climate Development Knowledge Network, executed by the SADC Parliamentary Forum and the International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth.

(v) Preventing soil erosion is one program that has received a lot of attention by policies of both the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and forestry and the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Soil erosion is the washing away of the top soil which is has more nutrients for plants being mineral salts and organic nutrients. These important nutrients are elements like carbon (C), nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) just to mention a few.

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Needless to say, erosion deprives plants of nutrients. Erosion also causes too much surface run off of water when the rain falls so that there is very little percolation of water into the soil for normal plant life. The policies that safe guard the environment and land addresses causes of soil erosion rather than the symptoms.

(v) Creating better water availability for irrigation to limit over dependence on rain fed agriculture is critical because Namibia’s climate is hot and dry with erratic rainfall. The total assured safe yield of Namibia’s water resources is estimated at 660 million m3/year, distributed as follows: groundwater 300 million m3/year, ephemeral rivers 200 million m3/year, perennial rivers 150 million m3/year and unconventional sources such as treated wastewater 10 million m3/year. Total water consumption in Namibia was estimated at 300 million m3 in 2000. The municipal sector used 73 million m3 (24 percent). Huge dams have been built e.g. Naute dam, and Hardap dam. There is a multimillion dollar dam under construction called the Nerkatal dam near Keetmanshop.

(vI) Biodiversity loss is by far the biggest threat to Namibia’s environmental and tourism capital. Trees for Tourism program are becoming more important as vehicles for tourists and companies affiliated in any manner with the tourism industry, to counterbalance the tourism-related footprint. To achieve this aim, every effort is being made to plant out indigenous trees on a large scale in order to enhance, re-connect and re-create pristine eco-forest systems.

2.5. Who are the stakeholders involved in past and present CSA activities, and their roles?

Stakeholders involved include Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry; Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Agriculture Boards, National Planning Commission, traditional authorities, local government structures, farmers’ unions, tertiary education institutions (like the University of Namibia, Polytechnic of Namibia) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) like the Spanish and Namibian Red Cross, ProVET (Promoting Vocational Education and Training in Namibia), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN) to mention a few. There is partnership in the operationalisation of policies involving government line ministries, traditional authorities, regional councils, governors, farmers and co-operatives, NGOs and other support organizations like agriculture boards. Private companies like MeatCo and NamDairies have featured in a number of initiatives through their corporate responsibility policies to plough back profits to the community. Financial institutions like AgriBank – Namibia, Standard Bank and African Development Bank through their Agri-Business divisions have supported and are keen to support bankable and sustainable agricultural projects. Each of these stakeholders are fully aware that Namibia is one of the driest countries on the continent and there is common consensus that the country’s natural resource base is the direct source of livelihoods for more than 70% of the population and hence must be managed sustainably. There are advocacy programs by government ministries through extension services, farmer associations and non-governmental organization projects that impress upon the importance of CSA. For example cattle farming and wildlife conservation are viewed as complementary towards contributing to the livelihoods of the people. The

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younger generation are educated in the school system from primary to tertiary levels to better understand their natural environment and be prepared to manage it sustainably; The government ministries and non-governmental organizations are the main initiators of climate smart agriculture or related activities. Each of these stakeholders however, contributes in one way or the other in helping or supporting the initiation of CSA in their spheres of responsibilities. For example the Government line ministries, regional councils and governors are crucial in creating awareness and sustain advocacy. In turn the farmers through their associations or through extension programs play a critical role in applying what they were informed of. Agriculture Boards (like the Meat Board, The Agronomic Boards, Namibia Agricultural Union, Namibia Farmers Union and Cooperatives train and of late mentor farmers on new sustainable farming methods and technologies. NGOs and other support organizations’ role is in coordination, providing information on best practices and other crop and livestock information that, farmers need to have. The views and opinions of many stakeholders in Namibia are sort on how effective these activities and policies have been. But, the experiences gained over the years need to be strengthened through wider dissemination of know-how and supporting regulations where it is needed. It was also observed that increased provision of expertise and budgetary support and incentives are necessary to enhance the pace of progress.

2.5.1 What were the drivers for their successful adoption?

National vision policies like the one in Namibia drive agendas. Vision 2030 spells out the long term national vision for Namibia, a broad unifying vision that will serve to guide the country’s five-year development plans from National Development Plans (NDP) i.e. NPD2 to NPD7. Its sub-vision on Land and Agricultural Production, states that land should be used appropriately, significantly contributing towards food security at household and national levels, and supporting the sustainable and equitable growth of Namibia’s economy, whilst maintaining and improving land capability.

