a sketch of the technical history of radiology from 1896 to 1920

8/3/2019 A Sketch of the Technical History of Radiology From 1896 to 1920

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A dd ress repr in t requests to A rno ld Fe ldm an . P h .D ., D epartm en t o f R ad ia tio n O nco logy . M ethod is t M ed ic a l C en ter . 2 21N.E . G len O ak A venue . P eo r ia , IL 6 1636 .

V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }Rad ioGraph ics I I I 3

A Ske tch o f th e Techn ica l H is to ry o f R ad io logyfrom 1896 to 1920

A rno ld Fe ld man , Ph .D .D epa rtm en t o f R ad ia tio n O nco lo gy , M e tho d is t M ed ica l C en te r, P eo ria , IL

Th is w ill necessa rily be an in com p le te su n -vey , w ith a n a ttem p t to se lec t som e o f them os t im po rta n t de ve lopm en ts a nd to po rtra yw ha t w a s happen ing in ra d io log y in th e ea rlyye a rs . N o a ttem p t w ill b e m ade to se ttle th em an y c la im s o f p rio r it ie s , i.e ., f irs ts . S om e ex -ce lien t so u rce s e x is t fo r th e h is to ry o f ra d io lo -gy . T h e book o f E .R .N . G n ig g , T he T ra il o f th eIn v is ib le L igh t, is a tre asu re h ou se o f in fo rm a -t ion (1 ). T he Rays , b y R u th a nd E dw a rdB re ch e r, is a n in te re s tin g so u rce w ith re spe c tto th e h is to ry o f rad io lo gy in the U n ited S ta te sand C anada (2) . T he Sc ie nce o f R ad io log y ,a bo ok pub lishe d in 1 933 by the Am eric an C o l-le ge o f R ad io lo gy , is a no th e r va lu ab le so u rceo f h is to ry up to its d a te o f pu b lic a tion (3) .

G n igg ha s d iv ide d the h is to ry in to seve ra lph ases . In th is a rtic le , I s ha ll b e d iscu ss ing d eve l-o pm en ts in h is firs t tw o s ta ges : 1 ) T he E ra o fR oen tge n P ion ee rs , w h ich ex te nded from1896 to abou t 19 14 , an d 2 ) T ra ns it io n I, w h ic ho ve rlap ped w ith the firs t s ta ge and e x ten dedfrom abou t 19 07 to a bou t 1 929 . I s ha ll a rb itra r ilyl im it m y d iscuss ion to even ts and deve lopm en tsup to the ye a r 1 920 . D ia gnos tic rad io lo gy w illb e the p redom ina n t su b jec t, bu t som e d iscu s -s ion o f ra d ia t ion the ra py , rad ia tion h aza rds andra d ia tio n p ro te c tion w ill be inc lud ed .

T o beg in w ith , a s D r. N ancy K n igh t ha sp o in ted ou t, the announcem en t o f th e d iscov -e ry o f x na ys b y W . C . R oen tg en and the ve ryra p id sp re ad th ro ughou t th e w o rld o f th e ap -

Rad loG raph lcs In dex te rm s:H IS TO RY O F R AD IO LO GYIM AG IN G T EC HN OLO GY# {149 }Istory

Cum ula tIve Ind ex te rm s:Rad Io logy a nd r ad Io lo g Is ts ,h Is to ryR ad Io grap hy, techn olo gy

p lica tion o f x rays to m ed ica l d iagn os is w as ate chn o log ica l sh ock . T h is d eve lopm en t h it th ew o rld as a pa ckage , un like an y p re v io us m ed i-ca l te ch no lo gy . Q uo tin g K n igh t, . . . s omeph ys ic ian s v iew ed the ad ven t o f x n ays a s as ign a l th a t m ed ic in e s m ach ine age had fina llya rr ived . X ray s w e re th e p ro du c t o f a rea l, c on -c re te , s c ie n tific m a ch in e ; th is w as pe rh ap s theso u rce o f the ir g re a tes t p rom ise . In con tras tw ith the ill-de fin ed and com p lex w o rk ings o fco ope ra tive p re ven tive m ed ic ine , d ream ersco u ld lo ok to a fu tu re in w h ich m ach in es w ou lde lim ina te the w o rk o f pub lic h ea lth p lan ne rs .Th ro ugh te chno log y , phys ic ia ns w ou ld ach ie vethe m ira cu lou s and , in an age th a t be lie ved inm a te ria l p ro g res s m o re th an in a ny th in g e lse ,n ew and be tte r m ach ine s seem ed on ly a s te paw ay . (4 )

