a joint linguistic-marketing analysis of brand and …

The case of Unilever
FRANCESCO NACCHIA, VITTORIA MASSARO1 UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES “PARTHENOPE”
Abstract – The proposed paper aims to present a qualitative descriptive study that
examines brands and products commercialized by the Anglo-Dutch multinational
consumer goods company Unilever from a marketing and linguistic perspective. The
research is the result of a recent interest in terminology and linguistics studies applied to
the field of branding. Initially, the focus is on brand identity and the communication tools
used by the company to reach its consumer base. Subsequently, by drawing on linguistics
and translation tools, an English-Italian inter-linguistic contrastive analysis is performed.
Finally, brand and product names in both languages are analysed on the basis of six
different dimensions: graphemic/phonetic, morphological/syntactical, semantic, and
lexical. The utmost aim is to evaluate the overall impact of marketing and
linguistic/translation choices on Italian consumers and find whether different
communication strategies are used for different product types. The corpus for this study is
represented by the English and Italian versions of the Unilever website, and external
official websites of its brands.
Keywords: linguistic analysis; Unilever; brand names; branding; specialized translation.
1. Introduction
Linguistic tools play a key role in the implementation of branding and
marketing strategies; while these choices may appear coincidental, they are
generally the result of painstaking research and consideration. In today’s
global markets, in which international companies must reach geographically
and culturally distant groups of consumers, brand-naming processes require
even greater attention than in the past. In a continuously shrinking world,
successful brand communication depends on a company’s ability to transfer
ideas across cultures and languages, and consequently, on the joint
exploitation of linguistic and marketing tools. In recent years, “marketing
1 This paper is the output of the joint work of the Authors. However, in the editing phase sections
1., 5., 5.1, 5.4, 6. were written by Francesco Nacchia, sections 2., 3., 4., 5.2, 5.3, were written by
Vittoria Massaro.
FRANCESCO NACCHIA, VITTORIA MASSARO 170
literature has recognised that the linguistic nature of a brand has become an
important topic of debate in relation to the globalising tendencies of
international markets” (Cotticelli Kurras et al. 2012, p. 14). As Semprini (1995) explains in his work La marque, brands become
mediators between two languages and sometimes between opposite cultures;
therefore, product and brand names must be strategically designed to be
memorable and attractive to customers with different cultural backgrounds.
For example, Unilever’s Heartbrand, the popular ice cream trademark is
alternately “known as Algida (Italy), Kibon (Brazil), Langnese (Germany),
Ola (The Netherlands), Streets (Australia), Wall’s (UK and most parts of
Asia), etc.” (Edelman 2009, p. 145). At the same time, the trans-national
status attained by languages such as English and Spanish and the blurring of
western cultural boundaries enable “advertisers [to] rely on a common set of
cultural models, of behaviours, of aspirations and of aesthetic and
individualistic values” (Tufi, Blackwood 2010, p. 204). Thus far, research has mainly focused on the development and
implementation of frameworks for assessing the linguistic and marketing
potential of a brand and the impact of linguistic devices on consumers’
response. By considering the Chinese marketplace, Zhang and Schmitt (2001)
developed a framework for managing brand name creation in an international
market based on both linguistic and cognitive analysis and emphasised the
importance of contextual factors in the processing of brand names. Also,
starting from the assumption that “cross-border brand naming is becoming a
significant marketing issue”, Usunier and Shaner (2002, p. 211) proposed a
framework evaluating the linguistic value of a global brand based on three
categories – name, visual imagery and textual identity – and the related
linguistic characteristics – spelling, ethnic, meanings, name, visual,
denotative, connotative, and rhetorical value. Finally, Cotticelli Kurras et al.
(2012) explored Lush’s brand naming strategies in order to “assess whether
marketing tools and linguistic brand name characteristics can contribute to
the creation of a consistent brand image” (Cotticelli Kurras et al. 2012, p. 13).
Consumers’ response to brand names was explored by Lowrey et al.
(2003) that specifically looked at the relation between the presence of
particular linguistic features in brand names and memorability. Provided that
“for the most part, the memory advantage for the linguistic categories
occurred only when brands were less familiar” (Lowrey et al. 2003, p. 14),
they found semantic appositeness, paranomasia and initial plosives to affect
memorability positively. Similarly, Miller and Toman (2016) explored the
relation between linguistic devices in slogans and their effectiveness in
eliciting favourable responses from consumers. Among others, alliterations,
initial plosives, word-phrase repletion, puns and well-known phrases turned
out the be the most common.
