a school-wide component to address barriers to … a school... · a school-wide component to...

A SCHOOL-WIDE COMPONENT TO ADDRESSBARRIERS TO LEARNING

Howard S AdelmanUniversity of California Los A ngeles California USA

Linda TaylorLos Angeles Unied School District

University of California Los A ngeles California USA

Mary View SchniederLos Angeles Unied School District Los Angeles California USA

In the rst article we focused on classroom reforms Here we move to a school-wide perspective to explore the mulitfaceted interventions schools must evolve ifthey are to make signicant headway in addressing barriers to learning Spe-cically we review how schools currently address barriers to learning discussdeciencies in current approaches and outline work designed to provide a newconceptual and programmatic framework for policy and practice emphasizingschool-wide approaches and weaving together school-community resources

As reforms reshape and restructure school environments a criticalmatter is dening what the entire school must do to enable all stu-dents to learn and all teachers to teach e ectively This means ensur-ing school reforms are not only designed for those students who aremotivationally ready and able to prot from lsquolsquohigh standardsrsquorsquo curric-ulum and instruction but they can also address the needs of thoseencountering external and internal barriers that interfere with theirbenetting from improved instruction (see Figure 1) Such barriersinclude all those factors that make it difficult for teachers to teache ectively School-wide approaches to address barriers are especiallyimportant where large numbers of students are a ected and at any

This article was prepared in conjunction with work done by the Center for MentalHealth in Schools at UCLA which is partially supported by funds from the USDepartment of Health and Human Services Public Health Services Health Resourcesand Services Administration Bureau of Maternal and Child Health Office of Adole-scent Health

Address correspondence to Howard Adelman Department of Psychology UCLABox 95163 Los Angeles CA 90095-1563 USA

Reading amp Writing Quarterly 15 277ndash302 1999Copyright 1999 Taylor amp FrancisOacute

1057-356999 $1200 1 00 277

278 H S A delman et al

FIGURE 1 Barriers to learning

school that is not yet paying adequate attention to considerationsrelated to equity and diversity

Although some youngsters have disabilities it is important toremember how few start out with internal problems that interferewith learning to read and write Even those who do have these prob-lems usually have assetsstrengthsprotective factors that can

School-wide Component 279

counter decits and contribute to success The majority of learningbehavior and emotional problems seen in schools stem from situ-ations where external barriers are not addressed and learner di er-ences that require some degree of personalization by instructionalsystems are not accounted for The problems are exacerbated asyoungsters internalize the frustrations of confronting barriers todevelopment and learning and the debilitating e ects of performingpoorly at school (Adelman amp Taylor 1993 Allensworth WycheLawson amp Nicholson 1997 Carnegie Council on Adolescent Devel-opmentrsquos Task Force on Education of Young Adolescents 1989Comer 1988 Dryfoos 1990 1998 Sarason 1996 Schorr 1997)

The litany of barriers is all too familiar to anyone who lives orworks in communities where families struggle with low income Insuch neighborhoods school and community resources often are insuf-cient for providing the type of basic opportunities (never mindenrichment activities) found in higher income communities Further-more the resources are inadequate for dealing with such threats towell-being and learning as gangs violence and drugs In many ofthese settings inadequate attention to language and cultural con-siderations and to high rates of student mobility creates additionalbarriers not only to student learning but to e orts to involve familiesin youngstersrsquo schooling as well

How many are a ected Estimates vary With specic respect tomental health concerns between 12 and 22 of all children aredescribed as su ering from a diagnosable mental emotional orbehavioral disorder with relatively few receiving mental health ser-vices (Costello 1989 Hoagwood 1995) If one adds the many othersexperiencing signicant psychosocial problems the numbers growdramatically Harold Hodgkinson (1989 p 24) director of the Centerfor Demographic Policy estimates that 40 of young people are inlsquolsquovery bad educational shapersquorsquo and lsquolsquoat risk of failing to fulll theirphysical and mental promisersquorsquo Many live in inner cities or impover-ished rural areas or are recently-arrived immigrants The problemsthey bring to the school setting often stem from restrictedopportunities associated with poverty difficult and diverse family cir-cumstances lack of English language skills violent neighborhoodsand inadequate health care (Dryfoos 1990 1998 Knitzer Steinbergamp Fleisch 1990 Schorr 1997) The reality for many large urban andpoor rural schools is that over 50 of their students manifest learn-ing behavior and emotional problems

Clearly with so many students encountering barriers to learningschools need to address such concerns in a comprehensive mannerThis article reviews what schools currently tend to do discusses the


deciencies in current school-wide approaches and describes workdesigned to provide a new conceptual and programmatic frameworkfor policy and practice

WHAT SCHOOLS TRY TO DO TO ADDRESSBARRIERS TO LEARNING

Looked at as a whole one nds in many school districts an extensiverange of preventive and corrective activity oriented to studentsrsquoneeds and problems Some programs are provided throughout aschool district others are carried out at or linked to targeted schoolsSome are owned and operated by schools some are owned by com-munity agencies The interventions may be o ered to all students in aschool to those in specic grades to those identied as at riskandor to those in need of compensatory education The activitiesmay be implemented in regular or special education classrooms andmay be geared to an entire class groups or individuals or they maybe designed as lsquolsquopull outrsquorsquo programs for designated students Theyencompass ecological curricular and clinically-oriented activitiesdesigned to reduce substance abuse violence teen pregnancy schooldropouts delinquency and so forth (eg Adelman amp Taylor 1993Albee amp Gullotta 1997 Borders amp Drury 1992 Carnegie Council onAdolescent Development 1988 Dryfoos 1990 1994 1998 Durlak1995 Duttweiler 1995 Goleman 1995 Henggeler 1995 Hoagwood ampErwin 1997 Karoly Greenwood Everingham et al 1998 Kazdin1993 Larson 1994 Schorr 1988 1997 Slavin Karweit amp Wasik1994 Thomas amp Grimes 1995)

