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Airplane

An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered,

fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet

engine, propeller or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of

sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of

uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods

and people, military, and research. Worldwide, commercial

aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on

airliners[1]

and transports more than 200 billion tonne-

kilometres[2]

of cargo annually, which is less than 1% of the

world's cargo movement.[3]

Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on

board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or

computer-controlled.

The Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903,

recognized as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air

powered flight".[4]

They built on the works of George Cayley

dating from 1799, when he set forth the concept of the modern

airplane (and later built and flew models and successful

passenger-carrying gliders).[5]

Between 1867 and 1896, the

German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied

heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in World War I,

aircraft technology continued to develop. Airplanes had a

presence in all the major battles of World War II. The first jet

aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939. The first jet

airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The

Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in

commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to at least

2013.

Etymology and usageHistory

AntecedentsEarly powered flightsDevelopment of jet aircraft

PropulsionPropeller

Reciprocating engineGas turbine

North American P-51 Mustang, a World War IIfighter aircraft

The first flight of an airplane, the Wright Flyer onDecember 17, 1903

An All Nippon Airways Boeing 777-300 taking offfrom New York JFK Airport.

Contents

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Electric motorJet

TurbofanRamjetScramjetRocket

Design and manufactureCharacteristics

AirframeWings

Wing structureWing configuration

FuselageWings vs. bodies

Flying wingBlended wing bodyLifting body

Empennage and foreplaneControls and instruments

SafetySee alsoReferencesBibliographyExternal links

First attested in English in the late 19th century (prior to the first sustained powered flight), the word airplane, like

aeroplane, derives from the French aéroplane, which comes from the Greek ἀήρ (aēr), "air"[6] and either Latin planus,"level",

[7] or Greek πλάνος (planos), "wandering".

[8][9] "Aéroplane" originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane

moving through the air.[10]

In an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft.

In the United States and Canada, the term "airplane" is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and

most of the Commonwealth, the term "aeroplane" (/ˈɛərəpleɪn/[10]) is usually applied to these aircraft.

Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and the Vimana in ancient

Indian epics. Around 400 BC in Greece, Archytas was reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propelled

flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have flown some 200 m

(660 ft).[11][12]

This machine may have been suspended for its flight.[13][14]

Etymology and usage

History

Antecedents

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Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-

century poet Abbas ibn Firnas and the 11th-century monk Eilmer of

Malmesbury; both experiments injured their pilots.[15]

Leonardo da Vinci

researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his

Codex on the Flight of Birds (1502).

In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-

wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and

control.[16][17]

Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as

early as 1803, and he built a successful passenger-carrying glider in 1853.[5]

In

1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having

his glider "L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach.[18]

Then

Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs. In 1883, the

American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider.[19]

Other

aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy

Pilcher, and Octave Chanute.

Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34 meter)

wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270 kW) steam engines

driving two propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to

prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off. The

craft was uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he

subsequently abandoned work on it.[20]

In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and developed a box kite that lifted the weight of

a man. His box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, he did not

create and fly a powered fixed-wing aircraft.[21]

Between 1867 and 1896 the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal developed heavier-than-air flight. He was

the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful gliding flights.

Clement Ader constructed his first of three flying machines in 1886, the Éole. It

was a bat-like design run by a lightweight steam engine of his own invention,

with 4 cylinders developing 20 horsepower (15 kW), driving a four-blade

propeller. The engine weighed no more than 4 kg/kW (7 pounds per

horsepower). The wings had a span of 14 m (46 ft). All-up weight was 300 kg

(650 lb). On 9 October 1890 Ader attempted to fly the Éole. Aviation historians

give credit to this effort as a powered take-off and uncontrolled hop of

approximately 50 m (160 ft) at a height of approximately 20 cm, (8 in).[22][23]

Ader's two subsequent machines were not documented to have achieved

flight.[24]

The Wright brothers flights in 1903 are recognized by the Fédération

Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the standard setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics, as "the first sustained

and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight".[4]

By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable

Le Bris and his glider, Albatros II,photographed by Nadar, 1868

Otto Lilienthal in mid-flight, c. 1895

Early powered flights

Patent drawings of Clement Ader'sÉole.

