a paradox of scale one species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to...

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A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution per year. Which risk do we count?

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Page 1: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

A paradox of scale

One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution per year.

Which risk do we count?

Page 2: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Two problems only

• decline of biodiversity

• bad human health

Page 3: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Biodiversity according to the CBS Biobase

BIOBASE CBS

Duuren (1997) }.

Name

arthropoda 1130000 21000 2 a

moulds and fungi 100000 3500 4 p

yellow algae 9200 2200 24 p

thread w orms or elvers 12500 1700 14 a

green seaw eeds 7000 1600 23 p

the angiosperms 250000 1400 1 p

lichens 20000 633 3 p

mosses 23000 533 2 p

chordata 52000 470 1 a

ringw orms 8000 350 4 a

flatw orms 14000 330 2 a

w heel animals 1800 300 17 a

molluscs 53000 300 1 a

eye seaw eeds 500 250 50 p

bacteria 1500 150 10 p

blue algae cyanobacteria 1500 150 10 p

coelenterata 8000 140 2 a

virus 1200 120 10 p

red seaw eeds 3500 78 2 p

1696700 35204

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Page 4: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Naturalis

Page 5: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Natural history at Naturalis

Page 6: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Division of the Plant Kingdom

Page 8: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Types of ecology

naming abiotics naming biotics University

environmental science environment society

autecology habitat population Wageningen

synecology biotope life community Nijmegen/Wageningen

cybernetic ecology abiotic variation biotic variation Delft

system dynamics ecology ecotope ecological group Leiden

chaos ecology opportunities individual strategies

decreasing human centred approach

Page 9: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Environmental science: society and environment

Environment according to Udo de Haes Environment in technical sense

Page 10: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Types of ecology

naming abiotics naming biotics University

environmental science environment society

autecology habitat population Wageningen

synecology biotope life community Nijmegen/Wageningen

cybernetic ecology abiotic variation biotic variation Delft

system dynamics ecology ecotope ecological group Leiden

chaos ecology opportunities individual strategies

decreasing human centred approach

Page 11: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Autecology:population and habitat

Gadwall duck(krakeend)

04 Garland Weed Class (eendekroosklasse)

Page 12: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Types of ecology

naming abiotics naming biotics University

environmental science environment society

autecology habitat population Wageningen

synecology biotope life community Nijmegen/Wageningen

cybernetic ecology abiotic variation biotic variation Delft

system dynamics ecology ecotope ecological group Leiden

chaos ecology opportunities individual strategies

decreasing human centred approach

Page 13: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Synecology:life community and biotope

Klasse

Orde

Verbond

Associatie

Subassociatie

Page 14: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

12 Weegbree-klasse

Alterra

CONCEPT Alterra

Page 15: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

42 Voedselarme eiken-beukenbossen-klasse

Page 16: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Types of ecology

naming abiotics naming biotics University

environmental science environment society

autecology habitat population Wageningen

synecology biotope life community Nijmegen/Wageningen

cybernetic ecology abiotic variation biotic variation Delft

system dynamics ecology ecotope ecological group Leiden

chaos ecology opportunities individual strategies

decreasing human centred approach

Page 17: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Cybernetic variation

Page 18: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Gradients (Van Leeuwen)

Gradient (limes divergens) Disturbance (limes convergens)

alkaline, nutricious >> acid, malnutriciousmineral >> organic, humus, peat

wet >> dry

acid, malnutricious >> alkaline, nutriciousorganic, humus, peat >> mineral

dry >> wet

Gradient (limes divergens)

Humification, weak dynamics, rich pattern, many

Disturbance (limes convergens)

Mineralisation, strong dynamics, poor pattern, little ordinary

Page 19: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Gradient map

Page 20: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Types of ecology

naming abiotics naming biotics University

environmental science environment society

autecology habitat population Wageningen

synecology biotope life community Nijmegen/Wageningen

cybernetic ecology abiotic variation biotic variation Delft

system dynamics ecology ecotope ecological group Leiden

chaos ecology opportunities individual strategies

decreasing human centred approach

Page 21: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

System dynamicsOdum(1971)