Few schools however come close to having enough resources torespond when confronted with a large number of students who areexperiencing a wide range of psychosocial barriers that interfere withtheir learning and performance Most schools o er only bare essen-tials Too many schools canrsquot even meet basic needs Primary preven-tion often is only a dream Education support activity is marginalizedat most schools and thus the positive impact such activity could havefor the entire school is sharply curtailed

While schools can use a wide range of persons to help studentsmost school-owned and operated services are o ered as part of whatare called pupil personnel services Federal and state mandates tend todetermine how many pupil services professionals are employed andstates regulate compliance with mandates Governance of daily prac-tice is usually centralized at the school district level In large dis-tricts counselors psychologists social workers and other specialists


may be organized into separate units Such units straddle regularspecial and compensatory education Analyses of the situation ndthat the result is programs and services that are planned imple-mented and evaluated in a fragmented and piecemeal manner Thiscontributes to costly redundancy weak approaches to interventionand very limited e ectiveness (Adelman 1996b Adelman amp Taylor1997a 1999)

School-community Collaborations

In recent years there has been increasing interest in school-community collaborations as one way to provide more support forschools students and families This interest is bolstered by therenewed policy concern about countering widespread fragmentationof community health and social services and by the various initia-tives for school reform youth development and community develop-ment In response to growing interest and concern various forms ofschool-community collaborations are being tested including state-wide initiatives in California Florida Kentucky Missouri NewJersey Ohio and Oregon among others This movement has fosteredsuch concepts as school linked services coordinated services wrap-around services one-step shopping full service schools and com-munity schools

The contemporary literature on school-community collaborationsis heavy on advocacy and prescription and light on data Each daybrings more reports from projects such as New Jerseyrsquos School-BasedYouth Services Program the Healthy Start Initiative in Californiathe Childrenrsquos Aid Society Community Schools and the BeaconsSchools in New York Communities-in-Schools Caring Communitiesin Missouri and the Family Resource and Youth Services Centers inKentucky (Knapp 1995 Melaville amp Blank 1998 SRI 1996 White ampWhelage 1995) Not surprisingly the reports primarily indicate howhard it is to establish collaborations Still a reasonable inferencefrom available data is that school-community collaborations can besuccessful and cost e ective over the long-run By placing sta atschools community agencies make access easier for students andfamilies especially those who usually are underserved and hard toreach Such e orts not only provide services they seem to encourageschools to open their doors in ways that enhance recreational enrich-ment and remedial opportunities and greater family involvementAnalyses of these programs suggest better outcomes are associatedwith empowering children and families as well as with having thecapability to address diverse constituencies and contexts Families


using school-based centers are described as becoming interested incontributing to school and community by providing social supportnetworks for new students and families teaching each other copingskills participating in school governance and helping create apsychological sense of community It is evident that school-community collaborations have great potential for enhancing schooland community environments and outcomes (Center for MentalHealth in Schools 1996 1997 Day amp Roberts 1991 Dryfoos 19941998 Knapp 1995 Lawson amp Briar-Lawson 1997 Melaville amp Blank1998 Schorr 1997 US Department of Education 1995 US GeneralAccounting Office 1993)

MARGINALIZATION AND FRAGMENTATION ARESTILL THE NORM

Despite the emphasis on enhancing collaboration the problemremains that the majority of programs services and special projectsstill are viewed as supplementary (often referred to as support or aux-iliary services) and continue to operate on an ad hoc basis Sta tendto function in relative isolation of each other and other stakeholderswith a great deal of the work oriented to discrete problems and withan overreliance on specialized services for individuals and smallgroups At most schools community involvement is still a marginalconcern and the trend toward fragmentation is compounded by mostschool-linked servicesrsquo initiatives This happens because such initia-tives focus primarily on coordinating community services and linkingthem to schools rather than integrating such services with theongoing e orts of school sta Drug prevention programs providedby law enforcement are an example

Fragmentation also stems from the failure of educational reform torestructure the work of school professionals who carry out psychoso-cial and health programs as well as the dearth of policy establishinge ective mechanisms for coordination and integration In someschools the deciencies of current policies give rise to such aberrantpractices as assigning a student identied as at risk for grade reten-tion dropout and substance abuse to three counseling programsoperating independently of each other Such fragmentation not onlyis costly it works against cohesiveness and maximizing results

Also mediating against developing school-wide approaches thataddress barriers to student learning is the marginalized fragmentedand awed way in which this concern is handled in providing on-the-job education School policy makers allocate few resources directly toconsiderations related to addressing barriers to learning and enhanc-


ing healthy development Thus almost none of a teacherrsquos inservicetraining focuses on improving classroom and school-wide approachesfor dealing e ectively with mild-to-moderate behavior learning andemotional problems Another concern is that paraprofessionals aidesand volunteers working in classrooms or with special projects andservices receive little or no formal trainingsupervision before orafter they are assigned duties Little or no attention is paid to cross-disciplinary training (Adelman 1996b 1996a Adelman amp Taylor1997a Adler amp Gardner 1994)

NEEDED COMPREHENSIVE MULTIFACETEDAPPROACHES FOR ADDRESSING BARRIERS TOLEARNING

Ultimately as indicated in the rst article of this series addressingbarriers to learning and enhancing healthy development must beviewed from a societal perspective and requires fundamental systemicreforms From this viewpoint the aim becomes that of developing acomprehensive continuum of community and school programs forlocal catchment areas The framework for such a continuum emergesfrom analyses of social economic political and cultural factorsassociated with the problems of youth and from reviews of promisingpractices (including peer and self-help strategies) It encompasses aholistic and developmental emphasis Such an approach requires asignicant range of multifaceted programs focused on individualsfamilies and environments Implied is the importance of using theleast restrictive and nonintrusive forms of intervention required toaddress problems and accommodate diversity With respect to con-cerns about integration activity the continuum of community andschool interventions underscores that interprogram connections areessential on a daily basis and over time That is the continuum mustinclude systems of prevention systems of early intervention (to addressproblems as soon after onset as feasible) and systems of care for thosewith chronic and severe problems Each of these systems must be con-nected seamlessly (Adelman 1999)