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flight for substantial periods. The Wright brothers credited Otto Lilienthal as a major inspiration for their decision to

pursue manned flight.

In 1906, Alberto Santos-Dumont made what was claimed to be the first

airplane flight unassisted by catapult[25]

and set the first world record

recognized by the Aéro-Club de France by flying 220 meters (720 ft) in less

than 22 seconds.[26]

This flight was also certified by the FAI.[27][28]

An early aircraft design that brought together the modern monoplane tractor

configuration was the Blériot VIII design of 1908. It had movable tail surfaces

controlling both yaw and pitch, a form of roll control supplied either by wing

warping or by ailerons and controlled by its pilot with a joystick and rudder

bar. It was an important predecessor of his later Blériot XI Channel-crossing

aircraft of the summer of 1909.[29]

World War I served as a testbed for the use of the airplane as a weapon. Airplanes demonstrated their potential as mobile

observation platforms, then proved themselves to be machines of war capable of causing casualties to the enemy. The

earliest known aerial victory with a synchronized machine gun-armed fighter aircraft occurred in 1915, by German

Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens. Fighter aces appeared; the greatest (by number of Aerial Combat victories) was

Manfred von Richthofen.

Following WWI, aircraft technology continued to develop. Alcock and Brown crossed the Atlantic non-stop for the first

time in 1919. The first international commercial flights took place between the United States and Canada in 1919.[30]

Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of World War II. They were an essential component of the military

strategies of the period, such as the German Blitzkrieg, The Battle of Britain, and the American and Japanese aircraft

carrier campaigns of the Pacific War.

The first practical jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178, which was tested in 1939. In 1943, the Messerschmitt Me

262, the first operational jet fighter aircraft, went into service in the German Luftwaffe. In October 1947, the Bell X-1 was

the first aircraft to exceed the speed of sound.[31]

The first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful

commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to 2010. The Boeing 747 was the world's

biggest passenger aircraft from 1970 until it was surpassed by the Airbus A380 in 2005.

An aircraft propeller, or airscrew, converts rotary motion from an engine or other power source, into a swirling slipstream

which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several

radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis.[32]

Three types of aviation

engines used to power propellors include reciprocating engines (or piston engines), gas turbine engines, and electric

motors. The amount of thrust a propeller creates is determined by its disk area—the area in which the blades rotate. If the

Santos-Dumont 14-bis, between1906 and 1907

Development of jet aircraft

Propulsion

Propeller

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area is too small, efficiency is poor, and if the area is large, the propeller must

rotate at a very low speed to avoid going supersonic and creating a lot of noise,

and not much thrust. Because of this limitation, propellers are favored for

planes which travel at below Mach 0.6, while jets are a better choice above that

speed[33]

. Propeller engines may be quieter than jet engines (though not

always) and may cost less to purchase or maintain and so remain common on

light general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna 172. Larger modern propeller

planes such as the Dash 8 use a jet engine to turn the propeller, primarily

because an equivalent piston engine in power output would be much larger and

more complex.

Reciprocating engines in aircraft have three main variants, radial, in-line and flat or horizontally opposed engine. The

radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders "radiate" outward

from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel and was commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines

became predominant. An inline engine is a reciprocating engine with banks of cylinders, one behind another, rather than

rows of cylinders, with each bank having any number of cylinders, but rarely more than six, and may be water-cooled. A

flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders.

A turboprop gas turbine engine consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle which

provide power from a shaft through a reduction gearing to the propeller. The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small

proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop.

An electric aircraft runs on electric motors rather than internal combustion

engines, with electricity coming from fuel cells, solar cells, ultracapacitors,

power beaming,[34]

or batteries. Currently, flying electric aircraft are mostly

experimental prototypes, including manned and unmanned aerial vehicles, but

there are some production models on the market already.[35]

Jet aircraft are propelled by jet engines, which are used because the

aerodynamic limitations of propellers do not apply to jet propulsion. These

engines are much more powerful than a reciprocating engine for a given size or weight and are comparatively quiet and

work well at higher altitude. Variants of the jet engine include the ramjet and the scramjet which rely on high airspeed and

intake geometry to compress the combustion air, prior to the introduction and ignition of fuel. Rocket motors provide

thrust by burning a fuel with an oxidizer and expelling gas through a nozzle.