PIONEER CLIMAXEnergy high lowNet production linear webFood chainsCommunity structure small largeTotal amount of organic material extrabiotic interbioticInorganic nutrients low highSpecies diversity low highSpatial diversityLife characteristics wideNiche specialisation small narrowSizes of organisms short, simple largeLife cycles long, complexNutrient cycles openMineral cycles fast closedNutrient exchanges unimportant slowReuse substantialSelection pressure fast controlledGrowth strategy quantity qualityProductionHomeostasis undeveloped developedSymbiosis small substantialNutrient conservation high lowCoicidence little muchInformation

Ecological group and biotope

Page 22: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Local ecotopes, ecological groups

Page 23: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Types of ecology

naming abiotics naming biotics University

environmental science environment society

autecology habitat population Wageningen

synecology biotope life community Nijmegen/Wageningen

cybernetic ecology abiotic variation biotic variation Delft

system dynamics ecology ecotope ecological group Leiden

chaos ecology opportunities individual strategies

decreasing human centred approach

Page 24: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Symbiosis

Tyria jacobaeae and common ragwort

Page 25: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Breeding and host plant

water dock (waterzuring) V18,V19

large copper butterfy (grote vuurvlinder)

loosestrife (kattestaart) R27,R28, H27,H28,V17

Page 26: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Survival strategies

Vogelmuur P48,P68("ruderal")

Wilgenroosje R47,R67, H47,H62

("competitor")

Grote sleutelbloem G43,G47kr,H43,H47 ("stress-tolerator")

Page 27: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Types of ecology

naming abiotics naming biotics University

environmental science environment society

autecology habitat population Wageningen

synecology biotope life community Nijmegen/Wageningen

cybernetic ecology abiotic variation biotic variation Delft

system dynamics ecology ecotope ecological group Leiden

chaos ecology opportunities individual strategies

decreasing human centred approach

Page 28: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Ecological unitsNominally abiotic frame nominally biotic components

10000 earth 3000 biomen1000 continent 300 areas of vegetation100 geomorphological unit 30 flora-counties10 formations 3 landscape

1000 hydrological unit, biotope 300 communities100 soil complex, ecotope 30 ecological groups10 soil unit 3 symbiosis and competition

1000 soil structure and ~profile 300 individual survival strategies100 coarse gravel 3010 gravel 31 coarse sand 0,21-2 0.3

100 fine sand 50-210 30 multi-celled organisms10 silt 2-50 3 single-celled organisms1 clay parts < 2 0.3 bacteria

0,1 molecule 0.30 virus

k ilometres radius  

metres

millimetres

micro metres ( )  

Page 29: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Ecological elaboration

• R=300m Communities in biotopes

• R=30m Ecological groups in ecotopes

• R=3m Symbiosis and competition

• R=30cm Individual survival strategies

Page 30: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Legend units

• Global

• Continental

• National

• Regional

Page 31: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Gobal and continental types

Page 32: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

R=1000km: Continental areas of vegetation

Page 33: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

R=100km: National counties of flora

Page 34: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Dunes and rivers

Dispersion of marram (helm) Dispersion of greater burdock (grote klis)

Page 35: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Haf and Pleistocene

Dispersion of meadow barley (veldgerst)

Dispersion of wavy hair-grass (bochtige smele)

Page 36: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Other national typologies

Page 37: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

R=10km: Formations

Page 38: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Northern coast formation

Page 39: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Mid-West coast formation

Page 40: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Boulder clay formation

Page 41: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

South Limburg

Page 42: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Verlanding

Page 43: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Peat forestsForest Natural ReclamatedBetulon Pubescentis

Rarefied birch forests on somwhat dehydrated peat grounds (very rare ).

Digged out or drained and manured meadows sometimes planted as Alnion incanae.

Sphagno-Alnion.

Birch (sometimes alder) forests with shrubs of alder buckthorn, willows, bog myrthle on acid peat grounds (rare).

Bluegrass lands, later usually drained and manured, sometimes planted as Alnion incanae.

Irido-Alnion. Alder or willow (mostly coppice wood) in peat areas with very hing, stagnating not too poor ground water , usually with rarified shrubs .

Moisty grass land, digged out or drained and manured meadows mostly planted as Alnion incanae.Leeuw en and Kraft (1959)

Page 44: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Holocene forestsForest Natural Reclamated

Salicion Willow and poplar forests, often found on nutricious flooded areas like river forelands . As coppice wood and wickers, willows are planted on ‘grienden’. Temporarily you will find these woods on other nutricious grounds as pioneer vegetation.