171
A joint linguistic-marketing analysis of brand and product names. The case of Unilever
Based on these premises, this research uses a case-study approach to
evaluate the impact of marketing and linguistic choices, made by the British
company Unilever, on Italian consumers. In the first phase of the study, key
concepts needed for analysis – brand, brand identity and brand image – are
discussed. Next, the marketing analysis section briefly discusses the
company’s history, foundational values, and provides a review of the
communication tools used by the company to spread its identity and products.
Finally, in the linguistic analysis section, Unilever’s Italian product names are
compared to their English correspondents in terms of their
graphemic/phonetic, morphological/syntactical, lexical and semantic features,
so as to evaluate the impact of linguistic marketing choices on Italian
consumers and determine whether different communication strategies are
used for different product types.
2. Key concepts
Generally, a brand name is the part of a brand that can be articulated and
reproduced (Kotler, Bliemel 2001) working as a “mind marker” (Platen 1997,
p. 162) and identifier for what it offers to customers (Langner 2003).
Originally, a brand had to identify the producer, the owner or the seller
(Blackett 2004) and only with the Second Industrial Revolution it turned into
a tool for conveying useful and appealing information to potential consumers.
Today, a brand name is seen as a designation unit that is difficult to
categorise – being a hybrid between a proper and common noun – and that
can access the common lexicon just like neologisms would do (Altmanova
2013). A brand may come in various forms, actually it can be “a name, term,
design, symbol or any other feature that identifies one seller’s good or service
as distinct from other sellers”.2 It can thus encapsulate a set of values and
principles which characterise the company’s way of thinking and doing, and
that can be defined as the brand identity. The company, in its effort to
promote it and thus its products/services, may perform various activities
aimed at reaching the target of consumers and shaping the company’s brand
image. Keller (1993, p. 3) defined this latter expression as:
[…] perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in
consumer memory. Brand associations are the other informational nodes
linked to the brand node in memory and contain the meaning of the brand for
consumers. The favorability, strength, and uniqueness of brand associations
are the dimensions distinguishing brand knowledge that play an important role
2 American Marketing Association, online dictionary:
https://www.ama.org/resources/pages/dictionary.aspx?dLetter=B (15.1.2017).
in determining the differential response that makes up brand equity, especially
in high involvement settings.
Brand associations, in turn, can be labelled as: attributes – which are all the
brand characteristics related or not to a product, benefits – the advantages
gained, and attitudes – customers’ impressions and feelings (Cotticelli Kurras
et al. 2012). A brand image is not stable and must be maintained and
reinforced over the years (Rossister, Percy 1985) through the exploitation of
different tools. For instance, some companies may even voluntarily choose
not to communicate their identity at all as a precise marketing choice.
3. Company profile
Unilever is a multinational consumer goods company, leader supplier of food,
home and personal care goods that includes about 400 brands and operates in
over 190 countries. It was created by the merger of Lever Brothers – a British
manufacturing company founded by William Lever producing household
soaps from 1884 – and Margarine Unie – a Dutch company producing
margarine set out in 1927 when brothers Jurgens and Van den Bergh joined
their forces – on 1 January 1930. In over eighty years in business, the
company has gone through massive obstacles – above all the Great
Depression and World War I – and has achieved great results in terms of
geographical/production expansion and revenue. Its vision and identity are perfectly summarised by the motto “making
sustainable living commonplace” and three keywords – health, nutrition, and
sustainability – which have become even more central to the company’s
strategy in the last few decades since
We are living in a world where temperatures are rising, water shortages are
more frequent, food supplies are increasingly scarce and the gap between rich
and poor increasing. Populations are growing fast, making basic hygiene and
sanitation even more of a challenge.3
Furthermore, in 2010 the Sustainable Living Plan4 was founded, and with it
the company’s three main goals were stated:
• Improving health and well-being – in particular hand-washing, oral
health, self-esteem and safe drinking water;
• Reducing environmental impact in relation to water, waste,
greenhouse gases and sustainable sourcing;
3 Unilever website, Our strategy for sustainable business. https://www.unilever.com/sustainable-
living/the-sustainable-living-plan/our-strategy/ (5.1.17). 4 Unilever website, Introducing our plan: The Unilever sustainable living plan.