Currently most reforms are not generating the type of multi-faceted integrated approach necessary to address the many overlap-ping barriers including those factors that make schools andcommunities unsafe and lead to substance abuse teen pregnancydropouts and so forth Developing such a comprehensive integratedapproach requires more than outreach to link with communityresources (and certainly more than adopting a school-linked servicesmodel) more than coordination of school-owned services more than


FIGURE 2 A two-component model for reform and restructuring

coordination of school and community services and more than FamilyResource Centers and Full Service Schools

Moving from a Two- to a Three-Component ReformFramework Adding an Enabling Component

Viewing schoolcommunity environments through the lens of address-ing barriers to development learning and teaching suggests the needfor a basic policy shift Policy is needed to elevate e orts to addressbarriers (including social emotional and physical health problems)to the level of one of three fundamental and essential facets of educa-tion reform and school and community restructuring With respect toschools this perspective suggests that to enable teachers to teache ectively there must not only be e ective instruction and well-


managed schools but that barriers must be handled in a com-prehensive integrated way

The current situation is one where despite awareness of the manybarriers school and community reformers continue to concentratemainly on improving e orts to directly facilitate learning and devel-opment (eg instruction) and system management (see Figure 2) Ine ect current policy pursues school and community reforms using atwo- rather than a three-component model This ignores the need tofundamentally restructure school and community support programsand services and marginalizes e orts to design the type of environ-ments that are essential to the success of school reforms (egenvironments that are designed to e ectively address barriers toteaching and learning)

To address gaps in current reform and restructuring initiatives abasic policy shift must occur To this end we have introduced theconcept of an lsquolsquoEnabling Componentrsquorsquo as a policy-oriented notionaround which to unify e orts to address barriers to developmentlearning and teaching (Adelman 1996a 1996b Adelman amp Taylor1994 1997a) The concept is intended to underscore that (a) currentreforms are based on an inadequate two-component model forrestructuring school and community resources and (b) movement toa three-component model is necessary if all young people are tobenet appropriately from their formal schooling

A three component model calls for elevating e orts to address bar-riers to development learning and teaching to the level of one ofthree fundamental and essential facets of education reform andschool and community agency restructuring (see Figure 3) That is toenable teachers to teach e ectively we suggest there must not onlybe e ective instruction and well-managed schools but that barriersmust be handled in a comprehensive way All three components areseen as essential complementary and overlapping

By calling for reforms that fully integrate a focus on addressingbarriers the concept of an enabling component provides a unifyingconcept for responding to a wide range of psychosocial factors inter-fering with young peoplersquos learning and performance encompassingthe type of models described as full-service schools and going beyondthem (Adelman 1996a Adelman amp Taylor 1997a) Adoption of suchan inclusive unifying concept is seen as pivotal in convincing policymakers to move to a position that recognizes the essential nature ofactivity to enable learning More specically the enabling com-ponent concept calls on reformers to expand the current emphasis onimproving instruction and school management to include a com-prehensive component for addressing barriers to learning


FIGURE 3 A three-component model for reform and restructuring

Emergence of a cohesive enabling component requires policyreform and operational restructuring that allow for weaving togetherwhat is available at a school expanding this through integratingschool community and home resources and enhancing access tocommunity resources by linking as many as feasible to programs atthe school This involves extensive restructuring of school-ownedenabling activity such as pupil services and special and com-pensatory education programs In the process mechanisms must bedeveloped to coordinate and eventually integrate school-ownedenabling activity and school and community-owned resourcesRestructuring also must ensure that the enabling component is well


integrated with the other two components (ie the developmentalinstructional and management components)

Although some calls for comprehensive integrated approaches areattracting attention they do not fully convey the point that interven-tions addressing barriers to development learning and teaching areessential to the success of school reform The next step in movingtoward a comprehensive approach is for school and community refor-mers to expand their vision beyond rening processes to facilitateinstructiondevelopment and improve system management To thisend the following message must be brought home to policy makers atall levels current reforms cannot produce desired outcomes as longas the third primary and essential set of functions related to enablingdevelopment learning and teaching is so marginalized

Evidence of the value of rallying around a broad unifying conceptsuch as an enabling component is seen in the fact that one of theNew American Schools design teams adopted the concept (UrbanLearning Center Model 1995) Moreover in 1995 the state legisla-ture in California considered including the concept as part of a majorurban education bill (AB 784) In 1997 Californiarsquos Department ofEducation included a version of the concept (calling it LearningSupport) in their school program quality review guidelines(California Department of Education 1996 1997)

A Model for an Enabling Component at a School Site

Operationalizing an enabling component requires rst formulating adelimited framework of basic program areas and then creating aninfrastructure to restructure and enhance existing resources Basedon an extensive analysis of activity used to address barriers to learn-ing we cluster enabling activity into six interrelated areas (seeFigure 4)

A brief description of the six areas is provided below For detaileddiscussion of how the enabling component is developed at schoolsites see Adelman (1996b) and the Urban Learning Center Model(1995)1

1 Classroom focused enabling This area provides a fundamentalexample not only of how the enabling component overlaps the

1 A set of surveys covering the six areas is available from the Center for MentalHealth in Schools at UCLA These surveys can be used as part of a schoolrsquos self-studyor quality review processes to map what a school has and what it needs to addressregarding barriers to learning in a multifaceted and comprehensive manner


FIGURE 4 A model for an enabling component at a school site

instructional component but also how it adds value to instruc-tional reform When a teacher has difficulty working with a young-ster the rst step is to address the problem within the regularclassroom and involve the home to a greater extent Through pro-


grammatic activity classroom-based e orts that enable learningare enhanced This is accomplished by increasing teachersrsquo e ec-tiveness so they can account for a wider range of individual di er-ences foster a caring context for learning and prevent and handlea wider range of problems when they arise Such a focus is seen asessential to increasing the e ectiveness of regular classroominstruction supporting inclusionary policies and reducing theneed for specialized services