An Antonov An-2 biplane

Reciprocating engine

Gas turbine

Electric motor

Solar Impulse 1, a solar-poweredaircraft with electric motors.Jet

Turbofan

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Most modern jet planes use turbofan jet engines which balance the advantages

of a propeller, while retaining the exhaust speed and power of a jet. This is

essentially a ducted propeller attached to a jet engine, much like a turboprop,

but with a smaller diameter. When installed on an airliner, it is efficient so long

as it remains below the speed of sound (or subsonic). Jet fighters and other

supersonic aircraft that do not spend a great deal of time supersonic also often

use turbofans, but to function, air intake ducting is needed to slow the air down

so that when it arrives at the front of the turbofan, it is subsonic. When passing

through the engine, it is then re-accelerated back to supersonic speeds. To

further boost the power output, fuel is dumped into the exhaust stream, where

it ignites. This is called an afterburner and has been used on both pure jet

aircraft and turbojet aircraft although it is only normally used on combat aircraft due to the amount of fuel consumed, and

even then may only be used for short periods of time. Supersonic airliners (e.g. Concorde) are no longer in use largely

because flight at supersonic speed creates a sonic boom which is prohibited in most heavily populated areas, and because

of the much higher consumption of fuel supersonic flight requires.

Jet aircraft possess high cruising speeds (700 to 900 km/h (430 to 560 mph)) and high speeds for takeoff and landing (150

to 250 km/h (93 to 155 mph)). Due to the speed needed for takeoff and landing, jet aircraft use flaps and leading edge

devices to control the lift and speed. Many jet aircraft also use thrust reversers to slow down the aircraft upon landing.

A ramjet is a form of jet engine that contains no major moving parts and can be

particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple engine for high-

speed use, such as with missiles. Ramjets require forward motion before they

can generate thrust and so are often used in conjunction with other forms of

propulsion, or with an external means of achieving sufficient speed. The

Lockheed D-21 was a Mach 3+ ramjet-powered reconnaissance drone that was

launched from a parent aircraft. A ramjet uses the vehicle's forward motion to

force air through the engine without resorting to turbines or vanes. Fuel is

added and ignited, which heats and expands the air to provide thrust.[36]

A scramjet is a supersonic ramjet and aside from differences with dealing with

internal supersonic airflow works like a conventional ramjet. This type of engine requires a very high initial speed in order

to work. The NASA X-43, an experimental unmanned scramjet, set a world speed record in 2004 for a jet-powered aircraft

with a speed of Mach 9.7, nearly 7,500 miles per hour (12,100 km/h)..[37]

In World War II, the Germans deployed the Me 163 Komet rocket-powered aircraft. The first plane to break the sound

barrier in level flight was a rocket plane – the Bell X-1. The later North American X-15 broke many speed and altitude

records and laid much of the groundwork for later aircraft and spacecraft design. Rocket aircraft are not in common usage

today, although rocket-assisted take offs are used for some military aircraft. Recent rocket aircraft include the

SpaceShipOne and the XCOR EZ-Rocket.

The Concorde supersonic transportaircraft

Ramjet

Artist's concept of X-43A withscramjet attached to the underside

Scramjet

Rocket

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There are many rocket-powered aircraft/spacecraft planes, the spaceplanes,

that are designed to fly outside Earth's atmosphere.

Most airplanes are constructed by companies with the objective of producing

them in quantity for customers. The design and planning process, including

safety tests, can last up to four years for small turboprops or longer for larger

planes.

During this process, the objectives and design specifications of the aircraft are

established. First the construction company uses drawings and equations,

simulations, wind tunnel tests and experience to predict the behavior of the

aircraft. Computers are used by companies to draw, plan and do initial

simulations of the aircraft. Small models and mockups of all or certain parts of

the plane are then tested in wind tunnels to verify its aerodynamics.