• Enhancing livelihoods in relation to fairness in the workplace,
inclusive business, and opportunities for women.
In brief, Unilever’s identity is shaped upon different ethical and moral values
which apply to a wide spectrum of spheres of everyday life.
4. Communication tools
In this section the various communication tools exploited by the company are
analysed in order to assess how foundational values and products are
transmitted to its global consumer base. Possibly, the most effective of all is its logo, which has also a dedicated
section on the company website where the highlighted keywords are
conveyed, together with others related to the brand itself. It is composed of a
U – representing the first letter of the brand name – that is made up of 26
different symbols and was redesigned in 2004 in order to represent better the
company and its ideals. Having a large number of elements, these were
grouped according to the keywords they represent as follows:
• Sustainability/environmental awareness: the sun, an infinite and
renewable source of energy; a bee, representing nature, but also hard work;
a palm tree and a flower;5 a fish,6 designating natural resources; a chili
pepper, showing their effort towards sustainable agriculture; a packaging,
indicating their use of environmentally friendly packaging; a heart and a
plant, to underline their love and care towards nature; and the virtuous
cycle, meaning the company’s commitment in reducing waste;
• Health: a hand, to indicate sensitivity and care; a bowl and a spoon,
referring to healthy and tasty meals; hair, representing beauty and
confidence; a flower, the beauty of nature; a swirl, indicating flavours and
taste; a fish, a fresh and healthy food; waves and a sweater, to indicate
cleanliness and freshness; and a dove, symbol of confidence and freedom;
• Future: the DNA, indicating life and Unilever’s heritage; the freezing
process, a positive innovation; particles, as the symbol of research and
innovation; and a spark, emblematizing their will to always change and
improve their technologies.
Other elements that were not included in the previous categories are
represented by lips – which indicate two of the fundamentals of Unilever,
communication and transparency – and the heart that, together with the ice
cream, underlines their passion, care, and enjoyment. The logo, with all the
5 The word “flower” appears also in the subsequent category since it represents beauty too. 6 Also “fish” appears in another category – health – because it is a symbol of fresh and healthy
food.
components discussed here is the perfect representation of today’s idea of
brand outlined above. The company’s basic values are also conveyed in one of the latest
videos uploaded to Unilever UK YouTube channel, So long, old world. 7 In
the video, a young girl maintains that a new world is about to begin, “a new
world where confidence is the real beauty, where our basic needs are no
longer needs, and where kids learn to write their own story”.8 While she
speaks, pictures and captions show some of the products of the company
together with the results achieved by them in building self-confidence in
young people, and improving hygiene and children’s education. The video
concludes with the slogan “when you choose Unilever, you help create a
bright future”,9 underlining the idea of sustainability and innovation that are
their main aims. Other initiatives either in cooperation with external bodies or
exploiting internal resources, have been promoted over the years in order to
put into practice the basic founding principles of the company. Global
partnerships are considered “a vital part of [their] business model” for having
“a positive social impact and reduce [their] environmental footprint”.10 More
in detail, these help Unilever pursue four main goals: improving livelihoods;
favouring transformational change; reducing the impact of calamities;
working together for reducing environmental impact. Among others, in 1996
a partnership with the WWF was signed with the purpose of establishing the
Maritime Stewardship Council, a certification programme for regulating
fisheries;11 Further authoritative partners are Global Food Banking Network,
Vaseline®, and UN Women. Finally, aiming at promoting and sharing research, the company
created the Unilever Nutrition Centre, the Unilever Health Institute, and the
Unilever Nutrition and Health Academy. Furthermore, the company also
created the online platform Unilever Bight Future 12 that wishes to raise
awareness about simple actions to be taken for fighting inequalities and
preserving earth for future generations. Everyone can sign up and perform an
act of sunlight, which can be defined as any kind of contribution to the
creation of a healthier, fairer and basically different planet: “Whether it’s
viewing and sharing with friends an inspiring film, boosting the self-esteem
7 Unilever UK, So long, old world. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXkjINSMqBI (3.1.17). 8 Unilever UK, So long, old world. 0:10-0:31. 9 Unilever UK, So long, old world. 0:40. 10 Unilever website, Working in partnerships to improve the lives of millions.