Work in this area requires programs and systems designed topersonalize professional development of teachers and support sta develop the capabilities of paraeducators and other paid assistantsand volunteers provide temporary out of class assistance for stu-dents and enhance resources For example personalized help isprovided to increase a teacherrsquos array of strategies for accommo-dating as well as teaching students to compensate for di erencesvulnerabilities and disabilities Teachers learn to target the activ-ity of paid assistants peer tutors and volunteers to enhance socialand academic support The classroom curriculum already shouldencompass a focus on fostering socio-emotional and physical devel-opment such a focus is seen as an essential element in preventinglearning behavior emotional and health problems As appropri-ate support in the classroom is also provided by resource and itin-erant teachers and counselors This involves restructuring andredesigning the roles functions and sta development of resourceand itinerant teachers counselors and other pupil service per-sonnel so they are able to work closely with teachers and studentsin the classroom and on regular activities All this provides theteacher with the knowledge and skills to develop a classroominfrastructure that transforms a big classroom into a set of smallerones

2 Student and family assistance Student and family assistanceshould be reserved for the relatively few problems that cannot behandled without adding special interventions In e ect this onearea encompasses most of the services and related systems that arethe focus of integrated service models

The emphasis is on providing special services in a personalizedway to assist with a broad range of needs To begin with socialphysical and mental health assistance available in the school andcommunity are used As community outreach brings in otherresources these are linked to existing activities in an integratedmanner Additional attention is paid to enhancing systems fortriage case and resource management direct services for imme-diate needs and referral for special services and special education


resources and placements as appropriate Ongoing e orts are madeto expand and enhance resources A valuable context for providingsuch services is a center facility (eg FamilyCommunityHealthParent Resource Center)

A programmatic approach in this area requires systems andactivities designed to support classroom focused enabling withemphasis on reducing teachersrsquo need to seek special programs andservices provide all stakeholders with information clarifyingavailable assistance and how to access help facilitate requests forassistance and evaluate such requests (including strategiesdesigned to reduce the need for special intervention) handle refer-rals provide direct service implement e ective case and resourcemanagement and interface with community outreach to assimilateadditional resources into current service delivery As majoroutcomes the intent is to ensure that special assistance is pro-vided when necessary and appropriate and that such assistance ise ective

3 Crisis assistance and prevention Schools must respond to mini-mize the impact of and prevent crises This requires systems andprograms for (a) emergencycrisis response at a site throughout aschool complex and community-wide including a focus on ensur-ing follow-up care and (b) prevention at school and in the com-munity to address school safety and violence reduction suicideprevention child abuse prevention and so forth

Desired outcomes of crisis assistance include ensuring provisionof immediate emergency and follow-up care so students are able toresume learning without undue delay Prevention activity out-comes are reected in indices showing there is a safe and pro-ductive environment and that students and their families have thetype of attitudes and capacities needed to deal with violence andother threats to safety

A key mechanism in this area is often the development of acrisis team Such a team is trained in emergency response pro-cedures physical and psychological rst-aid ensuring aftermathneeds are addressed and so forth The team also can take the leadin planning ways to prevent certain crises by facilitating the devel-opment of programs for conict mediation and enhancing humanrelations and a caring school culture

4 Support for transitions Students and their families are regularlyconfronted with a variety of transitions (eg changing schoolschanging grades and encountering a range of other daily hasslesand major life demands) Many of these can interfere with pro-ductive school involvement


A comprehensive focus on transitions requires systems and pro-grams designed to (a) establish school-wide and classroom specicactivities for welcoming new arrivals (students their familiessta ) and rendering ongoing social support (b) provide counselingand articulation strategies to support grade-to-grade and school-to-school transitions moving to and from special education going tocollege and moving to post school living and work and (c)organize before- and after-school and intersession activities toenrich learning and provide recreation in a safe environmentAnticipated outcomes are reduced alienation enhanced positiveattitudes toward school and learning and increased involvementin school and learning activities Outcomes related to specic pro-grams in this area can include reduced tardiness (as the result ofparticipation in before-school programs) and reduced vandalismviolence and crime at school and in the neighborhood (as theresult of involvement in after-school programs and increased expe-riencing of school as a caring place) There also are suggestionsthat a caring school climate can play a signicant role in reducingstudent transiency Articulation problems can be expected toreduce school avoidance and dropouts as well as enhance thenumber who make successful transitions to higher education andpost school living and work

5 Home involvement in schooling This area expands concern forparent involvement to encompass anyone in the home who plays akey role in inuencing the studentrsquos formal education In somecases parenting has been assumed by grandparents aunts orolder siblings In many cases older brothers and sisters are themost signicant inuences on a youngsterrsquos life choices Thusschools and communities must go beyond focusing on parents intheir e orts to enhance home involvement

This area includes systems and programs to (a) address the spe-cic learning and support needs of adults in the home such aso ering them ESL literacy vocational and citizenship classesenrichment and recreational opportunities and mutual supportgroups (b) help anyone in the home learn how to meet basic obli-gations to a student such as providing instruction for parentingand helping with schoolwork (c) improve communication that isessential to the student and family (d) enhance the home-schoolconnection and sense of community (e) foster participation inmaking decisions essential to a studentrsquos well-being (f ) facilitatehome support of a studentrsquos basic learning and development (g)mobilize those at home to problem-solve related to student needsand (h) elicit help (support collaborations and partnerships) from


those at home with respect to meeting classroom school and com-munity needs The context for some of this activity may be aparent center (which may be part of a Family Service Centerfacility if one has been established at the site) Outcomes includeindices of parent learning student progress and communityenhancement specically related to home involvement