Perceptions and mind set have played a part as driving forces promoting CSA and can be summarized as follows:

(a) Having a common understanding that climate change threatens agriculture and causes food insecurity has brought stakeholders together into interrogating causes, consequences and what the future holds for the country. (b) It has been appreciated that a collaborative effort is needed to fight climate change problems recognizing that land, water and soil are important natural resources in agricultural productivity. (c) Appreciation of the truth that since soil gets degraded, rehabilitation and reforestation are the approaches that need to be adopted to improve soil and water functional efficiency, thus improving the state of agriculture. (d) Recognition that climate resilient agriculture is not different from CSA such that programs started under the former theme are upgraded to the later. (e) Realizing and accepting the fact that Namibia does not grow enough food to support its population and that significant quantity of a variety of food is imported.

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2.5.2 What were the constraints to their adoption?

Many climate-smart agricultural practices in Namibia can be integrated into a single farming system and this provides multiple benefits capable of improving livelihoods and incomes. Some practices have been found to be difficult to be integrated for the reason that they impact upon other elements of the farming system. For insistence, the timing of a practice may lead to labor constraints; high investment or maintenance costs may exceed the capacity of low resource farmers, especially those in the communal areas. Farmers who own cattle and also practice significant crop production normally care less for their animals during the rainy season as they concentrate all their labor toward tending for crops. Competition for crop residues that exist especially in the NCAs restricts the availability of feed for livestock. Identifying these constraints is important to develop attractive, efficient, friendly and environmentally sustainable management practices that have adaptation and mitigation benefits. Pre occupation with the desire to produce enough food (pearl millet for 70% of the population) for survival prevents food insecure farmers to innovate and invest in better management and appropriate technology systems suitable for CSA. The urge to remain committed to climate-smart agricultural practices in some cases wanes due to establishment and maintenance costs, tied together with the fact that some efforts can take long before benefit become apparent. Introducing CSA requires that those endeavors that produce quick results should be effected first so as to deal with apathy and or fatigue towards CSA initiatives. In some Green schemes initiated by the Government of Namibia especially in the horticulture sector, access to markets and capital has been serious constraints for resource-poor farmers. This limited their ability to innovate and raise their own income.

2.5.3 The constraints faced by the farmers and opportunities in using the CSA techniques.

The main challenge is the quality and quantity of livestock feeds which causes weight losses of cattle during the dry season. Feedstock from de-bushing (controlling bush encroachment) are usually thrown away or burnt yet there are opportunities that exist through value addition to use them as alternative feed ingredients for ruminants during the dry season especially feeding to the breeding stock and oxen that are used for draught power. Feedstock yield of encroacher bush vary widely in Namibia, with an average yield of between 13 and 18 tonnes per hectare, depending on the climatic region and soil condition in a specific area (Honsbein, et al., 2009). As a result, finding a niche exist for de-bushing to improve grassland grazing capacity on one hand, and contribute towards carbon sequestration through the increased grasslands becoming a carbon sink hence limiting global warming through less greenhouse gases and preserve the environment on the other. While the biggest problem in commercial farming areas is bush encroachment, the problem in the communal areas is rangeland degradation. This is why feed is scarce both in terms of quantity and quality during the dry season and now more frequently during droughts. Droughts are now prevalent in the central and southern parts of Namibia. Despite the fact that Namibia is semi-arid flooding is a problem of late. Floods have also become common in

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the northern communal areas (NCAs) of Namibia. The flooding is as a result of heavy rains being experienced in southern Angola and due to the flat and low lying nature of northern Namibia.

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3. CSA Policy framework in the country – effectiveness and equity

Appendix C below shows a summary of climate smart agriculture related policies in Namibia.

3.1What are the key policies and institutions relevant to CSA in the country?