https://www.unilever.com/sustainable-living/transformational-change/global-
partnerships/working-in-partnerships-to-improve-the-lives-of-millions/ (5.1.2017). 11 Unilever website, 1990-1999: Restructuring and consolidating.
of young women, making a donation to a food bank, we think that every
single action can make a real difference”. 13
In conclusion, among the communication tools and strategies exploited
by the company there are an incredibly meaningful logo, the spread of audio-
visual material, and the organisation of initiatives with research and global
conservation bodies that allow the company to appeal to an indefinite and
diversified number of potential consumers.
5. Linguistic analysis
In a globalised world, where products are sold to geographically and
culturally distant populations, linguistic resources are integral to a company’s
commercial strategy. Brand names are designed to stimulate consumers’
imaginations, producing associations that encourage them to purchase a
product or service. Beyond their role as mere identity markers, brand names
must also characterise a product in a way that makes it distinguishable from
other products and appealing to potential customers. Naturally, different
cultures require different approaches, as the effect produced in one country
may not be the same in another. This section explores how the intertwining of marketing and brand-
naming strategies put to use by Unilever works in order to convey brand
identity. To this end, brands and products available through Unilever’s Italian
online shop are compared to their English correspondents on the basis of their
graphemic/phonetic, morphological/syntactical and semantic features. The
research questions are as follows:
• Which linguistic dimensions are most commonly exploited to reach
customers?
• Is there a substantial difference between branding strategies in the UK and
in Italy?
• Do branding strategies change from product type to product type?
Conversely, does the same strategy apply to all products?
The corpus consists of the 132 Italian names of Unilever’s products collected
in January 2017 from the company’s online shop, categorized as either “per
la casa”, “per la persona”, or “per la tavola”. In this study, only brands sold in
both Italy and the UK have been examined,14 namely, Cif, Dove, Knorr,
Coccolino and Axe.15
13 Unilever Bright Future website, Acts of sunlight. https://brightfuture.unilever.co.uk/ (5.1.2017) 14 Though present in both countries, Lipton was not considered since in the UK it trades different
product types (mainly cold tea) which are not comparable with those sold on the Italian online
shop. 15 Here, the Italian brand names are used.
5.1 Graphemic and phonetic analysis
After the analysis of product names according to the terms discussed here,
some cases of interest per linguistic dimension were found. Apart from common single-pack buying options, the brand Coccolino –
specializing in fabric conditioners – offers multi-packs of their product,
reducing both costs and environmental impact. In order to convey the doubly
advantageous nature of this buying option called “€co-pack”, Coccolino has
jointly exploited both marketing and graphemic tools. While pack clearly
refers to the object at hand, in this context, the Italian consumer may
associate eco with either ‘ecosostenibile’ or ‘economico’ depending on
his/her subjectivity. However, as the shortened form eco16 is commonly used
in Italy to denote ‘ecologia’ and ‘ecologico/a’, the consumer should be more
likely to make this association than the economic one. Thus, to impart both
economic and environmental associations on first sight, the currency symbol
€ is used in place of the letter e. In other words, €co plays the role of a
shortened form of two words simultaneously, whose meanings are
unambiguously conveyed through the conscious implementation of a well-
thought-out branding strategy. Furthermore, in this context it may also be
treated as a specialised term which serves the purpose of a marketing
campaign. “€co-pack” is a particularly effective example of a successful
combination of marketing and linguistic tools in product promotion,
implementing a widely-used technique to create brand names: derivation
(Altmanova 2013). Uses of graphemic devices are also found in product
names from two Dove product lines. The “in DermaSpa Goodness3” hints at
the three skin benefits offered by the products which are well explained in the
related slogan in both languages: “Luminous. Even. Velvety soft. Triply
glorious skin.”17 in English; and “Luminosa, uniforme e vellutata. Una pelle
tre volte bellissima.”18 in Italian. This should have consumers think they are
buying a comprehensive product that enables them to fulfil three different
needs at once, when three different average products would be otherwise
required. Then, the sign + featured in the product name “Dove Men+Care”
can be intended in its authentic meaning in the field of mathematics as
denoting quantitative or numeric addition. The word care may have been
assumed as reference to a distinguishing feature of a men-dedicated product
line with a focus on that area if compared to a basic one conceivably named
16 Apart from these, Treccani suggests for the prefix “eco” two possible meanings: “casa” and
“ambiente dove si vive”. Treccani, Eco. http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/eco_(La-
grammatica-italiana)/ (4.1.2017). 17 Dove UK Website, DermaSpa Goodness3, http://www.dove.com/uk/collections/dermaspa.html
(12. 3. 2017). 18 Dove Italian Website, DermaSpa Goodness3,
http://www.dove.com/it/collections/dermaspa/goodness3.html (12. 3. 2017).