O ne o f the firs t que s tions tha t ha d to beso rted o u t w a s : W ho w ou ld p rac tice w ha tcam e to b e know n a s ra d io log y? T he ea rlie s tx -ra y exam ina tio ns w e re p e rfo rm ed b y a van -e ty o f p eop le : pho tog ra phe rs , e lec tr ic ians ,and phys ic ia ns . T he se ttin gs inc lud ed e lec tn i-c ia ns o ff ice s a s w e ll a s hosp ita ls a nd ph ys i-c ians o ff ic es . Th e re w e re tu rf b a ttle s in theea rly da ys . A n exam p le , w h ich seem s odd tou s now , is tha t w ha t w e now ca ll ra d io log y re -m a in ed unde r the su rg e ry se rv ice a t the JohnsH opk in s H osp ita l u n til 1 94 2 . W hy d id ra d io log yu ltim a te ly b ecom e a spec ia lty? A poss ib le ex -p lan a tio n is tha t by a bou t 1 920 , it w as rea lizedtha t f ilm re ad in g w a s an a rt a nd th a t na d io l-og y w as no t ju s t a te chn ic a l p rocedu re th a tcou ld b e pe rfo rm ed b y te chn ic ia ns . T he fac ttha t in the ea rly d ays , rad io lo g is ts w e re no tw ill ing to d e le ga te th e o pe ra tion o f the ir m a -ch ine s m ay have led to th e gene ra l pe rcep -tio n tha t rad io lo g is ts w e re som e th ing low e rtha n ph ys ic ians , m ore lik e te ch n ic ians .


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T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y (1 8 9 6 -1 9 2 0 ) Fe l dman

I I I 4 Rad loGraph ics #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h

T o re tu rn to the te ch n ica l h is to ry itse lf, re -c a ll tha t R oen tg en m ade h is o rig ina l o bse rva -t ion on N ovem be r 8 , 189 5 . Th e tube w as a H it-to rf-C nookes tub e . H e used a R uhm ko rff 5 0 /20cm co il an d a D ep rex in te rru p to r w ith a bou t 20am pe res p rim a ry cu rre n t. H e sa id tha t be s t n e -su its w e re o b ta ine d w hen th e spa rk g ap (co n -n ec te d in pa ra lle l) w a s abou t 3 cm . T he im ag -in g m ed ium w as a ba rium p la tino cyan ides c ree n , w h ich exh ib ite d flu o res ce nce , i.e ., v is i-b le lig h t em is s io n . R oen tg en m ade num e rou sobse rva tio ns u s ing the flu o re sce nce , bu t v e rysoon he was p rod uc in g im age s on g las s pho to -g rap h ic p la tes . H e a ls o s ta ted in h is firs t rep o rtth a t f ilm s m ay be u sed equa lly as w e ll a sg la ss p la te s . H e used e xpo su re tim es va ry in gfrom 3 to 1 0 m in u tes . O ne we ll-kn ow n ra d io -g rap h , o r sk iag ram , as th is typ e o f im agew as ca lled in the e a rly da ys (tra ns la tion : sha -d ow gnam ), w as p ro du ced on D ecem be r 2 2 ,18 95 . It is b e lie ve d to b e an im age o f M rs .R oen tg en s ha nd , an d , b ecau se it sh ow eddens ity va ria tions a cco rd in g to th e tissu es inthe pa th o f the rad ia tion , th e p rac tica l u se fu l-n es s o f rad io g ra ph ic im ages fo r m ed ica l an dsu rg ic a l d ia gn os is w a s im m ed ia te ly ap pa ren t.R oen tge n m ade a w ritte n p resen ta tion to th eP h ys ica l-M ed ica l S oc ie ty o f W #{252 }rzb u rgo n D e-cem be r 2 8 , 18 95 (H e m ade no o ra l p re sen ta -tio n , be cau se the re w as no m ee ting du rin g th eho lida y sea son ). O n New Y ea rs D ay , 1 896 , hem a ile d cop ie s o f h is p ape r a lo ng w ith som esam p le x -ra y p rin ts to se ve ra l ph ys ic is ts in E u -rope w hom he knew . T h is is w ha t s ta rte d th esp rea d o f th e n ew s . (2 p 9 ; 5 , p p 5 2 -6 0 ). Thespeed o f te ch n ica l de ve lo pm en ts and m ed i-ca l ap p lic a tio ns d u rin g th e firs t 2 m on ths (Ja n -ua ry and Feb ru a ry o f 1 896 ) w as am az in g , eve nw hen accoun t is t a ken o f th e fac t tha tC roo kes tub es and h igh -vo ltag e gene ra to rs

Figure1Ske tch o f a C roo ke s T ube

w e re be ing u sed a ll o ve r the w o rld , m a in ly fo rs tu d ies o f th e d is cha rge o f e le c tr ic ity th roughgases .