Namibia does not have a specific stand-alone CSA policy or Act. The closest there is are a number of CSA related policies and enactments as shown in Appendix C. As a result throughout this document the term “CSA related policies” (rather than “CSA policies”) has been used as it adequately describes the situation in Namibia. These Namibian enactments do directly or indirectly have an impact on the agricultural production that does not harm the environment and hence promote climate smart agriculture. Some environmental legislative frameworks are cross-sectorial in nature for instance, the Environmental Management Act No 7 of 2007 or the Nature Conservation Ordinance No 4 of 1975. While most are relevant, they are rather broad in scope. There are also, sector specific legislations such as the Marine Resources Act No 27 of 2000 which covers specific environmental issues to protect marine resources and manage them in a sustainable way by promoting responsible exploitation of the marine environment. The Agricultural Policy is the most direct policy that addresses CSA in many forms. The main objectives of this CSA supporting policy in Namibia are to: (i) Promote drought resistant crop varieties. (ii) Promote the use of indigenous cattle species (e.g. Sanga/Nguni cattle) (iii) Promote minimum tillage of crop lands; (iv) Promote water harvesting for irrigation and for livestock use; (v) Promote conservation of bio-diversity in the management of natural resources; (vi) Protect of natural habitats and conservation of soils. (vii) Rangelands through de-bushing and reforestation where necessary. Now how does Namibia hope to achieve these goals? What are the policy instruments used? Through the Agricultural Policy, Namibia hopes to achieve these goals by: (a) Continuing to provide an enabling legal and political environment that gives space to the implementation of the Vision 2030 and NDP4 strategies and plans. The government has created appropriate institutions in the form of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (MAWF) directorates like the Directorate of Research and Training, the Directorate of Forestry, the Directorate of Engineering and Extension and the Directorate of Veterinary Services. It has also put in place effective and transparent governance structures at community level that coordinate between local governance responsibilities and across national to local government institutions. More resources are allocated yearly to boost the extension officer to farmer ratio. (b) Improving market accessibility. The government of Namibia has realized that farmers are keen to produce what they can easily sell. If CSA has to be promoted the produce must find markets easily. To enhance wealth creation for farmers, markets and marketing facilities are being put up throughout the country which includes state of the art vegetable markets (not just stalls and shades), elaborate cattle quarantine and auction pens. This has been found to improve income generating opportunities for the farmers. The most effective way that has

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been found to reduce farmers’ vulnerability to climate change is through improving their income. (c) Dealing with the dependence syndrome. Namibia has realized that providing agricultural inputs for free every year is counterproductive as it breeds a dependence syndrome and also a sense of entitlement. Farmers are being sensitized to buy their own inputs, sell produce so that they appreciate the importance of managing both costs and income. (d) Involving farmers in strategy mapping. The directorates in the MAWF and many NGOs have embraced the need to foster farmer participation in developing agricultural plans in their regions so that they own the processes. This is meant to harness resources so that they can be used on what is most relevant to local communities. (e) The CSA related policies in Namibia encourages the dissemination of quality information through training and mentoring. Improving access to knowledge has been shown to significantly improve farmers’ willingness to grow cash crops or manage cattle value chains better. When the farmers are more aware of the technologies, the adoption rates are higher. Policy instruments: identification of policy measures in place in Namibia

(a) Role of prices and subsidies: (energy, water, fertilizer, access to capital).

About 66% of rural population pays for water (Foster 2012). Burgert Gildenhuys [of BC

Gildenhuys & Associates] presented the findings of his team and showed that Namibia had

221 061 rural households of which 84 420 households are regarded as poor. Although

thousands of water points have been set up in rural areas, many households had their taps

disconnected because they could not afford to pay for the water they and their livestock

consumed. Subsidising the over 84 000 households could cost the taxpayer up to N$28,7

million a year. Because it is too expensive recommendations have been proffered that “if

rural communities are not able to maintain or operate water supply systems on a

sustainable basis, the services can be outsourced to small to medium enterprises (SMEs) or

NGOs, as part of an agreement between the government, community and technical support

service provider”. Since there is a great variation in conditions and income levels throughout

Namibia, the experts recommended that a system for the individual assessment of the need

for rebates, cross-subsidies and subsidies be worked out. Turning off water supply to a

water point or branch line to enforce cost recovery was deemed inhuman. MAWF would

want that a subsidy scheme be “guaranteed sustainability of water supply services and

accessibility of potable water to households which cannot afford to contribute towards the

full cost of water supply services.” At the same time cost recovery of water tariffs was also

important.

(b) Namibia’s electrification of urban households is estimated at 70%, whereas for rural households, it has reached 25 % in 2011 (Mwandingi, 2012). A substantial proportion of the