When the design has passed through these processes, the company constructs a

limited number of prototypes for testing on the ground. Representatives from

an aviation governing agency often make a first flight. The flight tests continue

until the aircraft has fulfilled all the requirements. Then, the governing public

agency of aviation of the country authorizes the company to begin production.

In the United States, this agency is the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),

and in the European Union, European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). In Canada, the public agency in charge and

authorizing the mass production of aircraft is Transport Canada.

When a part or component needs to be joined together by welding for virtually any aerospace or defense application, it

must meet the most stringent and specific safety regulations and standards. Nadcap, or the National Aerospace and

Defense Contractors Accreditation Program sets global requirements for quality, quality management and quality

assurance of for aerospace engineering.[38]

In the case of international sales, a license from the public agency of aviation or transport of the country where the aircraft

is to be used is also necessary. For example, airplanes made by the European company, Airbus, need to be certified by the

FAA to be flown in the United States, and airplanes made by U.S.-based Boeing need to be approved by the EASA to be

flown in the European Union.

Regulations have resulted in reduced noise from aircraft engines in response to increased noise pollution from growth in

air traffic over urban areas near airports.

Small planes can be designed and constructed by amateurs as homebuilts. Other homebuilt aircraft can be assembled

using pre-manufactured kits of parts that can be assembled into a basic plane and must then be completed by the

builder.[39]

There are few companies that produce planes on a large scale. However, the production of a plane for one company is a

process that actually involves dozens, or even hundreds, of other companies and plants, that produce the parts that go into

the plane. For example, one company can be responsible for the production of the landing gear, while another one is

Bell X-1 in flight, 1947

Design and manufacture

Assembly line of the SR-71Blackbird at Skunk Works,Lockheed Martin’s AdvancedDevelopment Programs (ADP).

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responsible for the radar. The production of such parts is not limited to the

same city or country; in the case of large plane manufacturing companies, such

parts can come from all over the world.

The parts are sent to the main plant of the plane company, where the

production line is located. In the case of large planes, production lines

dedicated to the assembly of certain parts of the plane can exist, especially the

wings and the fuselage.

When complete, a plane is rigorously inspected to search for imperfections and

defects. After approval by inspectors, the plane is put through a series of flight

tests to assure that all systems are working correctly and that the plane handles

properly. Upon passing these tests, the plane is ready to receive the "final

touchups" (internal configuration, painting, etc.), and is then ready for the

customer.

The structural parts of a fixed-wing aircraft are called the airframe. The parts

present can vary according to the aircraft's type and purpose. Early types were

usually made of wood with fabric wing surfaces, When engines became

available for powered flight around a hundred years ago, their mounts were

made of metal. Then as speeds increased more and more parts became metal

until by the end of WWII all-metal aircraft were common. In modern times,

increasing use of composite materials has been made.

Typical structural parts include:

One or more large horizontal wings, often with an airfoil cross-section shape. The wing deflects air downward as theaircraft moves forward, generating lifting force to support it in flight. The wing also provides stability in roll to stop theaircraft from rolling to the left or right in steady flight.

A fuselage, a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends tomake its shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage joins the otherparts of the airframe and usually contains important things such as thepilot, payload and flight systems.A vertical stabilizer or fin is a vertical wing-like surface mounted at the rearof the plane and typically protruding above it. The fin stabilizes the plane'syaw (turn left or right) and mounts the rudder which controls its rotationalong that axis.A horizontal stabilizer or tailplane, usually mounted at the tail near thevertical stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer is used to stabilize the plane's pitch (tilt up or down) and mounts theelevators which provide pitch control.Landing gear, a set of wheels, skids, or floats that support the plane while it is on the surface. On seaplanes thebottom of the fuselage or floats (pontoons) support it while on the water. On some planes the landing gear retractsduring flight to reduce drag.

An Airbus A321 on final assemblyline 3 in the Airbus plant at HamburgFinkenwerder Airport.