G rigg w rite s tha t A la n A rch ib a ld C am pbe llS w in ton , a S co ttish eng ine e r m ay we ll h avebeen th e firs t p e rso n a fte r R oen tg en to p ro -du ce a noen tge nog ram o f a hand ; o n Janua ry13 , 1 896 . B reche r an d B rech e r (2 , p p . 2 6 -2 8 ) l ist46 N o rth Am eric an expe rim en te rs o r g ro up s o fexp e rim en te rs w ho ca rr ie d ou t expe rim en tsdu ring Feb rua ry o f 18 96 .

L e t u s re v iew in a gene ra l w ay how x ra ysw e re p rod uced . C nooke s tub es , o r s im ila rtub es , w e re the so u rce s o f x ra ys . Th ey we reno t h igh ly -e vacua te d a s m ode rn tu bes a re ,an d the y d id n o t em p loy the rm io n ic em iss ionas a sou rce o f e le c tron s . Th ey w e re u sua lly re -fe rred to as ga s tub es . A h igh vo ltag e wasapp lie d b e tw een tw o m e ta l e lec trod es sea le din th e g las s w a ll o f th e tube , u sua lly a t o ppo -s ite en ds . S om e tim es, as in R oen tgen s tub e ,the a node w as o ff to th e s ide (F ig u re 1 ). F ig u re2 show s an ea rly typ e o f x -ray tu be , w ith a n -od e -ca tho de geom e try e sse n tia lly a s in a llm ode rn tub es . A n e lec tr ic d isch a rg e began ,w ith n ega tiv e ions m ov in g towa rd th e a node( the p os itive e lec tro de ) an d po s itive ion s m ov -in g towa rd the ca tho de (the nega tive e lec-trode ). T h e a c tio n o f th e p os itive io ns re su ltedin e le c tro ns lea v ing th e ca tho de . These e le c-trons w e re acce le ra ted a s a resu lt o f th e a p -p lied vo ltag e , and , in the tub es used fo r rad i-og rap hy , th e e le c tron s usua lly s truc k the an -od e and p rod uced x na ys . T he techn ica lp ro b lem s face d b y th e p ion ee rs w e re m a in lydu e to the in co ns ta n t a nd la rge ly un p red ic t-ab le b ehav io r o f the tub es . S om e , h ow eve r,w e re d ue to the lim ita tio ns o f the h igh -vo ltag egene ra to r s .


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Fe l dman T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y (1 8 9 6 -1 9 2 0 )

V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }Rad ioGraph lcs I I IS

__ __Figure2S ke tch o f an ea rly typ e o f x -ray tub e C om pa re th is w ith F ig u re10 w h ich w as desc rib ed in 1 903 a s a m ode rn tub e . Th e d iffe r-e nce is m ain ly in the s ize o f the g lass bu lb .

If the gas p ressu re in th e tube becam e low(o ne p resum es due to a dso rp tion o f ga s o nth e inn e r su rfa ce s o f th e tu be ) the d is cha rgecu rren t b ecam e low e r, b u t tho se e le c tro nsth a t suc ceeded in s tr ik in g th e anode had su f-fe ne d few e r co llis io ns w ith ga s m o le cu le s , an dfo r th is re ason , the x -ray spe c trum w as sh iftedtow a rd h ig he r ph o ton ene rg ies . U sua lly , w henth e d isch a rg e cu rren t d ec re ased , a h igh e rvo ltag e had to be app lied to m a in ta in th e d is -c ha rge . T h is , o f co u rse , a lso m ade the beamm ore pene tra ting , a lb e it o f le ss in te ns ity , a ndw ou ld le ad to re du c tio n o f su b jec t co n tras t. Inth is case , it w a s sa id th e tube becam e h a rd .A s th e tu be be cam e w a rm w ith u se , g as w asd rive n o ff its inne r su rfa ces , th e d isch a rg e cu r-ren t in c rea se d , an d th e ene rg ies o f the e lec -trons s tr ik in g th e anode dec re ased , re su lting ina le ss -p ene tra tin g b eam . The tu be w as the nca lled so ft . V a riou s tub e de s ign s w ith s idetub es con ta in ing chem ica ls p rov ide d fo r som econ tro l (F ig u re 3 ). H ea ting th e s id e tu be bym eans o f an e x te rn a l s ou rce o r by a sepa ra ted is cha rge th ro ugh the s id e tub e re le ase d gasand m ade th e tub e so fte r. Q ueen & C o .m ade and ad ve rtis ed a se lf-re gu la ting tub e ,tha t b ecam e a be s t se lle r (F ig u re s 4 and 5 ).Gn igg (1 , p p . 5 3 -5 6 ) has an in te res ting d is cus -s io n o f the tub e and o f Q ueen & C o . Inc id en -ta lly , to o b ta in a pe rspe c tiv e on the im po rta n tin vo lvem en t o f m anu fac tu re rs in the de ve lo p -m en t o f x -ra y appa ra tus o ne ha s bu t to re adth e re le van t sec tio ns in G n igg s b oo k . W ha tw a s go in g on was the fre e en te rp ris e sys tem a tits v e ry be s t! A dve rtis em en ts from 1896 a reshow n in F ig u re s 6 and 7 .