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Namibian majority (especially the poor) live in rural areas geographically isolated and too sparsely populated, have a too low potential electricity demand to justify the extension of the grid to reach their homesteads. Thus providing access to electricity through other means than the extension of the grid has been noted as a necessity. Renewable energies are the most adaptable, flexible and easy to use technologies for isolated rural areas. Off grid and mini grid applications offer affordable decentralized renewable energy technologies such as Solar Home Systems, wind systems, biogas digesters, biogas gasifiers, and micro-hydro power plants. The problem is huge upfront cost and low investments that have mot eased the rate and pace and with the urgency needed. This is mainly because there is no good enough regulatory frameworks for Namibia, that takes into account the promotion of Renewable and energy efficiency. However, through Vision 2030 Namibia recognizes that direct and indirect economic benefits flow from the use of electricity in productive applications within rural areas such as irrigation, food preservation, crop processing, cooling and development of small business which would result in an increase of employment opportunities for the majority of the rural population. Energy shops especially promoting solar energy has therefore, gained momentum such that the vision expressed is that by 2030; almost 100 % of rural households will have access to modern energy services either from off grid or non-grid. (c) Many policy frameworks are expressed in various acts as regulations to control emissions, foster proper land/water use practices, tree cover, land use planning, livestock management & waste management, energy use. Offenders are liable to prosecution (d) Through Vision 2030 and NDP4 Namibia endeavors to improve the production potential of subsistence farmers through title deeds and targeted extension. Title deeds will be used as collateral for loans from Agribank and even commercial banks (e) Namibia decided to abolish value added tax (VAT) of 15 per cent on certain staple foods. The budgetary implications are that the national account will lose revenue of N$34 million in VAT (Frosted et al., 2009). (f) Namibia has implemented and continues to mitigate the effects of climate change and rising food prices on the national food security situation by promoting the usage of natural water courses for irrigation farming, the construction of national storage capacity for staple grains, increased long term production through title deeds and targeted extensions, and targeted food assistance. Namibia also controls the importation of staple food and horticultural products in order to boost local based food security and exploit Namibia’s agricultural production potential. Action plans to establish 22,000 hectares of irrigation farms along the perennial rivers bordering Namibia are implemented through the Green Scheme of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry. So far, only 8,300 hectares have been established in the programme. (g) Providing loans for de-bushing. Payments in the form of low interest rate loans to de-bush land equivalent to what the farmer can do on his/her own are in place through the Agricultural bank. This increases grass for animal grazing and grass is a carbon sink through carbon sequestration. It is an indirect way of investing in climate-smart practices and

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protects the environment while farmers rip economic benefits from selling more healthy cattle.

3.2 How effective have these activities and policies been?

Effectiveness measures success in as far as achieving set goals is concerned. Objectively speaking it is too early to gauge the effectiveness of CSA in Namibia especially the impact on the beneficiaries. It is clear though those arrangements to improve the effectiveness in implementing CSA in Namibia have begun to be clear through the following: (i) There is evidence of a strengthened state sponsored extension delivery systems of technical services through a more flexible and resources endowed extension services. Together with NGOs farmer mentoring has gained momentum in terms of interest among farmers. For example in 2010, the Meat Board started a farmer mentoring program with 350 NCA farmers who dedicated to be mentored into commercial cattle farmers with set targets to deliver a certain number of quality cattle (of minimum livemass of 430 kg) to Meatco. Three years down the line the Meat Board farmer mentoring program is now voluntarily subscribed by over 800 farmers. Other stakeholders have found demand for technical information which they are now disseminating through provision of principle-based practical training in specialized fields like crop farming, cattle farming, fodder flow systems and certification process. The Namibian Training Authority is busy doing that. (ii) Namibia took part in the joint Africa Union communique on Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) in Johannesburg South Africa on September 14, 2011. It is too early to judge the effectiveness of CSA implementation though signs are that positive results are shaping up. Namibia through its Minister of MAWF affirmed to the resolution that “all African countries and partners accelerates the implementation of the Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP), by increasing financial support to country agricultural investment plans towards climate‐smart agriculture, in particular food security interventions”. From a policy point of view responding to food security issues in view of the problem of drought is complex, because the nature of farming systems need to be taken into account and that low rainfall may affect one farming activity but not another. This is particularly so when you look at cattle farming as opposed to sheep farming which are mainly cornerstones of Namibia’s livestock sector. Cattle require more grass than sheep, and so the same low rainfall may amount to a drought for a beef farmer but not to a neighboring sheep farmer. So policies for managing drought relief often operate differently within the same local environment.

3.3 How have CSA practices and policies had an impact on gender equity?

To improve the relevance of the CSA policies in Namibia requires sensitivity to the hitherto neglected gender issues and youth empowerment. Relevancy to gender equity issues has an impact on social equity since most of the resident and active members of society at farm level are woman and the youth. This is so because 70% of Namibians live in the rural areas and directly subsist on agriculture (Namibia Statistical Agency 2013).

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Generally, the Namibian systems within the public or private sector in most cases lack adequate gender consideration. This is a factor that needs to be reflected both in the planning and implementation of CSA programs and projects. In the communal areas of Namibia, women traditionally play an important role in whole value chain of the smallholder crop-livestock development systems. Yet, they do not own property, are the least educated, and are excluded from decision-making processes and resource management and allocation. As a consequence, they benefit the least from the proceeds. Policy measures and interventions have not specifically addressed this imbalance by creating gender equality and empowering women and youths in decision-making. As policies are developed, gender considerations must be taken into account while ensuring that women have equal rights with respect to education, access and ownership of property and resources. Equal rights for women to inheritance should be particularly enforced. Measures concerning women’s rights to inheritance and land ownership contained in Africa Union’s (AU) Framework and Guidelines for Land Policy in Africa should be fully applied in this case. However, Namibia has adopted the zebra policy i.e. 50:50 gender representations in management and leadership positions and while is too early to judge, it is a promising policy development that will have a far bearing effect on the successes and sustainability of climate smart agriculture.