6 Community outreach for involvement and support (including afocus on volunteers) Most schools do their job better when theyare an integral and positive part of the community Unfortunatelyschools and classrooms often are seen as separate from the com-munity in which they reside This contributes to a lack of connec-tion between school sta parents students and other communityresidents and resources For schools to be seen as an integral partof the community steps must be taken to create and maintain col-laborative partnerships Potential benets include enhanced com-munity participation student progress and communitydevelopment

Outreach to the community can build linkages and collabo-rations develop greater involvement in schooling and enhancesupport for e orts to enable learning Outreach is made to publicand private agencies organizations universities colleges andfacilities businesses and professional organizations and groupsand volunteer service programs organizations and clubs Activityincludes systems and programs designed to

community involvement and support (eg linkages andd recruitintegration with community health and social services cadres ofvolunteers mentors and individuals with special expertise andresources local businesses to adopt-a-school and provideresources awards incentives and jobs formal partnershiparrangements)

screen and maintain volunteers (eg parents college stu-d traindents senior citizens peer-cross-age tutors and counselors andprofessionals-in-training to provide direct help for sta andstudentsmdashespecially targeted students)

to hard to involve students and families (those whod outreachdonrsquot come to school regularlymdashincluding truants anddropouts) and

community-school connections and sense of communityd enhance(eg orientations open houses performances and cultural andsports events festivals and celebrations workshops and fairs)

A good place to start is with community volunteers Greater


volunteerism on the part of parents peers and others from thecommunity can break down barriers and increase home and com-munity involvement in schools and schooling Thus a majoremphasis in joining with the community is the establishment of aprogram that e ectively recruits screens trains and nurturesvolunteers Another key facet is the opening up of school sites asplaces where parents families and other community residents canengage in learning recreation enrichment and nd services theyneed

Learning is neither limited to what is formally taught nor totime spent in classrooms It occurs whenever and wherever thelearner interacts with the surrounding environment All facets ofthe community (not just the school) provide learningopportunities Anyone in the community who wants to facilitatelearning might be a contributing teacher This includes aidesvolunteers parents siblings peers mentors in the communitylibrarians recreation sta college students etc They all consti-tute what can be called the teaching community When a schoolsuccessfully joins with its surrounding community everyone hasthe opportunity to learn and to teach

A well-designed and supported infrastructure is needed to estab-lish maintain and evolve the type of comprehensive approachthat addresses barriers to student learning outlined above Suchan infrastructure includes mechanisms for coordinating amongenabling activity enhancing resources by developing direct link-ages between school and community programs moving towardincreased integration of school and community resources and inte-grating the developmentalinstructional enabling and manage-ment components (see Adelman 1993 Adelman amp Taylor 1997a Rosenblum DiCecco Taylor amp Adelman 1995)

KEEPING MUTUAL SUPPORT CARING AND A SENSEOF COMMUNITY IN MIND

In clarifying each element of an enabling component there is dangerof losing the lsquolsquobig picturersquorsquo Within the school context such a com-ponent must ultimately blend with the instructional andmanagementgovernance components in ways that create a school-wide atmosphere encouraging mutual support caring and a sense ofcommunity The degree to which a school can create such an atmo-sphere seems highly related to how well it is likely to prevent andameliorate learning behavior and emotional problems Thus in


developing an enabling component there must be a constant focus onenhancing a supportive and caring context for learning in ways thatcontribute to a psychological sense of community Throughout aschool and in each classroom a psychological sense of communityexists when a critical mass of stakeholders are committed to eachother and to the settingrsquos goals and values and they exert e orttowards the goals and towards maintaining relationships with eachother

People can be together without feeling connected feeling theybelong or feeling responsible for a collective vision or mission Aperception of community is shaped by daily experiences and is prob-ably best engendered when a person feels welcomed supported nur-tured respected liked connected in reciprocal relationships withothers and feels like a valued member who is contributing to thecollective identity density and vision Practically speaking suchfeelings seem to arise when a critical mass of participants are com-mitted not only to a collective vision but also to being and workingtogether in supportive and efficacious ways That is a conscientiouse ort by enough stakeholders associated with a school or class seemsnecessary for a sense of community to develop and be maintainedSuch an e ort must ensure e ective mechanisms are in place toprovide support promote self-efficacy and foster positive workingrelationships There is an obvious relationship between maintaininga sense of community and sustaining morale and minimizing burnout

Building a sense of community and caring begins when students(and their families) rst arrive at a school Classrooms and schoolscan do their job better if students feel they are truly welcome andhave a range of social supports A key facet of welcoming encom-passes e ectively connecting new students with peers and adults whocan provide social support and advocacy

On an ongoing basis caring in a classroom is best maintainedthrough the use of personalized instruction regular student con-ferences activity fostering social and emotional development andopportunities for students to attain positive status E orts to create acaring classroom climate benet from programs from cooperativelearning peer tutoring mentoring advocacy peer counseling andmediation human relations and conict resolution A caring schoolculture pays special attention to students who have difficulty makingfriends Some need just a bit of support to overcome the problem (ega few suggestions a couple of special opportunities) Some howeverneed more help They may be very shy lacking in social skills or mayeven act in negative ways that lead to their rejection Whatever the


reason it is clear they need help if they and the school are to reap thebenets produced when individuals feel positively connected to eachother School sta (eg teacher classroom or yard aide counselorsupportresource sta ) and parents can work together to help suchstudents This may include use of a lsquolsquopeer buddyrsquorsquo (eg a student withsimilar interests and temperament or one who will understand and bewilling to reach out to the one who needs a friend) and creatingregular opportunities for the student to work with others on sharedactivitiesprojects at and away from school (eg cooperative tasksbeing teammates for games sharing special roles such as being class-room monitors) If the youngster really doesnrsquot know how to act likea friend it is necessary to teach some guidelines and social skillsThere are of course a myriad of strategies that can contribute tostudents feeling positively connected to the classroom and school

Given the importance of home involvement in schooling attentionalso must be paid to creating a caring atmosphere for familymembers Increased home involvement is more likely if families feelwelcome and have access to social support at school Thus teachersand other school sta need to establish a program that e ectivelywelcomes and connects families with school sta and other familiesto generate ongoing social support and greater participation in homeinvolvement e orts