Figure3S ke tch o f a tube w ith a re gu la tin g de v ic e


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( i IGH FREQUENCY SETS . (F or a lt er na ti ngcu r ren ts . Desig ned by Prof. E lihuThomson . )

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Figure7A dve rtisem en ts from 1896 .


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Vo lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog raph #{149 }N ovem be r, 1 98 9 #{149 } ad ioGraph iCs I I I 7

I h ave been fo rtuna te e nough to re ce ivefrom D r. N ancy K n ig h t th e tex t o f an in te rv iewcondu c ted in 1 969 by R osem ary Longo w ithM r. R oss M itch e ll, w h o w as the firs t rad io lo gyte ch n ic ia n a t J ohn s H opk ins (cou rte sy o f J oh nsH opk ins U n iv e rs ity S choo l o f M ed ic ine , D epa rt-m en t o f R ad io logy ). T h is is w o rth rea d ing in itsen tire ty to le a rn w ha t the p ra c tic e o f ra d io lo -gy w a s lik e in th e e a rly da ys . B e cau se o f sp acelim ita tion s I sh a ll rep rod uce on ly a p a rt o f th ete x t tha t de a ls w ith ga s tu be s .S pea ke r: M r. R oss M itch e ll (M itch e ll)In te rv iew e r: R o sem ary L ongo (R L )

M itche ll: I w ou ld a lw a ys g e t o u t 7 o r 8 o r 9ga s tub es and hea t them up a litt le b it to b u ildth em up fo r a fte rno on w o rk . B y hea ting the setube s and le tting th em se t from 9 :00 un til w es ta rted a ro und I : 1 5 o r I :3 0 the n you w ou ldha ve 8 -10 tu be s fo r the a fte rno on w o rk . B e -cau se if you d h ave to h ave a tu be fo r aheavy pa rt, su ch as a pe lv is o r a sp ine , th a ttube the n w ou ld be to o so ft to do ano the rsp ine o r a sku ll o n a shou ld e r. Y ou wou ld the nha ve to change th e tu bes and ge t ou t an ad -d ition a l tu be and se t a no th e r on e as id e .

R L : O nce you used a tube fo r th e d ay w asit the n pu t a s id e un til it cou ld b u ild up aga in?

M itch e ll: Y o u cou ld do sm a ll pa rts , s uchas hand s o r a n e lbow o r a w ris t, b u t if yo u hadto d o a heavy pa rt, y ou cou ld n t u se th a tsam e tub e fo r a t lea s t a coup le o f ho u rs , itw ou ld take it th a t lo ng to b u ild u p fo r th e p en -e tna tin g powe r th a t y ou needed . W e had nom e te rs . Th e on ly m e te r w e eve r h ad w as anamm e te r. Y ou a lw a ys lo oke d a t th e tu be . Y ouw ou ld tes t it o n th e firs t th ree bu tton s o f therh eo s ta t th a t you had . A nd you w ou ld lo ok a tthe co lo r, and th e co lo r w as w ha t you jud ged ,to de te rm in e w he the r th e tu be w as ha rd o rso ft. S om e tu be s , w hen the y w e re ve ry h a rd ,w e re ligh t g ree n , a nd so rt o f cac k led w henyou pu t a cu rren t th ro ugh it. N ow I had onespec ia l tub e th a t I u sed fo r s in us w o rk . It w a s ano ld G re ene and B aue r tu be . I w ou ld s ta rt tha tto do a panana sa l s in us , I w ou ld s ta rt th a t w itha ca ck le an d so fo rth , an d le t th e m ach in e ru nun til I co u ld see th e ca tho de s tream . A fte r tha tI knew tha t th a t w ou ld be enough to do a s i-nu s . T ha t tub e w ou ld b e se t as id e th en to d o ala te ra l fo r th e spheno id s inu ses o r m aybe a

m as to id . T he m a jo rity o f the tub es we u sed ,w ere M ach le tt a nd M aca llis te r W ig g ins tu be s ;a lso , a few o f the G re ene and Baue r tu be s .