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4. Conclusions and recommendations

4.1 What are the key challenges to implementing CSA in Namibia

Farmers or cooperatives are not able to borrow money from financial institutions because they do not have a proper business account so that they can be able to avail a financial track record specific to farming that banks can evaluate to establish viability and ability to repay loans. Some food insecure farmers are not enabled to invest in CSA that requires extra resources like agro-forestry or other improved management practices and technologies. Land tenure issues present challenges especially for communal areas because they cannot offer their untitled land as collateral for loans. Climate change is real and is in itself a big constraint to CSA in semi-arid Namibia that relies more on rain fed agriculture. Fodder bank development is hampered by lack of water for producing good quality and sufficient quantity of pastures. At grassroots level information about CSA is still scanty.

4.2 What opportunities remain untapped, and why? How could they be explored?

The main opportunities for climate-smart agriculture in Namibia are shown in Appendix D. These opportunities have been found to be applicable and more appropriate to most farming regions of Namibia in view of the semi-arid climate. These gaps in the current CSA policies in Namibia can best be explored as opportunities that remain untapped. The major ones emanating from this CSA scoping study in Namibia are: (i) Dissemination of knowledge and experiences in local languages. (ii) There are gaps in mainstreaming CSA in schools. (iv) Many current crop-livestock production systems need redefining and restructuring for low resource inputs. (v) There is need for a policy to arrest the decline in livestock throughput from commercial farms south of the veterinary cordon fence (VCF). The number of animals south of the VCF being marketed through Meatco to high price markets has progressively declined from 215 000 in the late 1990s to 102 260 in 2012. (vi) There is still space to develop and finance climate smart agriculture programs.

4.3 Recommendations; Any particular policy recommendations?

From this study the following policy recommendations are relevant to Namibia:- Removal of barriers to adaptation should be addressed in order to implement an adaptation agenda through CSA. These barriers include lack of knowledge on the CSA adaptations options available to reduce climate risks or the means to implement them, the perception that CSA adaptation measures and or strategies have a low benefit over costs. But these notions have not been quantified and need to be; so that CSA policies that are “fit for purpose” are developed and incorporated in CSA related policies in Appendix C. Incentives for adoption of CSA practices including “climate smart subsidies” for practices with public good elements need to be put in place as standalone policies e.g. stream-bed protection, erosion control measures, agro-forestry, improved access to long term finance overcoming short-long term barriers, payment for environmental services, overcoming market failures, supporting research and innovation (now captured by the new Namibia Commission on Research in Science and Technology Act). Accessing climate finance,

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blending with public and private finance can be done through a budget line item on climate finance. Also linking productivity enhancement, adaptation and mitigation through incentive measures is one area that needs attention. Price and non-price measures are needed to support a transition to CSA, and behavioral change by all stakeholders is an important element. It seems more feasible at the moment to come up with enabling policies to facilitate transition to climate-smart agriculture, within broader agricultural policy frameworks rather than coming up with standalone CSA policies. CSA Policies should be geared so that they promote continuous improvement. So CSA policies in Namibia targeting mainly research partnerships should also gear towards adopting and adapting the Kaizen concept (of Japan). Kaizen strategy calls for “never-ending efforts for improvement” involving everyone in the partnership. Lastly but not least advocacy is key. Advocacy is a key vehicle for problem solving and development. Popularizing CSA policies that advocate for better understanding of current problems in agriculture, environment and in the sustainable utilization of natural resources is imperative.

4.3.1 Strategies for successful CSA Policy Development

The suggested policies above can only work if certain matters are considered and supported. For example, it is beneficial to clarify and recognizing roles in CSA policy development, finance them, communicate and target the most vulnerable. Sustainable agricultural policy development and equitable access to natural resources, (mainly rangelands, arable land and water) are imperative issues that any CSA policy should adequately address. This entails recognizing the interests and roles of all stakeholders in the agricultural sector. It is important to recognize the legitimacy of the roles and operations of indigenous power structures, institutions and rights regimes on natural resources. Adequate preparations must be made for an informed consultation with communities and their organizations on the major issues to be addressed in the CSA policy. This should be inclusive of all categories of agricultural stakeholders, especially women and the youth. Officials and experts involved in the CSA policy development should know that this exercise requires comprehensive, legislative, institutional and operational measures to achieve decentralized, transparent, efficient and cost-effective delivery of services. The development of CSA policies should take into account full financial and economic cost appraisals hence provide for adequate resource commitment and mobilization for policy development. Any policy development will require effective and efficient communication channels inclusive of newspapers, television messages, radio broadcasts and newsletters. Effective communication should be integral and crosscutting incorporating stakeholder inputs and feedback throughout the whole food production value chain. Financial incentives are important complimentary tools particularly for mitigation strategies that increase risk and costs to farmers. Introduce ‘beneficiary pays” mechanisms (abatement subsidies) or “polluter pays’ mechanisms (emission tax, tradable permits). These are economically efficient mechanism for incentivising the adoption of mitigation technologies/practices. The introduction of other financial incentives like low interest loans, and micro finance schemes may compliment extension policies and support the adoption of new technologies and practices. CSA should be targeted at the ones who suffer most.