Characteristics

An IAI Heron - an unmanned aerialvehicle with a twin-boomconfiguration

Airframe

The An-225 Mriya, which can carrya 250-tonne payload, has twovertical stabilisers.

Wings

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_testhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_materialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_(force)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_dynamics_(aircraft)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamicallyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_stabilizerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_dynamics_(aircraft)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_stabilizerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailplanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_dynamics_(aircraft)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator_(aircraft)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_gearhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A321_final_assembly_(9351765668).jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A321https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_linehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg_Finkenwerder_Airporthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IAI_Heron_1_in_flight_2.JPEGhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAI_Heronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehiclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_boomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antonov_225_(2010).jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An-225_Mriya


The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are static planes extending either side of the aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards,

air flows over the wings which are shaped to create lift. This shape is called an airfoil and is shaped like a bird's wing.

Airplanes have flexible wing surfaces which are stretched across a frame and made rigid by the lift forces exerted by the

airflow over them. Larger aircraft have rigid wing surfaces which provide additional strength.

Whether flexible or rigid, most wings have a strong frame to give them their shape and to transfer lift from the wing

surface to the rest of the aircraft. The main structural elements are one or more spars running from root to tip, and many

ribs running from the leading (front) to the trailing (rear) edge.

Early airplane engines had little power, and lightness was very important. Also, early airfoil sections were very thin, and

could not have a strong frame installed within. So until the 1930s most wings were too lightweight to have enough strength

and external bracing struts and wires were added. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s,

wings could be made heavy and strong enough that bracing was not needed any more. This type of unbraced wing is called

a cantilever wing.

The number and shape of the wings varies widely on different types. A given

wing plane may be full-span or divided by a central fuselage into port (left) and

starboard (right) wings. Occasionally even more wings have been used, with the

three-winged triplane achieving some fame in WWI. The four-winged

quadruplane and other multiplane designs have had little success.

A monoplane has a single wing plane, a biplane has two stacked one above the

other, a tandem wing has two placed one behind the other. When the available

engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s and bracing was no longer

needed, the unbraced or cantilever monoplane became the most common form

of powered type.

The wing planform is the shape when seen from above. To be aerodynamically efficient, a wing should be straight with a

long span from side to side but have a short chord (high aspect ratio). But to be structurally efficient, and hence light

weight, a wing must have a short span but still enough area to provide lift (low aspect ratio).

At transonic speeds (near the speed of sound), it helps to sweep the wing backwards or forwards to reduce drag from

supersonic shock waves as they begin to form. The swept wing is just a straight wing swept backwards or forwards.

The delta wing is a triangle shape which may be used for a number of reasons. As a flexible Rogallo wing it allows a stable

shape under aerodynamic forces, and so is often used for ultralight aircraft and even kites. As a supersonic wing it

combines high strength with low drag and so is often used for fast jets.

A variable geometry wing can be changed in flight to a different shape. The variable-sweep wing transforms between an

efficient straight configuration for takeoff and landing, to a low-drag swept configuration for high-speed flight. Other

forms of variable planform have been flown, but none have gone beyond the research stage.

Wing structure

Wing configuration

Captured Morane-Saulnier L wire-braced parasol monoplane

Fuselage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadruplanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandem_winghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planform_(aeronautics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_soundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swept_winghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_winghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogallo_winghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_sweep_winghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Morane-Saulnier_Type_L_-_Captured_with_german_insigna.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morane-Saulnier_L


A fuselage is a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make

its shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage may contain the flight crew,

passengers, cargo or payload, fuel and engines. The pilots of manned aircraft

operate them from a cockpit located at the front or top of the fuselage and

equipped with controls and usually windows and instruments. A plane may

have more than one fuselage, or it may be fitted with booms with the tail

located between the booms to allow the extreme rear of the fuselage to be

useful for a variety of purposes.