In the ea rly d ays o f x rays , it w as s igh t andso und . N ow if you look a t the m anua l w rittenb y D r. Je rm an you w ill find ou t, in those daystha t he had w ritte n tha t the re w as one m anwho d id such beau tifu l lum ba r sp ine s and hetrie d to fin d ou t how he d id them . H e jus ttu rn ed the m ach in e o n , a nd w hen th e ca th -ode s tre am s s ta rte d , th e p la te w as e xposed .H e d id beau tifu l w o rk , b u t th ey h ad no o th e rm ete rs o the r than amm ete rs in tho se days .Te lling how m uch a tu be cou ld p rodu ce w asb y s igh t, tha t w as the p rob lem . O f cou rsew hen you pu t a d iffe ren t tu be in to th e tu bes tan d , a nd you saw a so rt o f p ink ish -g ree n be -tw een the ca tho de and th e anode you dknow th a t the tub e w as to o so ft to d o an y k indo f w o rk e xcep t m aybe a face , bu t yo u de -pended upon th e co lo r o f th e tu be .

A n y room w e w ou ld equ ip in th ose daysw ou ld ha ve racks w h ich had a b ig h o le inw h ich you cou ld p u t th e tu be s . T he re w e re a l-w ays 6 o r 8 tu be s the re , so if on e tub e w as to oso ft you jus t und id tw o c lam ps on e ithe r s id e o fthe g lass b ow l an d pu t a n ew tu be in an d te s t-ed tha t o u t. N ow the th in g w as , too , a fte r youused tha t tube m aybe the ne x t pa tie n t w a s fo ra heavy pa rt an d you d h ave to ch ange you rtub e aga in . S o you co u ld n t dep end upon us-in g the sam e tu be fo r tw o exam ina tion s , e x -ce p t p ro bab ly if the firs t w as fo r ju s t a fin ge r o ra hand o r the n you cou ld g o to a sp in e , o r if itw as a sp ine you cou ld p rob ab ly d o a hand o ra w ris t a fte r th a t w ith the sam e tu be . T hen ifyo u h ad a stom ach ca se com ing in , w he re yo uhad m ore pene tra tio n needed you w ou ldha ve to change you r tu be aga in . Th e re w asa lw ays a t leas t 1 0 o r 12 changes o f tub es ifyo u w e re wo rk in g fo r ove r a n hou r in the o f-fice . T h e re wa s no se t ru le tha t yo u co u ld useth e sam e tube . S noo k cam e ou t w ith a tube ,th ey ca lled it the S nook H yd rog en TubeA fte r tw o o f these e xp lode d in the o ffic e , w hyw e gave up on th ose and w a ite d un til C oo -lid ge cam e ou t w ith h is C oo lidge tub e .

H igh vo ltag e wa s p rod uce d e ith e r by in -du c tion co ils o r b y e lec tros ta tic gen e ra to rs .S ta t ic m a ch ines tend ed to be favo red , b u t in -


6/16

SNooK s RECT IFY ING SW ITCH . T he insert sh ow s the fir stSnook (at Je fferson H osp ita l in Ph ilad elp hia ) .


I I I 8 Rad ioGraph ics #{149 }N ovem be r, 1 98 9 #{149 }Vo lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog ra ph