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5. Annexes

APPENDIX A: List of Stakeholders contacted

Stakeholder/ Organization Main Mandate/ Organization’s mission

1. University of Namibia (Neudam Agriculture Campus)

Public; Training - Higher education

2. SADC Parliamentary Forum (Namibia Secretariat)

NGO – Regional

3. University of Namibia (Ogongo Agriculture Campus)

Public; Training - Higher education

4. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry Public; Government Ministry

5. Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit (NEPRU), Namibia (no response)

NGO - Regional

6. National Planning Commission Public

7. Ministry of Environment and Tourism Public; Government Ministry

8. Ministry of Lands Resettlement Public; Government Ministry

9. Desert Research Foundation of Namibia NGO (local)

10.Namibia Red Cross (agric projects division) no response

NGO (local)

11. The Spanish Red Cross (agriculture projects) no response

NGO (International)

12.Milleniun Challenge Account - Namibia (MCA- Namibia)

NGO (International)

13. INTEGRATION Consulting Group NGO (International)

14. Office of the Prime Minister (Agriculture desk) (refered to MAWF)

Government

15. Legal Expert on Environment Issues Private

16 . UNAM (main Campus MRC) Public; Training – Higher Education

17. UNDP NGO; International

18. Polytechnic of Namibia (Namibia University of Science and Technology)

Public; Training – Higher Education

19. National Horticultural Board Public; Parastatal

20. Agronomic Board of Namibia Public; Parastatal

21. Directorate of Extension and Engineering Public; Government Ministry

22. Meatco Quasi – Private/parastatal

23. Meat Board Public; Parastatal

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Appendix B: A semi-structured questionnaire Comprehensive Scoping Study of Climate Smart Agriculture Policies in NAMIBIA Background The Food Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN) is implementing a number of climate smart agriculture (CSA) projects that seek to:

Generate CSA research-based evidence and address knowledge gaps;

Strengthen the capacity of institutions and young professionals for CSA and food security research;

Support advocacy campaigns for the development and implementation of CSA-responsive policies; and

Support the uptake of CSA best practices. Please fill free to answer the following question as much as you can. While the interviews will be done face to face, in some cases this questionnaire will be emailed to respondents. Thank you for your cooperation. THE INFORMATION BEING GATHERED IS SOLELY FOR THIS SCOPING STUDY COMMISSIONED BY FANRPAN. Enumerator …………………………. Date ……… Name of Farmer ………………………………………… (Not compulsory) 1. ORGANIASTAION: Public………; Private ……………….; NGO ………….. If you wish you may give the name of your organization here ……………………… 2. Your POSITION at work………………………………………..…………………………. 3. Gender; Male: ……….Female ………….. 4. Age: I Under 20… Between 20 and 30 …… Between 30 and 50; ….. I Above 50 …… 5. Educational level: Diploma ……I BSc ……I MSc …… I PhD …….. Certificate…..I Other (Specify) ……………………………………… 6. In which region are you currently living? (Put an X where applicable)

Urban Communal areas

Resettlement areas Commercial farming areas

7. In which sector are you currently working? (Put an X where applicable)

Agriculture production

Agriculture Research

Agriculture Training Policy Development

Other specify

8. What are the key CSA policies and activities in the Namibia? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9. Who are the (i) stakeholders involved in CSA activities, and (ii) how are they involved? (iii)Who were the initiators of such activities? (i)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… (ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10. In your view, how effective have those activities and policies been? Why or why not? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11. How have they had an impact on gender equity and on social equity more generally? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12. What are the key challenges to implementing CSA in this country?