“Dove Men” which, however, does not exist. Therefore, the sign + seems to
emphasize the belonging of a product targeting men to the category of beauty
and care products, which is traditionally destined to women. Conversely, the
sign + in “DermaSpa Uplifted+” possibly refers to a qualitative superiority or
an upgrade of the product line in comparison to others of the same category
by hinting at an “advantage or a good feature.”19 In fact, as an excerpt from
the slogan reads, the product “gently moisturises your skin” – thus fulfilling
its basic function – “while improving elasticity and firmness”20 – plus an
extra one. The meaning of + is made even clearer in the Italian version of the
slogan that reads “per una maggiore compattezza ed elasticità” 21 where
maggiore verbally expresses the meaning of +. At the same time, the product
label also reports “with Cell Moisturisers®”, hydrating substances to which
the improved results synthesized in the sign + are ascribable.
As for the phonetic dimension, the case of interest is represented by the
product “Blue Skies” sold by Comfort in the country of origin. The choice of
name is unlikely to be an accident, given the popularity of the song with the
same title in the UK. “Blue Skies” is in fact a jazz song composed in 1926 by
Irving Berlin as a last-minute addition to the musical “Betsy” and became one
of the first songs to be used in a talkie. Additionally, many famous musicians
– among them Benny Goodman in 1946 – released adaptions of the song,
while a musical comedy film featuring two of the era’s most popular stars –
Bing Crosby and Fred Astaire – was released in 1946 under the same title,
giving the song new vitality. These associations, and the springy imagery
triggered by the lyrics and title, convey notions of freshness and brightness
traditionally associated with cleaning supplies. In Italy, on the other hand,
neither the song nor its title are part of the cultural lexicon. However, to a
certain extent, the same effect is reproduced through a similar branding
strategy, using keywords of a popular Italian song entitled “Primavera” by
Marina Rei, whose chorus includes the words “[…] respiriamo l’aria e
viviamo aspettando primavera […]”. The product name “Aria di Primavera”
may resonate in the consumer’s mind as a hallmark of a familiar Italian music
tradition, one which conveys concepts similar to the original English product
name.
3. 2017). 20 Dove UK Website, DermaSpa Uplifted+,
http://www.dove.com/uk/collections/dermaspa/uplifted.html (12. 3. 2017). 21 Dove Italian Website, DermaSpa Uplifted+,
http://www.dove.com/it/collections/dermaspa/uplifted.html (12. 3. 2017).
5.2 Morphological and syntactical analysis
The morphological analysis moved its first steps with an investigation on the
company name Unilever that, as already mentioned above, is a portmanteau
composed of Uni-, deriving from Margarine Unie, and -Lever, from Lever
Brothers. Here, two concurrent morphological processes take place. First of
all, it is a case of blending – that is the creation of a new single word out of
two pre-existing ones following rules which are different from those used in
compounding (Ronneberger-Sibold 2006). Specifically, Unilever represents a
case of “semi-complete blend without overlapping elements” (Zilg 2012, p.