Also just as with students and their families school sta need tofeel truly welcome and socially supported Rather than leaving this tochance a caring school develops and institutionalizes a program towelcome and connect new sta with those with whom they will beworking And it does so in ways that e ectively incorporates new-comers into the organization and builds their capacity to functione ectively

In discussing lsquolsquoburn-outrsquorsquo many writers have emphasized that toooften teaching is carried out under highly stressful working condi-tions and without much of a collegial and social support structureTeachers must feel good about themselves if classrooms and schoolsare to be caring environments Teaching is one of societyrsquos mostpsychologically demanding jobs yet few schools have programsdesigned specically to counter job stress and enhance sta feelingsof well-being Recommendations to redress this deciency usuallyfactor down to strategies that reduce environmental stressorsincrease personal capabilities and enhance job and social supportsHowever most schools simply do not have adequate mechanisms inplace to plan and implement such recommendations

Fundamental to the above concerns and to improving instructionit is evident that teachers need to work closely with other teachers


and school personnel as well as with parents professionals-in-train-ing volunteers and so forth Collaboration and teaming are keyfacets of addressing barriers to learning They allow teachers tobroaden the resources and strategies available in and out of the class-room to enhance learning and performance As Hargreaves (1994)cogently notes the way to relieve lsquolsquothe uncertainty and open-endednessrsquorsquo that characterizes classroom teaching is to create lsquolsquocom-munities of colleagues who work collaboratively [ in cultures ofshared learning and positive risk-taking] to set their own pro-fessional limits and standards while still remaining committed to con-tinuous improvement Such communities can also bring together theprofessional and personal lives of teachers in a way that supportsgrowth and allows problems to be discussed without fear of disap-proval or punishmentrsquorsquo

Collaboration and collegiality are fundamental to morale andwork satisfaction and to transforming classrooms into caring con-texts for learning Collegiality however cannot be demanded AsHargreaves stresses when collegiality is mandated it can producewhat is called contrived collegiality which tends to breed inex-ibility and inefficiency Contrived collegiality is compulsoryimplementation-oriented regulated administratively xed in timeand space and predictable In contrast collaborative cultures fosterworking relationships that are voluntary development-orientedspontaneous pervasive across time and space and unpredictable

Collaborative cultures also can foster a schoolrsquos e orts to organizeitself into a learning community that personalizes inservice teachereducation Such lsquolsquoorganizational learningrsquorsquo requires an organizationalstructure lsquolsquowhere people continually expand their capabilities tounderstand complexity clarify vision and improve shared mentalmodelsrsquo [Senge 1990] by engaging in di erent tasks acquiring di er-ent kinds of expertise experiencing and expressing di erent forms ofleadership confronting uncomfortable organizational truths andsearching together for shared solutionsrsquorsquo (Hargreaves 1994 p 14)

Finally collaborative cultures recognize the need to build capacityfor dealing with working relationship problems Despite the best ofintentions relationships often go astray especially when those stabecome frustrated and angry because students donrsquot respond indesired ways or seem not to be trying To minimize relationship prob-lems inservice education must foster understanding of interpersonaldynamics and barriers to working relationships and sites must estab-lish e ective problem solving mechanisms to eliminate or at leastminimize such problems


GETTING FROM HERE TO THERE

Development of comprehensive school-wide approaches is easy to callfor and hard to accomplish Anyone who has been involved in sys-temic reform can describe the difficulties in terms of lack of timeinsufficient budget lack of space disgruntled stakeholders inade-quate capacity building and on and on Such difficulties and variousstrategies for dealing with them are well-discussed in the literatureon systemic change Key references are included in the ensuingarticle in this issue that highlights some of our work related toscaling-up reforms across a school district At this point we simplywant to highlight a few fundamentals with the caveat that each facetdescribed carries with it a myriad of implementation difficulties

As noted above development of comprehensive school-wideapproaches require shifts in prevailing policy and new models forpractice In addition for signicant systemic change to occur policyand program commitments must be demonstrated through allocationredeployment of resources (eg nances personnel time spaceequipment) that can adequately operationalize policy and promisingpractices In particular there must be sufficient resources to developan e ective structural foundation for system change Existing infra-structure mechanisms must be modied in ways that guarantee newpolicy directions are translated into appropriate daily practicesWell-designed infrastructure mechanisms ensure there is local owner-ship a critical mass of committed stakeholders processes that canovercome barriers to stakeholders e ectively working together andstrategies that can mobilize and maintain proactive e ort so thatchanges are implemented and renewed over time From this per-spective the importance of creating an atmosphere that encouragesmutual support caring and a sense of community (as discussedabove) takes on another dimension

Institutionalization of comprehensive multifaceted approachesrequires redesigning mechanisms associated with at least ve basicinfrastructure concerns These encompass daily (a) governance (b)planning-implementation related to specic organizational andprogram objectives (c) coordinationintegration for cohesion (d)leadership and capacity building and (e) management of communica-tion and information In reforming mechanisms to address thesematters new collaborative arrangements must be established andauthority (power) must be redistributed all of which is easy to sayand extremely hard to accomplish Reform obviously requires provid-ing adequate support (time space materials equipment) not just ini-tially but over time to those who operate the mechanisms Moreover


there must be appropriate incentives and safeguards for those under-taking the tasks

And letrsquos not forget about linking schools together to maximizeuse of limited resources When a family of schools in a geographicarea collaborates to address barriers they can share programs andpersonnel in many cost-e ective ways This includes streamlined pro-cesses to coordinate and integrate assistance to a family that haschildren at several of the schools For example the same family mayhave youngsters in the elementary and middle schools and both stu-dents may need special counseling This might be accomplished byassigning one counselor andor case manager to work with thefamily Also in connecting with community resources a group ofschools can maximize distribution of such limited resources in waysthat are efficient e ective and equitable