du c tio n co ils w e re le ss e xpens iv e . A n ex trem e -ly im po rta n t de ve lopm en t w as th e in te nn up -te r le s s tra ns fo rm e r de ve lop ed b y H om e r C .S nook . T h is cou ld o n ly b e used w he re a lte rna t-ing cu rre n t w as ava ila b le , an d in th e e a rlyda ys th is w a s an uncomm on s itu a tion . T he pn in -c ip le o f the tran s fo rm e r (the so -ca lled s tep -up tran s fo rm e r) is n ow w e ll-k nown , b u tS nook s s ys tem in c lud ed a cross -a rm m echan i-ca l re c tif ie r d r iv en b y a syn ch ro nous m o to r.T h is resu lte d in h igh vo ltag e be in g app lie d tothe x -ra y tu be nea r the p ea ks o f the vo lta gecy c le , a nd on ly in th e co rrec t po la r ity , th ism ean t th a t th e ave rag e vo ltag e , w h ile cu rre n tflow ed in the tub e , w as nea r th e pea k , a s itua -tion tha t y ie lde d e ffic ien t p ro du c tio n o f x ra ysa nd used bo th h a lves o f the vo lta ge w ave -fo rm . S im ila r re su lts to da y a re a ch ie ved b yth re e -p ha se c ircu its w ith so lid -s ta te n ec tif ica -tion . T he firs t o f th e Snoo k sys tem s w as ins ta lle da t th e Je ffe rso n H osp ita l in P h ilad e lph ia in Juneo f 1 907 , a nd sho rtly the rea fte r, Joh ns Hopk in sH o sp ita l pu rcha sed one . T he la ffen , a t lea s t,w a s s till in op e ra tion , b e ing h ea v ily used , asla te a s 1 946 (F ig u re 8 ). S u cce ss fu l va lv e tube sfo r rec tif ica tio n d id n o t b ecom e comm erc ia llya va ilab le u n til 19 26 . Snoo k s sy s tem in c lude d am illiam pe re m e te r. G rigg s ta te s th a t even theea rlie r m ode ls w e re ca pab le o f p ro du c ing 1 00k ilo vo lts pe ak a t 1 00 m illiam pe res , m o re tha nth e e x is tin g x -ra y tub es cou ld ca rry . In 19 16 ,

F ig ure 8S nook s re c tify ing sw itch T h is sh ow s th ecom ple te c ircu it, e xce pt fo r the filam en tvo ltag e su pp ly . T he au to trans fonm er, thes tep -u p (h igh -vo ltag e ) tra ns fo rm er and th ec ross -a rm sw itch in g a ppa ra tu s d riv en b y asyn ch ro nous m oto r a re show n.

S nook m ade a va ila b le a th ir ty -b u tton au to -tran s fo rm e r in th e m a in line c ircu it fo r se le c tin gk ilo vo lts -p ea k , a c ruc ia l fa c to r in co n tro l. A llp re se n t g ene ra to rs in co rp o ra te th is d ev ice .

D u ring the firs t ye a r, 1 89 6 , m an y de ve l-o pm en ts occu rred th a t a re s till in co rp o ra te din to m ode rn s ys tem s . C a th ode s w e re con -s tru c ted in cup -sh ape to p ro v ide fo cuss ing o f e le c tron s . Th e im po rta nce o f a sm a ll a reaem itt ing x ra ys w as re co gn ize d a t an ea rlys ta ge (F igu re 9 ). in the ea rly s tage s a ls o , tu be sw e re co ns tru c ted w ith th e a node a lig ne d w ithth e a x is o f the tub e w ith b u t its s u rface se t a ta n ang le , m u ch like m ode rn tub es . Th e x raysw e re th en p rod uced b y e lec tron s h itt in g them e ta l an ode ra the r tha n the g las s w a il o f th etu be . W e now know tha t th e em is s io n o f x ray sis m ore e ffic ien t the h igh e r the a tom ic num be ro f the ta rge t m a te ria l, so tha t th is d es ig nchange rep rese n te d a s ign if ic an t ad van ce , a I-low ing fo r sho rte n e xposu re tim es . T he ea rlytu be s , e ven so , p resen te d p ro b lem s assoc ia t-e d w ith a node hea ting d u rin g p ro lo ng ed ex-p osu res . F igu re 1 0 is a d iag ram o f a m ode rn x -ra y tub e , c irca 1903 .

T he im po rtan ce o f d iap h ragm s to e lim i-n a te as m uch a s poss ib le o f the o ff- fo cu s ra -d ia tio n w a s a lso app rec ia te d . A n e le gan t ap -p lica tlon is sh ow n in W illiam R o llin s In te rna l D ia -p hnagm Tube (F ig u re 1 1 ), w h ic h w a s illu s tra tedin a n a rtic le pub lish ed in 1 899 . Tube sh ie ld in g


7/16

I 1 tel to l r nc ti t: al X .I C;i v Wor k m d A llici A r ts orol S i r

ST . LOU IS . JU LY . 1 899 .OL.;7 .ROENT ( i ET l LIDNT NOTES .