118) made up of a full constituent – Lever – and some fragments of another
constituent – Unie. Despite this, the shortened form used for the latter should
not jeopardize its recognisability among consumers. Furthermore, a re-
categorisation of the surname Lever – a patronymic that is transformed into a
brand name (Altmanova 2013) – is observed. Another case of re-
categorisation worth mentioning is the brand name Knorr – resulting from the
patronymic of the owner Carl Heinrich Knorr.22 Among product names, not
many were relevant in this analysis; only Knorr’s seasoning Aromat was
under investigation. In this case – being Knorr a German brand – it was
assumed that the term aromat derives from the German aromatish. This term
is similar to the Italian aromatico and the English aromatic, therefore a
research on its root was made. It resulted to be a derivation from late Latin
aromaticus, from Greek ρωματικς (armatikos). Another example is
Dove’s line “DermaSpa Goodness3”, where the term DermaSpa – a
compound of the words Derma and Spa – becomes in Italian Derma Spa, an
open compound where the two words are kept separated. For what concerns the syntactical analysis, Dove is definitely a case in
point, since its products show a highly frequent construction adjective + noun:
gentle exfoliating; fresh touch; fresh care; invisible dry; maximum protection;
youthful vitality; cool fresh; clean comfort; sensitive care; extra fresh. The
same construction is also found in Coccolino products with easy clean and
ultra protection. Moreover, the analysis showed a wide preference for short
descriptions of the characteristics of the merchandise, rather than a proper
name. Examples of this tendency are all Cif products – as easy clean
pavimenti orchidea selvatica –, but also Coccolino ones – like ammorbidente
concentrato delicato e soffice –, most of Dove’s ones – for instance, gentle
exfoliating beauty cream bar –, and some Knorr ones – I momenti gourmet
vellutata di funghi con porcini profumata al tartufo.
22 Knorr website, Brand history, http://www.knorr.com/article/detail/245640/brand-history
5.3 Lexical analysis
In this section choices of language and lexicon are discussed. To this purpose,
Botton and Cegarra’s branding strategies in international business were taken
into account in the analysis of the terms. According to them, there are four
different branding strategies: standardisation – when the name is kept
unvaried in all the countries where it is sold –, transposition or translation –
when the term is translated into the target language –, adaptation – with a
concept expressed in different ways according to the culture –, and
differentiation – as it can be seen in the previous example of Unilever’s
Heartbrand, where the brand changes its name in relation to the market
(Botton, Cegarra 1996). As for the choice of the language for Italian brand names, Cotticelli
Kurras (2007) found there has been a greater openness to foreign languages
after the 1980s. Naturally, English has had a more widespread acceptance
compared to other languages possibly for the high socio-economic values
attached to it. Moreover, it is worth mentioning the diffusion of international
branding during the last decades, that has shown a tendency towards the
standardization of brand names and products, that “reduces advertising and
inventory costs and provides convenient identification for people travelling
internationally” (Onkvisit, Shaw 1989, in Usunier, Shaner 2002, p. 212). An
example of this are the corporate brand Unilever and three product brands of
the five included in our corpus – Cif, Dove, and Knorr – that keep their
names unvaried in the British and Italian markets.
On the other hand, even if this linguistic standardization comes with
several advantages, it must be acknowledged that this heavy reliance on
English terms may present some drawbacks stemming from the non-native
speakers’ level of proficiency and the different connotations words may have
in a different culture as well:
Appearances can be deceiving: the same English word may convey different
meanings to native speakers and non-native speakers. When used as brand
names, some English words may not produce the results that marketers desire
because what they mean to speakers of other languages is different, often
narrower and more idiosyncratic. (Wong, Leben 2012)
In the case at issue here, this tendency is perfectly respected though it is
worth mentioning that most of the times the English words chosen should be
understandable even by non-native speakers. Some examples are: Cif Easy
Clean pavimenti orchidea selvatica, the line Coccolino creations, Axe
antiperspirants, that are all defined as ‘deodorants’ in the Italian version, and
most of Dove products – as Talc Soft deodorante spray warm talc perfume.
But the analysis showed also the presence of terms deriving from other
languages in our corpus. The first one, gourmet, derives from French and was
found in Knorr’s line “I momenti gourmet”. Here it is used to represent a line
of the brand that includes particular and classy dishes, to satisfy Italians’
growing interest in fine cooking.23 Another term is the German noodle,24 used
by the same brand to define this particular kind of pasta in “Asia noodle
orientali”. In both cases the terms have become part of the Italian vocabulary,
and can be therefore understood by most people, yet these confer on the
products an exotic feeling that is highly fashionable. For what concerns brand names, only two among the ones composing
the corpus showed a variation. As a matter of fact, the British fabric
conditioner producer Comfort becomes Coccolino in Italy; this – rather than a
translation – can be defined as an adaptation, since it keeps the idea of
softness and fluffiness that are looked for when using a similar product. Also
the logo is similar, but the Italian Coccolino has got a soft and fluffy teddy
bear as its mascot. The other brand that changes its name is the French
antiperspirants producer Axe, that leaves its name unvaried in the Italian
market, but has become Lynx in the UK and in Australia. In the corpus there were also products which kept their names unvaried
in both the Italian and British markets; one of these is Lynx’s Africa
deodorant body spray – where the difference is in the brand name, being Axe
in Italy.