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13. (i) What opportunities remain untapped, and why? (ii) How could they be explored? (i)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… (ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14. Many current crop-livestock production systems need redefining and restructuring if they are to meet sustainably the present and future demand for crop and animal products, because they demand high energy, land, chemicals and water which are increasingly becoming scarce. We are in the process of developing and refining a concept on climate smart agriculture (CSA) which is sustainable because it integrates the importance of efficient use of natural resources, protection of the environment, socio-cultural benefits, and ethical integrity and sensitivity in addition to currently recognized nutrition-based criteria of delivering economically viable safe crop-animal products by producing safe food. (i) Do you agree YES……; NO …. (ii) Any comment 15. Rate the importance of the following elements of Sustainable Crop-Animal Production (aka CSA) that aim to protect environment and natural resource base (Planet dimension of the sustainability) (Put an X where applicable)

Not important

Somewhat important

Reasonably important

Important Extremely important

CSA should not 'Use antibiotic or synthetic growth promoters'

CSA should 'Preferably use locallyavailable input resources

CSA should 'Use minimum energy'

CSA should 'Use minimum water'

CSA should 'Leave minimum carbon footprint'

CSA should 'Enhance resilience of the livestock production system' (Resilience: The ability to recover quickly from a change such as drought, floods, earthquake etc.)

CSA should 'Enhance or at least do not decrease biodiversity'

CSA should 'Consider social aspects of rearing crops and livestock'

CSA should not be 'Culturally offensive to producers and consumers of the crop and animal products'

CSA should 'Empower women'

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16. Rate the importance of the following economic elements of Climate Smart agriculture (i.e. the Profit dimension of the sustainability) (Put an X where applicable)

Not important

Somewhat important



CSA should 'Enhance Benefit : Cost ratio for all stakeholders'

CSA should 'Be a part of corporate social policy'

CSA should take into account 'Environmental and social costs of negative externalities such as environmental degradation, greenhouse gas emissions and loss of biodiversity'

17. Rate the importance of the following elements of CSA (Sustainability of CSA activities): (Put an X where applicable)

Not important

Somewhat important



CSA should ‘Contain a crop inputs or a livestock feed ingredient produced using public subsidies’

CSA should ‘Reuse food waste (or any other waste) after ensuring its safety’

CSA should be given incentives

18. To what extent do you agree that the ethical dimensions must be integrated into Climate Smart Agriculture? (Put an X where applicable)

Not important

Somewhat important



CSA should be ethical

19. In order to restructure the feed production system for meeting the requirements of sustainable food security, the initiative should first be taken by: (Put an X where applicable)

Not important

Somewhat important



Consumers (claiming for more sustainableproduction practices)

Industry

Scientists

Farmers and farmers' associations

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Civil societies

20. How to put the concept of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) into sound management practices? (Put an X where applicable)

Not important

Somewhat important



Develop guidelines/good practices for CSA

Encourage industry to develop voluntary guidelines and to follow them

Introduce incentives for farmers for using CSA

Make consumers aware of the benefits of CSA

Make civil societies aware of the benefits of CSA

Create environmental certifications for products obtained by using CSA

Secure corporate commitment to CSA

Achieve broad stakeholder engagement

Promote "green procurement practices" among customers

21. List the Climate Smart Agriculture related policies you are aware of or are in place in Namibia. Give a reference (e.g. web address, the article itself or its official citation).

Policy Name Reference Which Ministry administers this policy

22. Do stakeholders see CSA or related policy as a process focused on reducing vulnerability, which usually involves building adaptive capacity, particularly of the most vulnerable people? YES………… OR NO………………….

23. Explain your answer above ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

24. How were stakeholders involved in the establishment CSA related policy? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

25. What are the pros and cons observed during implementation of the policy?.........................................................................................................................................

26. Who are the most targeted sector for this policy? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++END+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

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APPENDIX C: Summary of Related Policies to CSA in Namibia

Policy Sector Name of Policy Year Approved or In force

Responsible Ministry

Contact person (Name, Telephone and Email)

Updated or Update Planned

Online access hyperlink

Land Communal Land Reform Act (Act No. 5 Of 2002)

2002 Ministry of Lands and Resettlement

Permanent Secretary of Ministry

www.lac.org.na/laws/pdf/communallandreformact.pdf

Land Soil Conservation Act

1969 Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry


2003; 2010

http://www.environment-namibia.net/environmental_acts.html

Land Communal Land Reform Act



2011 http://www.environment-namibia.net/environmental_acts.html

Land Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act, 1995

1995

Ministry of Lands and Resettlement


2003, 2011

Amended Act: www.parliament.gov.na/acts_documents/45_act_14.sep.pdf

Village Traditional Authorities Act




Forestry Policy Forest Act 2001 Ministry of Environment and Tourism



Forestry Policy Nature conservation legislations

1990 Ministry of Environment and Tourism



Agriculture NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL POLICY



Currently under review

www.mawf.gov.na/Documents/National%20Agricultural%20...

Livestock Livestock improvement act 25 of 1977.



www.environment-namibia.net/tl_files/pdf_documents/legal/...