Grass land on river forelands and ‘grienden’.

Alnion incanae

Alder and ash forests with densely shrubs on clay or sandy nutricious grounds with high and often somewhat changing ground water level or in the neighbourhood of streaming water . These forests often contain some oaks and poplars as well .

Moisty grass land (meadows) sometimes with hedges (Rubion, alder), pollard willows or poplars.

Ulmion Oak, ash (somtimes elm or maple) forests on moisty, nutricious sandy and not too heavy clay grounds with ground water level in reach of roots  .

Sambuco-Berberidion

Hedges and thickets on most limy grounds of Ulmion .

Holocene

Settlements, horticulture, orchards, fields, grass land, elm lanes, country estates and dune woods.

Page 45: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Pleistocene forestsForest Natural ReclamatedRubion Hedges and thickets (hawthorn, sloe,

roses, blackberries) on nutricious, but not expicitly limy grounds  .

Carpinion Oak, ash (sometimes maple or beech) forests on nutricious, not too wet loam grounds  . In coppice wood thickets you wil find hazel and hornbeam.

Carpino-Berberidion

Hedges and thickets on most limy grounds of Carpinion .

Vaccinio-Quercion

Oak (sometimes birch or beech) forests or coppice wood on on acid extremely poor, sandy (sometimes loamy) grounds  .

Prehistoric (neolithic) settlements, heath often later planted with coniferous wood (drifting sand) or crops (if dry) or meadows (if wet).

Violeto-Quercion

Oak (seldom birch or beech) forests or coppice wood on acid but not

Fields

Settlements, orchards and fields on rather dry grounds; grass land on more moisty or very limy grounds.

Page 46: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Landscape changes since the last ice age

Page 47: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

The influence of climatic changes on vegetation

Page 48: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

The distribution of two world-wide rare species

29AA02: The association between Golden Dock and the

Marsh Fleawort

Marsh Fleawort moerasandijvie

distribution

Black-tailed Godwitgrutto distribution

European presence

Page 49: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Kinds of responsibility

B Very threatened BA Very threatened, important internationally BD Very threatened, vulnerable C Threatened CA Threatened, important internationally D Vulnerable DA Vulnerable, important internationally

Page 50: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Dutch responsibilityPercentage of theEuropean bird population

carnivore

V carnivore Smew 2 1 2 3

V Zebra mussel Scaup 5 44

V fish White-tailed Eagle or Sea Eagle n

V plants Barnacle Goose 2

V plants White-fronted Goose 1

V plants Whopper Sw an 1

M plants Greylag Goose 41 +

M plants Gadw all (duck) 1 3 4 +

M plants Pintail (duck) 7

M plants Wigeon (duck) 3 1 1 +

M plants Pochard (duck) 6 2 1 +

M plants Teal (duck) 13 + f ish Grebe 4 + Zebra Mussel Tufted (duck) 5 4 2 3 1 2 + plants Mute Sw an 1 + plants Coot 1 +

N plants Shoveler (duck) 1 + f ish Caspian Tern n n n f ish Black Tern n 64 1

V carnivore Hen-harrier (breeding) n +

N carnivore Spoonbill (not breeding) 7 1 + carnivore Spoonbill (breeding) 16 2

N fish Bittern (breeding) n insects Spotted Crake n

N carnivore Black-tailed Godw it 1 +

N carnivore Ruff n +

N carnivore Avocet 6 + insects Bluethroat n insects Black-w inged Stilt/b n f ish Common Tern n + f ish Cormorant (breeding) 15 7 f ish Cormorant (not breeding) 8 3 1 +

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V w inter birds Wintervogels

M w hole year, especially in the w inter

w hole year

V Goosander

IJS

SE

LM

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Table 1 Percentage of the international bird population Tempel and Osieck (1994) 4)

Symbol is similar to presence graph Jan.-Dec.

brushw ood

reed

grass

4

Water

forest

Page 51: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Habitat responsibility

NEST FOOD

mainly insects

Black Tern BA open w ater open w ater +Little Grebe C open w ater open w ater +Garganey duck C open w ater open w ater

Bittern BD reed vegetation reed vegetation

Sedge Warbler C reed vegetation reed vegetation +Savi’s Warbler C reed vegetation reed vegetation +Spotted Crake D reed vegetation reed vegetation +Bearded Tit DA reed vegetation reed vegetation +Spoonbill DA reed vegetation reed vegetation +Great Reed Warbler BD reed vegetation brushw ood +Ruff B brushw ood grassland +Common Tern C sandy, open brushw ood, pioneer open w ater