5.4 Semantic analysis
Table 1 reports the most common semantic areas to emerge from the analysis
of the corpus.
The most interesting cases emerging from the semantic analysis are
provided by Dove’s and Knorr’s product names.
23 The new trends in the last decades in Italy have shown a wide appreciation of tasty and elaborate
food, developing a “gourmet” taste. In fact, this term can be found in Italian dictionaries – as it
can be seen on Treccani’s online dictionary. Treccani, Gourmet,
http://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/gourmet/ (17.1.2017). 24 Noodles are a typical Asian food, but the term has a German origin, as it can be seen in the
definition given in the Oxford Dictionary, online version. Oxford Dictionary, Noodle,
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/noodle (17.1.2017).
Brand Semantic Area Terms
Mythology Apollo Cif Botany Orchidea Selvatica, Limone
Chemistry Bicarbonato, Acciaio, Ammoniaca Cleaning Sgrassatore, Gel Clean House Pavimenti, Vetri, Superfici Safety Protection
Coccolino Arts Creations Botany Gelsomino, Narciso, Sandalo, Caprifoglio,
Campanula Selvatica, Bergamotto, Orchidea
Cleaning Ammorbidente Comfort Delicato, Soffice Feelings Sensazione Freshness Aria Primavera
Dove Assessment Extra, Maximum Body/Feelings Fresh, Touch Fresh, Cool, Sensitive,
Dry, Clean, Exfoliating,
Insaporitore, Zuppa, Purè, Minestre
Funghi, Tartufo, Couscous, Gamberetti, Pepe,
Patate, Finferli, Cipolline, Zucchine, Porri,
Prezzemolo, Aglio, Cipolla, Sedano, Noodle,
Cereali, Pasta, Lenticchie, Brodo, Orzo, Farro,
Legumi, Ceci, Manzo, Pesce, Sale, Fagioli,
Pollo
Orientali
Magic Magia Mathematics Dadi, Cubi, Anellini Nature Nuvole, Primavera Taste Sapori, Aromi Profumata Tradition Nonna Tradizionale, Arlecchino25
Table 1 Semantic Areas.
25 Even if the term refers to a traditional Venetian harlequin mask, here it is used as an adjective to
describe the variety of colours in a soup, recalling the character’s chequered costume.
As for the former, linguistic choices tend to privilege spheres which are
traditionally linked to the feminine world. For example, perfumes and
cosmetics imparting ideals of beauty and youth that do not fade with the
passing of time have been popular with female customers; through these
product names “[…] certain values are expressed that go far beyond the
product, and that appeal to feelings and emotions, such as for example,
happiness, prestige, beauty, success, etc.” (Fernández 2012, p. 76). Men seem
to perceive and relate to these ideals differently; however, as with women and
perfumes, men, “need to be guided and reassured on brand choice [and are]
as likely as women to make their purchase decision on the basis of image and
advertising” (Amy-Chinn 2001, p. 169). This is most likely the reason behind
Dove’s creation of a male line of products – “Dove Men+Care” – which can
more accurately address men’s notions of beauty. Although these values are
conveyed by product names in both countries, there are some shifts in focus
in the inter-cultural transfer. One case is Dove’s Original beauty cream bar,
that in Italian remains the same except for the removal of the word original.
This term imparts ideas of tradition, ancient recipes, and authenticity that are
lost in Italian. Another difference is the shift of focus between the two
languages when describing the same product: in English, the name Go fresh
beauty – cream hand wash is used, while in Italian, the name is Go fresh –
fresh touch detergente cremoso di bellezza profumo di tè verde e cetriolo.
Although the product is the same, it is depicted as a cream hand wash in
English, and as a detergente cremoso – an all-purposes soap – in Italian.