I n the accom panyin g F ig . 42 5% sh own.0 form of in tern a l d iaphragm tub e m en#{149 }tioned in Note xli. Fo r m os t medica lwor k the best definition is o f le ss im p ortan ce eha n1th e am oun t of ligh t, bu t

. % (1flection from ladling i t. n step towa rd l ttcr rcsu ltc p earan ce of the t s il w henshown in F ig . 3 fl r ing is Produc t b y the forc .s wicom e th rough th e oj nin g in tfitph ragm . T he w id , d ark r ing issh adow of th e diaph ragm . as ever lb eyond this cen tra l ligh t irc ic is c :t

F ocus TUBE . C la im ed by , an d ascribed to , m any - itw as orig ina lly des ig ned by Si r Herbert Jack son (1863-

1936) .

I: i, ; . 42. - --i,i , i . E \ l.IilIT No rrs. .-IN rruvA I. l .srH kM ;sI Tier .tl,er . . are strioL tures like t l,& teith an dhon es w her ,: it is va lu a lil. B y corn -b iiiing the in ternal d iap liiag rn w ith thethu I i g la ss d iap liragni, sh own in F ig . 34aiiil in section iii F ig . 42. WC ou ch im -p rove th e d e iin io n, and if, in add ition ,w c cover th e P to lC pho tographed bya per forated screen of n on.rad isb le m a-terial to prcveiit d if fu sed ligh t and to .

by the extern a l d iaph ragm : p rar tia ll the wa ves w h ich are u sed Cth rough th e centra l open in g in the inna l d ia ph ragm . so th at th e u tilized an t area is a lw ay s sm all.

NOTS ELVI-THE ANODE RUsh.In No te xx th e a no de ru sh wa s ii

tion ed and its effec ta o n the ta rg et t11*IinNotex x i H ersia t figu reof

_ _ \\ \

V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }Rad loGraph ics I I I 9

Feldman T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y (1 8 9 6 -1 9 2 0 )

w as used in som e Ins ta lla tion s , b u t no t a ll. F ig -un e 12 , d a te d 1899 , sh ow s flu o ros cop y be in gpe rfo rm ed w ith a tu be co ve re d w ith a h andrubbe r sh ie ld . O ne m ig h t w onde r h ow e ffe c -tiv e th is w a s . in c ide n ta lly , the g ene ra to r w as am o to r-d rive n s ta tic m a ch ine . Th e fa ilu re tosh ie ld tub es su re ly w a s re sp on s ib le fo r m an y o fthe ra d ia tion In ju r ie s tha t o ccu rred in the ea rlyda ys . F iltra tio n o f the use fu l b eam w as fre -qu en tly used and w as be lie ve d to im p rove thequa lity o f th e Im ages . W e now know th a t theva lu e o f filtra tion is m a in ly to d iffe ren tia lly a t-te nu a te th e low -en e rg y pho to ns w h ich w ou ld

Figure 9Ske tch o f a fo cus tub e Th is tu be de s ig n p rob ab lyda te s from ea rly 1 896 .

F i g u r e 1 1R ollin s In te rna l D ia ph ra gm T u-be In m ode rn tub es the lim ita -tio n o f o ff- fo cus rad ia tio n is a c -com pIish ed b y co llim atio n ex te rn alto the tub e .

no t co n tr ib u te s ig n if ic an tly to the im age , b u tw h ich w ou ld resu lt in un ne ce ssa ry rad ia tiond ose to th e supe rfic ia l tiss ues . T h is m ay no tha ve been w e ll-und e rs to od in the e a rly yea rs .

T he appa ra tu s u sed was no t sh ockp roo f,q u ite th e con tra ry . E lec tro cu tion w a s con s id -e re d a rea l ha za rd , an d som e dea th s w e re , infac t, reco rde d . T he firs t sho ckp roo f u n it is be -Ile ve d to ha ve been W a ite s o il- Im m erse d , ra -d ia tion -p roo f m ob ile un it, w h ic h da te s from1919 . Th is w as no t ye t a n app lica tio n o f s hock -p ro o f cab le s .

,\\

SCALC

F ig ure 1 0A M ode rn x -ray tub e ( 1 9 03 o n e arlie r)


8/16

F ig ure 1 2F luo roscopy ( 1 899 ) w ith a hand -he ld fluo roscope (fre -q uen tly ca lle d a c ryp to sco pe in tho se days ). N o tetha t the re is som e so rt o f sh ie ld a ro und th e x -ra y tub e .T he m oto r an d be lt ind ica te th a t th is is a s ta tic g ene ra -Figure13Ed ison lo ok in g in to h is fluo ro sco pe Da Ily is thesub ject .