In terms of task focus infrastructure changes must attend to inter-weaving school and community resources for addressing barriers (acomponent to enable learning) direct facilitation of learning(instruction) and system governance and resource use (management)Such changes also must reframe inservice programs including cross-training and establish appropriate forms of quality improvementaccountability and self-renewal Clearly all this requires greaterinvolvement of professionals providing health and human service andother programs addressing barriers to learning This means involve-ment in every facet especially governance

Furthermore comprehensive institutional changes cannot beachieved without sophisticated and appropriately nanced systemicchange processes Restructuring on a large scale involves substantiveorganizational and programmatic transformation at multiple jurisdic-tional levels For example at school and district levels key stake-holder and their leadership must understand and commit torestructuring Commitment must be reected in policy statementsand the creation of an organizational structure that ensures e ectiveleadership and resources The process begins with activity designedto create readiness for the necessary changes by enhancing a climateculture for change Steps involved include (a) building interest andconsensus for developing a comprehensive approach to addressingbarriers to learning and enhancing healthy development (b) intro-ducing basic concepts to relevant groups of stakeholders (c) estab-lishing a policy framework that recognizes the approach is a primaryand essential facet of the institutionrsquos activity and (d) appointment ofleaders (of equivalent status to the leaders for the instructional andmanagement facets) at school and district levels who can ensurepolicy commitments are carried out


Overlapping the e orts to create readiness are processes todevelop an organizational structure for starting-up and phasing-inthe new approach This involves establishing mechanisms and pro-cedures to guide reforms such as a steering group and leadershiptraining formulating of specic start-up and phase-in plans estab-lishing and training of a team that analyzes restructures andenhances resources with the aim of evolving a comprehensive inte-grated approach phased-in reorganization of an enabling activity outreach to establish collaborative linkages among schools and dis-trict and community resources and establishing systems to ensurequality improvement momentum for reforms and ongoing renewal

Although most of the above points about large-scale systemicchange seem self-evident their profound implications are widelyignored relatively little work has been done to build conceptualmodels and develop specic interventions for dealing with the pro-cesses and problems associated with scaling-up reforms (eg seeAdelman 1993 Adelman amp Taylor 1997b Argyris 1993 Elias 1997Fullan amp Stiegelbauer 1991 Kno 1995 Replication and ProgramServices Inc 1993 Sarason 1996 Schorr 1997) To help redress thisunfortunate state of a airs the following article in this issue outlinesthe model our work group is evolving for the wide-spread di usion ofnew approaches such as an enabling component

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

In many schools major improvements in studentsrsquo reading andwriting performance continue to be hampered by the deciencies ofschool-wide approaches for addressing barriers to learning and teach-ing Clearly establishment of comprehensive multifaceted and inte-grated school-wide approaches is not an easy task Indeed it is likelyto remain an insurmountable task until school reformers accept thereality that a comprehensive enabling component is essential anddoes not represent an agenda separate from a schoolrsquos instructionalmission In terms of policy practice and research all enabling activ-ity including the many categorical programs funded to deal withdesignated problems must be seen as embedded in a cohesive contin-uum of interventions that provide the foundation for this essentialcomponent of school and community reforms

With appropriate policy in place work can advance with respect torestructuring transforming and enhancing school-owned programsand services and community resources and include mechanisms tocoordinate and eventually integrate it all To these ends the focus


needs to be on all school resources (eg compensatory and specialeducation support services adult education recreation and enrich-ment programs facility use) and all community resources (eg publicand private agencies families businesses services programs facili-ties volunteers professionals-in-training)

The ultimate aim is to weave all resources together into the fabricof every school and evolve a comprehensive component that e ec-tively addresses barriers to development learning and teachingOnce policy makers recognize the essential nature of such a com-ponent it will be easier to weave together all e orts to address bar-riers and in the process elevate the status of programs to enhancehealthy development Furthermore when resources are combinedproperly the end product can be cohesive and potent school-community partnerships Such partnerships seem essential if we areto strengthen neighborhoods and communities and create caring andsupportive environments that maximize learning and well-being

REFERENCES

Adelman H S (1993) School-linked mental health interventions Toward mechanismsfor service coordination and integration Journal of Community Psychology 21 309ndash319

Adelman H S (1996a) Restructuring education support services and integrating com-munity resources Beyond the full service school model School Psychology Review25 431ndash445

Adelman H S (1996b) Restructuring support services Toward a comprehensiveapproach Kent OH American School Health Association

Adelman H S amp Taylor L (1993) Learning problems and learning disabilities Moving forward Pacic Grove CA BrooksCole

Adelman H S amp Taylor L (1994) On understanding intervention in psychology andeducation Westport CT Praeger

Adelman H S amp Taylor L (1997a) Addressing barriers to learning Beyond school-linked services and full service schools American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 67408ndash421

Adelman H S amp Taylor L (1997b) Toward a scale-up model for replicating newapproaches to schooling Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation 8197ndash230

Adelman H S amp Taylor L (1998) Reframing mental health in schools and expandingschool reform Educational Psychologist 33 135ndash152

Adelman H S amp Taylor L (1999) Mental health in schools and system restructuringClinical Psychology Review 19 137ndash163

Adler L amp Gardner S (Eds) (1994) The politics of linking schools and social servicesWashington DC Falmer Press

Albee G W amp Gullotta T P (Eds) (1997) Primary prevention works ThousandOaks CA Sage

Allensworth D Wyche J Lawson E amp Nicholson L (Eds) (1997) Schools andhealth Our nationrsquos investment Washington DC National Academy Press


Argyris C (1993) Knowledge for action A guide to overcoming barriers to organiz-ational change San Francisco Jossey-Bass

Borders L D amp Drury S M (1992) Comprehensive school counseling programs Areview for policymakers and practitioners Journal of Counseling amp Development70 487ndash498

California Department of Education (1996) Factbook 1996ndash97 Handbook of educationinformation Sacramento CA Author