Avocet DA sandy, open brushw ood, pioneer open w ater +Kentish Plover BD sandy, open brushw ood, pioneer sandy, open brushw ood, pioneer

Ringed Plover D sandy, open brushw ood, pioneer sandy, open brushw ood, pioneer +Redshank C grasland grasland +Black-tailed Godw it CA grasland grasland +

Page 52: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Comparing and evaluating

Page 53: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

The EHS for the Netherlands

The EHS worked out on Internet for the province of South Holland and the Gelderse poort

Page 54: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Nature target groupsMain group 1 Main group 2 Main group 3 Main group 41)

Name almost-naturally supervised-naturally half-naturally multifunctional

Radius 3km >1km 300m 100mFuture picture global global fixed fixed

spacial scale Landscape > thousands of ha.

Landscape > 500 ha.

ecotope/mosaic to approx. 100 ha.

ecotope mostly a few ha.

· location mostly process-determined

process and pattern-determined

process-, pattern- and species-determined

pattern- and species-determined

· processes not directed directed integrally directed in detail directed in detail· patterns not established not established established,

perhaps a cyclical succession

established

directing variables non process-focused on landscape level

process- and pattern-focused up to ecotope level

process- and especially pattern-focused up to ecotope level

STRATEGY

Page 55: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Lay-out, conservancy, developmentMain group 1 Main group 2 Main group 3 Main group 41)

Name almost-naturally supervised-naturally half-naturally multifunctional

nature–technical only in the beginning phase

only in the beginning phase

perhaps repeated perhaps repeated

· environmentally specialistic only in the beginning phase

only in the beginning phase

permanent, if necessary

non

Internal nature conservancy non non partly necessary necessary compartmentalising non non possibly in mosaic possible· shared use (very) extensive (very) extensive (fairly) extensive characteristic

succession-stage mostly diverse stages

diverse stages a stage/mosaic a stage

extent of development on average long on average long rather short short predictability on average, limited

in the long runon average, rather limited in the long term

quite large large

CONSERVANCY

DEVELOPMENT

LAY-OUT

Page 56: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Nature-target types per physical–geographical region

1 2 3 43km >1km 300m 100m

hl Hilly land 1 2 12 2 17hz Higher sandy soils 2 3 19 2 26ri Fluvial area 0 2 12 2 16lv Laagveen area 1 3 10 2 16zk Marine clay area 0 3 13 2 18du Dunes 1 1 16 2 20az Estuaries 0 3 8 1 12gg Tidal zone 2 2 2 0 6nz North Sea 1 0 0 0 1

Total 11 20 392 113 132

Physical-geographical region

Main group totalLandscape scale ecotope level

Page 57: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Nature-targets higher sandy soils

Page 58: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Elaborated targets 300 m.

Page 59: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Higher sandy formations

Page 60: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Wall and tread plants urban areas

procumbent pearlwortliggend vetmuur P40mu

yellow corydalisgele helmbloem P40mu

ivy-leaved toadflaxmuurleeuwebek P40mu

plantainweegbree P48tr

shepherd's-purseherderstasje P48tr

knotgrassvarkensgras P48tr

annual meadow-grassstraatgras P48tr

pineapple weedschijfkamille P48tr

Page 61: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Town ecology hypotheses

Effective variation for botanical biodiversity in a radius of approx.

altitude, ground 30kmsoil, watermanagement 10kmseepage, drainage, water level, urban opening up 3km

urban lay-out 1kmparcelling (distribution of greenery) 300mpavement, tread, pet manuring, minerals 100maltitude differences, mow management, disturbance 30msunlighting 10m

The next levels are still hidden from usual botanical observation per square km.

Page 62: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

Vegetation biodiversity

Page 63: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

R=3km

Page 64: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

R=1km

180 species 200 species 330 species

Page 65: A paradox of scale One species, perhaps counting 80% ‘unhealthy’ specimens, is healthy enough to oust 1000 other species on 1 new species by evolution

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

%5x5km squares in The Netherlands%1x1km urban squares in the municipality of Zoetermeer

National rareness of 500 urban plant species in Zoetermeer