A flying wing is a tailless aircraft which has no definite fuselage. Most of the

crew, payload and equipment are housed inside the main wing structure.[40]

The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the 1930s and 1940s,

notably by Jack Northrop and Cheston L. Eshelman in the United States, and

Alexander Lippisch and the Horten brothers in Germany. After the war, a

number of experimental designs were based on the flying wing concept, but the

known difficulties remained intractable. Some general interest continued until

the early 1950s but designs did not necessarily offer a great advantage in range

and presented a number of technical problems, leading to the adoption of

"conventional" solutions like the Convair B-36 and the B-52 Stratofortress. Due

to the practical need for a deep wing, the flying wing concept is most practical

for designs in the slow-to-medium speed range, and there has been continual

interest in using it as a tactical airlifter design.

Interest in flying wings was renewed in the 1980s due to their potentially low

radar reflection cross-sections. Stealth technology relies on shapes which only

reflect radar waves in certain directions, thus making the aircraft hard to detect unless the radar receiver is at a specific

position relative to the aircraft - a position that changes continuously as the aircraft moves. This approach eventually led to

the Northrop B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. In this case the aerodynamic advantages of the flying wing are not the primary

needs. However, modern computer-controlled fly-by-wire systems allowed for many of the aerodynamic drawbacks of the

flying wing to be minimized, making for an efficient and stable long-range bomber.

Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and

distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body.

Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuristic fuselage and flying wing design. The

purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil-shaped body. This

enables the entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of potentially increased fuel economy.

Two Dassault Mirage G prototypes,one with wings swept

Wings vs. bodies

Flying wing

The US-produced B-2 Spirit is astrategic bomber. It has a flyingwing configuration and is capable ofintercontinental missions

Blended wing body

Lifting body

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A lifting body is a configuration in which the body itself produces

lift. In contrast to a flying wing, which is a wing with minimal or

no conventional fuselage, a lifting body can be thought of as a

fuselage with little or no conventional wing. Whereas a flying

wing seeks to maximize cruise efficiency at subsonic speeds by

eliminating non-lifting surfaces, lifting bodies generally minimize

the drag and structure of a wing for subsonic, supersonic, and

hypersonic flight, or, spacecraft re-entry. All of these flight

regimes pose challenges for proper flight stability.

Lifting bodies were a major area of research in the 1960s and 70s as a means to

build a small and lightweight manned spacecraft. The US built a number of

famous lifting body rocket planes to test the concept, as well as several rocket-

launched re-entry vehicles that were tested over the Pacific. Interest waned as

the US Air Force lost interest in the manned mission, and major development

ended during the Space Shuttle design process when it became clear that the

highly shaped fuselages made it difficult to fit fuel tankage.

The classic airfoil section wing is unstable in flight and difficult to control.

Flexible-wing types often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hanging

beneath to maintain the correct attitude. Some free-flying types use an adapted

airfoil that is stable, or other ingenious mechanisms including, most recently,

electronic artificial stability.

But in order to achieve trim, stability and control, most fixed-wing types have

an empennage comprising a fin and rudder which act horizontally and a

tailplane and elevator which act vertically. This is so common that it is known

as the conventional layout. Sometimes there may be two or more fins, spaced

out along the tailplane.

Some types have a horizontal "canard" foreplane ahead of the main wing, instead of behind it.[41][42][43]

This foreplane may

contribute to the lift, the trim, or control of the aircraft, or to several of these.

Airplanes have complex flight control systems. The main controls allow the pilot to direct the aircraft in the air by

controlling the attitude (roll, pitch and yaw) and engine thrust.

Computer-generated model of the Boeing X-48

The Martin Aircraft Company X-24was built as part of a 1963 to 1975experimental US military program.

Empennage and foreplane

Canards on the Saab Viggen

Controls and instruments

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On manned aircraft, cockpit instruments provide information to the pilots,

including flight data, engine output, navigation, communications and other

aircraft systems that may be installed.