Livestock Policy for the Eradication of Trans-boundary Animal Diseases in the Northern Communal Areas (NCA)”



----

(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation "plus") REDD+

Environmental Management Act No 7




REDD+ Environment Management

Draft SEA and EIA Regulations

April 2008 Ministry of Environment and Tourism



http://www.parliament.gov.na/acts_documents/45_act_14.sep.pdf




31

Policy Sector Name of Policy Year Approved or In force

Responsible Ministry

Contact person

Updated or Update Planned

Online access hyperlink

REDD+ Environment Management

Procedure and Guideline for EIA



http://www.environment-namibia.net/environmental_acts.html

Water National Water Policy

1956 MAWF Permanent Secretary of Ministry

2000 and 2010

www.environmentnamibia.net/tl_files/pdf_documents/

Climate change Agenda

National Policy on Climate Change


http://www.met.gov.na/AAP/Downloads/

Food security National Drought Policy & Strategy


www.environmentnamibia.net/tl_files/pdf_documents/.

Appendix D Climate-smart agriculture opportunities in Namibia

Staple and cash crop management

Livestock development and management

Soil and water management

Agro-forestry Integrated food energy Systems

• Intercropping with legumes • Crop rotations • New crop varieties (e.g. drought Resistant pearl millet) • Improved post harvest storage and processing techniques • Greater crop diversity through expanding the Green Scheme projects • Expansion of the Kalimbeza rice project in the Zambezi flood planes and in the Oshanas in the NCAs

• Improved feeding strategies (e.g. fodder flow systems • Rotational grazing of grazing camps • Fodder crop production • Grassland restoration and conservation • Manure treatment • Improved livestock health • Animal husbandry improvements

• Conservation agriculture (e.g. minimum tillage) • Contour planting • Constructing terraces • Pit planting • Water storage (e.g. Underground water pans) • Built at least one large dams in each of the 14 administrative regions of Namibia e.g. the recently commission Nerkatal dam. • Improved irrigation (e.g. expansion and replication of the Etunda irrigation scheme, drip for horticulture)

• Construct live boundary fences using trees and hedgerows • Nitrogen-fixing trees on farms • Multipurpose trees • Improved fallow with fertilizer shrubs • Woodlots • Fruit orchards

• Biogas • Production of energy plants • Improved biomass utilisation

32

6.0 References

CBRLM 2013, The Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry and MCA- Namibia launched booklet on the Community Based Rangeland and Livestock Management (CBRLM) in Windhoek, April 2013 (Mon, 8 April 2013 http://www.thevillager.com.na/articles/3761/Rangeland-and-livestock-management-target-set/. Retrieved on 1October 2013.). Drexhage J and Murphy D, 2012. Sustainable Development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012; International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD); Background Paper prepared for consideration by the High Level Panel on Global Sustainability at its first meeting, 19 September 2010 September 2010, United Nations Headquarters, New York. Foster T, 2012. A Desk Study for Water for people February 2012 WFP Report Private Water Provisions of Rural Water Services. Government of Namibia. 2004. Namibia Vision 2030: Policy framework for long‐term nationaldevelopment. Windhoek. New Era 3 July 2012. Trade Mark Southern; Namibia: Government embarks on market diversification (Reporter:- Irene !Hoaës) http://www.trademarksa.org/news/namibia-govt-embarks-market-diversification. Kanamaru Hideki. and Hancock, Jim, 2013 Draft Report. Climate Smart agriculture: MODULE 12: ASSESSMENT, MONITORING AND EVALUATION. (FAO, IFAD, WFP). www.climatesmartagriculture.org/35184-0583efaa887f2192e. Retrieved on 10/12, 2013. Meat Board of Namibia, 2012. Annual Report 2012 Meatco annual report 2011/12. Mona Frøystad M, Hoffmann J and Schade K., 2009. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) Web site: http://www.iisd.org/. Agriculture: Future Scenarios for Southern Africa – Country Briefing – Namibia Mwandingi M, 2012. UNDP Report. Energy Challenges and Opportunities. Paper presented at the Namibia Societal Acceleration Platform Prototyping Week, SE4ALL. National Planning Commission 2013, IDI with Johannes Shipepe, Development Advisor, Department of Regional Sectorial Planning and Policy Coordination (NPD Interview 2013 Namibia Statistical Agency 2013. Annual National Accounts 2002-2012 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992. Accessed at: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?documentid=78&articleid=1163. Retrieved on 12 December 2013.

http://www.trademarksa.org/news/namibia-govt-embarks-market-diversification

http://www.trademarksa.org/news/namibia-govt-embarks-market-diversification

http://www.iisd.org/

http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?documentid=78&articleid=1163

http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?documentid=78&articleid=1163