Moreover, on the Italian version of the brand website, this soap is described
as suitable for face cleansing and sensitive skin.26 Also, the definition di
bellezza (of beauty) – absent from the English name – is interesting, recalling
the idea of beauty and self-confidence expressed by Dove. On the other hand, the Italian Knorr’s product names create
associations with well-established Italian imagery of cooking, intended to
convey universal values such as ‘genuineness’ and ‘family’. For example, the
“I segreti della nonna” displays two words intended to trigger culinary
associations: segreti hints at the popular culinary theme of secret ingredients
which make a dish special and inimitable, while, even more powerfully, the
figure of the grandmother (nonna) invokes nostalgia for the consumer’s
childhood or past. The product becomes associated with home-made food
prepared with natural ingredients by a beloved person, potentially arousing
subjective memories which play key roles in the consumer’s buying choice.
Instead, correspondent English product names do not seem to rely on this
imagery as in the case of the “Cuore di brodo” in which the idea of ‘heart’ is
26 Unilever online shop, Dove sapone liquid go fresh fresh touch.
https://www.unilevershop.it/dove-sapone-liquido-go-fresh-fresh-touch-250ml.html (8.1.17).
https://www.unilevershop.it/dove-sapone-liquido-go-fresh-fresh-touch-250ml.html
183
added in the Italian version; indeed, in English it is rendered simply as pot,
recalling the idea of its format. Another case in point is the use of the expression gluten free in Knorr’s
English risotto kits. This demonstrates the brand’s attention towards food
allergies, not present in the Italian version of the product – even though
risotto is usually a naturally gluten free food. Finally, the use of the term
organic in Knorr’s “Organic chicken stock powder” is of some relevance to
this discussion. The Italian equivalent does not use organic chicken, yet its
product has no preservatives, no hydrogenated fats and is produced in Italy;
therefore, although both the Italian and English products demonstrate an
interest in the choice of raw materials, the advertising focus is different.
6. Conclusions
The present research focused on the intertwining of marketing and linguistic
tools in the international branding dynamics of Unilever, a multinational,
consumer-goods company. In the first part, the company’s founding values
and communication tools have been introduced. Next, the Italian brand and
product names have been analysed based on six different linguistic
dimensions, and compared to their English correspondents in order to
determine which strategies i) are most often used for different product-types
to appeal the Italian consumer, and ii) change in the inter-cultural transfer. In general, the main Italian branding trend demonstrates heavy reliance
on the semantic dimension and an openness to the English language,
exemplified by the huge presence of English terms in the Italian names
examined. This linguistic submissiveness, however, does not result into a
cultural one for at least two reasons. First, Italian brands are still reluctant to
rely on innovative/alternative eating trends for promoting their products.
Indeed, while two products sold in the UK read organic and gluten free on
their package, the same products do not in Italy. Considering that the edible
content of the package is the same in both countries, this should be regarded
as a conscious marketing choice that demonstrates a greater attention to ‘non-
conventional’ eating habits in the UK than in Italy. Secondly, Italian
consumers are more emotionally and traditionally connected to the imagery
of food and cooking as part of the family and home. Knorr’s products
destined for the Italian market have names containing emotionally-suggestive
words, a trend which is not found in English products. The only product
category where the Italian culture is overwhelmed by the English one is that
of beauty and cosmetics. Dove product names are almost all in the source
language, with the sole exceptions of words denoting the product type
(“detergente”, “bagnoschiuma”, etc.). This evidence shows how
communication may vary from product category to product category
according to the cultural background of the target consumers. In the specific
case of Italy, culinary traditions are strong enough to resist standardisation to
the English-dominant culture, whereas this does not happen with respect to
the beauty category.
Bionotes: Francesco Nacchia is a Ph.D. Candidate in “Eurolanguages and Specialized
Terminology” with a grant from the University of Naples “Parthenope” where he
researches on agribusiness terminology with a specific focus on promotional discourse,
wine tasting, and innovative eating practices. His major research interests also include
Literary Translation, Song/Music Translation and Corpus Linguistics.
Vittoria Massaro is a Ph.D. Candidate in “Eurolanguages and Specialized Terminology”
with a grant at the University of Naples “Parthenope”. She received her Master of Arts in
European and American languages and literature at the University of Naples “L’Orientale”.
Beginning her path with the analysis of neurolegal terminology and translation, her
research is now focused on maritime English and shipping terminology.
Authors’ addresses: [email protected]; [email protected]
185
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