When risk is measured by deaths per passenger kilometer, air travel is approximately 10 times safer than travel by bus or

rail. However, when using the deaths per journey statistic, air travel is significantly more dangerous than car, rail, or bus

travel.[44]

Air travel insurance is relatively expensive for this reason—insurers generally use the deaths per journey

statistic.[45]

There is a significant difference between the safety of airliners and that of smaller private planes, with the per-

mile statistic indicating that airliners are 8.3 times safer than smaller planes.[46]

Abbas Ibn FirnasAircraft flight mechanicsAirlinerAviationAviation and the environmentAviation historyFuel efficiencyList of altitude records reached by different aircraft typesManeuvering speedRotorcraftWright Brothers

1. Editors. "Global air traffic hits new record" (https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/global-air-traffic-hits-new-record-9871730). Channel NewsAsia. Retrieved 2018-05-12.

2. Measured in RTKs—an RTK is one tonne of revenue freight carried one kilometer.3. Crabtree, Tom; Hoang, Tom; Tom, Russell (2016). "World Air Cargo Forecast: 2016–2017" (http://www.boeing.com/res

ources/boeingdotcom/commercial/about-our-market/cargo-market-detail-wacf/download-report/assets/pdfs/wacf.pdf)(PDF). Boeing Aircraft. Retrieved 2018-05-12.

4. FAI News: 100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality (http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp)Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110113080326/http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp) January 13,2011, at the Wayback Machine. posted 17 December 2003. Retrieved: 5 January 2007.

A light aircraft (Robin DR400/500)cockpit

Safety

See also

References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockpithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_instrumentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Ibn_Firnashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_flight_mechanicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_and_the_environmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_efficiencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_altitude_records_reached_by_different_aircraft_typeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maneuvering_speedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcrafthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Brothershttps://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/global-air-traffic-hits-new-record-9871730http://www.boeing.com/resources/boeingdotcom/commercial/about-our-market/cargo-market-detail-wacf/download-report/assets/pdfs/wacf.pdfhttp://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asphttps://web.archive.org/web/20110113080326/http://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robin.dr400slash500.g-rndd.arp.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avions_Robin


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https://web.archive.org/web/20061128124844/http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_index.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87474-345-1https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/7095890/the-naca-nasa-and-the-supersonic-hypersonic-frontierhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140814194929/https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/7095890/the-naca-nasa-and-the-supersonic-hypersonic-frontierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machinehttps://books.google.com/books?id=CDMNDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136&dq=propellor+aircraft+speed&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlz8i3lYTbAhWmd98KHSckAHYQ6AEIQjAE#v=onepage&q=propellor%20aircraft%20speed&f=falsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498776561http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/Photo/Power-Beaming/index.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130217082723/http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/Power-Beaming/index.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machinehttp://www.avweb.com/avwebflash/news/PipistrelExpandsElectricAircraftLine_208598-1.htmlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,834721,00.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIMEhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Inc.https://web.archive.org/web/20080408064246/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,834721,00.htmlhttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19930085282&hterms=weber+mackay&qs=N%3D0%26Ntk%3DAll%26Ntt%3Dweber%2520mackay%26Ntx%3Dmode%2520matchallpartial%26Nm%3D123%7CCollection%7CNASA%2520STI%7C%7C17%7CCollection%7CNACAhttps://www.helandermetal.com/aerospace-weldinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9636409-4-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56027-287-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56027-287-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9690054-9-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administrationhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080920140807/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=2c71ffcfa90ea16afab05fe85ba4f037&rgn=div8&view=text&node=14%3A1.0.1.1.1.0.1.1&idno=14http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=49436e70336dc8d8f1ab7b3d789254af&rgn=div8&view=text&node=14:1.0.1.1.1.0.1.1&idno=14http://www.numberwatch.co.uk/risks_of_travel.htmhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010907000000/http://www.numberwatch.co.uk/risks_of_travel.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machinehttps://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16321985.200-flight-into-danger.htmlhttp://www.meretrix.com/~harry/flying/notes/safetyvsdriving.html


Blatner, David. The Flying Book: Everything You've Ever Wondered About Flying On Airplanes. ISBN 0-8027-7691-4

The Aeroplane centre (http://www.aerocentre.blogspot.com/)Airliners.net (http://www.airliners.net/info/)Aerospaceweb.org (http://www.aerospaceweb.org/)How Airplanes Work – Howstuffworks.com (http://travel.howstuffworks.com/airplane.htm)

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