California Department of Education (1997) Guide and criteria for program qualityreview Elementary Sacramento CA Author

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1988) Review of school-based healthservices New York Carnegie Foundation

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Developmentrsquos Task Force on Education of YoungAdolescents (1989) Turning points Preparing A merican youth for the 21st centuryWashington DC Author

Center for Mental Health in Schools (1996) Policies and practices for addressing bar-riers to student learning Current status and new directions Los Angeles Author

Center for Mental Health in Schools (1997) Addressing barriers to learning Closinggaps in school-community policy and practice Los Angeles Author

Comer J (1988) Educating poor minority children Scientic A merican 259 42ndash48Costello E J (1989) Developments in child psychiatric epidemiology Journal of the

American Academy of Child and A dolescent Psychiatry 28 836ndash841Day C amp Roberts M C (1991) Activities of the Children and Adolescent Service

System Program for improving mental health services for children and familiesJournal of Clinical Child Psychology 20 340ndash350

Dryfoos J G (1990) Adolescents at risk Prevalence and prevention London OxfordUniversity Press

Dryfoos J G (1994) Full-service schools A revolution in health and social services forchildren youth and families San Francisco Jossey-Bass

Dryfoos J G (1998) Safe passage Making it through adolescence in a risky societyNew York Oxford University Press

Durlak J A (1995) School-based prevention programs for children and adolescentsThousand Oaks CA Sage

Duttweiler P C (1995) E ective strategies for educating students in at risk situationsClemson SC National Dropout Prevention Center

Elias M J (1997) Reinterpreting dissemination of prevention programs as widespreadimplementation with e ectiveness and delity In R P Weissberg T P Gullotta RL Hamptom B A Ryan amp G R Adams (Eds) Establishing preventive services pp253ndash289 Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Fullan M G amp Stiegelbauer S (1991) The new meaning of educational changes 2nded New York Teachers College Press

Goleman D (1995) Emotional Intelligence New York Bantam Books IncHargreaves A (1994) Changing teachers changing times Teachersrsquo work and culture

in the postmodern age New York Teachers College PressHenggeler S W (1995) A consensus Conclusions of the APA Task Force report on

innovative models or mental health services for children adolescents and theirfamilies Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 23 3ndash6

Hoagwood K (1995) Issues in designing and implementing studies of non-mentalhealth care sectors Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 23 114ndash120

Hoagwood K amp Erwin H (1997) E ectiveness of school-based mental health servicesfor children A 10-year research review Journal of Child and Family Studies 6435ndash451


Hodgkinson H L (1989) The same client The demographics of education and servicedelivery systems Washington DC Institute for Educational Leadership IncCenterfor Demographic Policy

Karoly L A Greenwood P W Everingham S S Hoube J Kilburn M R RydellC P Sanders M amp Chiesa J (1998) Investing in our children What we know anddonrsquot know about the costs and benets of early childhood interventions SantaMonica CA RAND

Kazdin A E (1993) Adolescent mental health Prevention and treatment programsAmerican Psychologist 48 127ndash141

Knapp M S (1995) How shall we study comprehensive collaborative services forchildren and families Educational Researcher 24 5ndash16

Knitzer J Steinberg Z amp Fleisch B (1990) At the schoolhouse door A n examinationof programs and policies for children with behavioral and emotional problems NY Bank Street College of Education

Kno H M (1995) Best practices in facilitating school-based organizational changeand strategic planning In A Thomas amp J Grimes (Eds) Best practices in schoolpsychologymdashIII pp 234ndash242 Washington DC National Association of School Psy-chologists

Larson J (1994) Violence prevention in the schools A review of selected programsand procedures School Psychology Review 23 151ndash164

Lawson H amp Briar-Lawson K (1997) Connecting the dots Progress toward the inte-gration of school reform school-linked services parent involvement and communityschools Oxford OH The Danforth Foundation and the Institute for EducationalRenewal at Miami University

Melaville A amp Blank M J (1998) Learning together The developing eld of school-community initiatives Flint MI Mott Foundation

Replication and Program Services Inc (1993) Building from strength Replication as astrategy for expanding social programs that work Philadelphia Author

Rosenblum L DiCecco M B Taylor L amp Adelman H S (1995) Upgrading schoolsupport programs through collaboration Resource Coordinating Teams SocialWork in Education 17 117ndash124

Sarason S B (1996) Revisiting lsquolsquoThe culture of school and the problem of changersquo rsquo NewYork Teachers College Press

Schorr L B (1988) Within our reach Breaking the cycle of disadvantage New York Doubleday

Schorr L B (1997) Common purpose Strengthening families and neighborhoods torebuild America New York Anchor Press

Slavin R Karweit N amp Wasik B (1994) Preventing early school failure Research one ective strategies Boston Allyn amp Bacon

SRI (1996) Californiarsquos Healthy Start school-linked services initiative Summary ofevaluation ndings Palo Alto CA SRI International

Thomas A amp Grimes J (Eds) (1995) Best practices in school psychologymdashIII Wash-ington DC National Association for School Psychologists

Urban Learning Center Model (1995) A design for a new learning community LosAngeles Los Angeles Educational Partnership

US Department of Education (1995) School-linked comprehensive services for childrenand families What we know and what we need to know Washington DC Author

US General Accounting Office (1993) School-linked services A comprehensive strategyforaidingstudentsatriskforschoolfailure (GAOHRD-94-21)WashingtonDCAuthor

White J A amp Wehlage G (1995) Community collaboration If it is such a good ideawhy is it so hard to do Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 17 23ndash38


FIGURE 1 Barriers to learning

school that is not yet paying adequate attention to considerationsrelated to equity and diversity

Although some youngsters have disabilities it is important toremember how few start out with internal problems that interferewith learning to read and write Even those who do have these prob-lems usually have assetsstrengthsprotective factors that can


















































































































CONCLUDING COMMENTS






REFERENCES



























































a school-wide component to address barriers to … a school... · a school-wide component to...

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