T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y (1 8 9 6 -1 9 2 0 ) F#{149} idman

I I 20 Rad ioGraph ics #{149 }N ovem be r, 198 9 V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h

Now , le t u s re tu rn to te ch n ica l de ve lop -m en ts in v isua liz ing and re co rd in g the im age .R oen tge n had , a s w a s s ta ted ea rlie r, u sed asc ree n coa ted w ith ba rium p la tino cyan id e fo rthe v is ua liza tion o f o b jec ts p lace d in the x -raybeam . Th is co u ld b e ca lle d fluo no sco py , i.e .,v isu a liz a tion o f th e shadow s in re a lt im e ,w h ile the x -ray b eam was on . R oen tg en hada ls o re co rded im age s by d irec t exp osu re o fph o tog rap h ic p la tes . Th om as E d iso n , s ta rtingw o rk a lm os t im m ed ia te ly up on lea rn in g o fR oen tg en s d iscove ry , se t o u t to fin d th ebe s t lum in escen t s c ree n m a te ria l. It ap pea rsth a t th e m a te ria l he p re fe rred , n a tu ra l ca lc iumtu ng s ta te , w as used by P ro fesso r N icho la s Pu -p in to m ake w ha t is ge ne ra lly ac cep ted to beth e firs t rad io g rap h us ing a n in te ns ify ings c ree n , o n Feb ru a ry 2 , 1 896 . E d ison , h ow eve r,s aw th e fu tu re in flu o ro sco py , ra the r th an in ra -d io gn aphy , an d he cons tru c ted a de v ice h ein it ia lly ca lle d th e V itas cope , an d sub se -

tor .

q ue n tly ca lled a flu o ro sco pe . F igu re 12show s E d iso n loo k ing a t th e im age o f the hando f h is u n fo rtun a te a ss is tan t, C la ren ce M . D a ily .(H e is b e lie ved to b e th e firs t pe rson to d ie o f xray in du ced in ju rie s . H e d ied in 19 04 ). T he x -ra ytu be is ins id e the wooden bo x on w h ich th ehand is res ting . Am ong o th e rs w ho bu ilt s im ila rd ev ice s , an d wh ich , in fac t, an te da te d E d is -o n s 5V itas cope , w e re Sa lv io n i in P enug ia(F eb rua ry 5 , 18 96 ) an d M ag i a t P rin ce ton U n i-v e rs ity (a lso F eb rua ry 5 , 18 96 ). Th e ir d ev ic esb o th u sed ba rium p la tino cya n ide . A s id e fromth e u se o f th is typ e o f de v ice in m ed ica l d ia g -n os is (F ig u re 12 ), m any ra d io log is ts u se d it tote s t th e ha rd ne ss o f the x -ray tu be by p lac -ing o ne o f the ir h an ds be tw een the tu be andth e fluo roscope . T h is re su lted in m any trag ic in -s tan ces o f ra d ia tion in ju ry . F ig u re 14 is a pho to -g rap h o f a ra d io log is t te s tin g the h a rd ne ss o f a tu be ; it w as taken in 1896 .


9/16

.O { 1 4 9 }

*1

t


V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog ram #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }Rad ioGraph ics I I 2 1

F ig ure 1 4The c las s ica l s tan ce o fthe p ion ee rtes ting th e ha rd ne ss o f the tub e(1896 )

B a rium p ia tin oc yan id e sc re en s w e re , inm an y resp ec ts , ide a l, bu t the y h ad a se rio uss tab ility p ro b lem , p rin c ip a lly be ca use o f th elo ss o f w a te r o f c ry s ta lliza tion . N o to ta lly sa tis -fac to ry so lu tio n to th is w as e ve r de ve lo ped . As ta b le su bs titu te com po sed o f W illem ite (z in co rth os ilica te ) w as deve loped , howeve r. T hesc re en w as s ta b le an d ga ve a b righ t im age ,b u t the im age w as g ra iny a nd th e sc ree ne xh ib ited phospho rescen ce . The re su lting im -a ge lag w as a cons id e rab le im ped im en t influ o ro sco py w hen the flu o ros cope was m ovedfrom one pos itio n to a no th e r. T he se sc re en s ,n eve rth e les s , e n joye d a ce rta in de g re e o fp opu la r ity . T he firs t re a l im p ro vem en t in flu o -ros cop y , h ow eve r, re ach ed the m a rke t inJune , 1 914 , w hen th e Pa tte rson F luo roscop ics c ree n com posed o f ca dm ium tungs ta te w asannounced .

In th e p ro duc tio n o f rad io g ra ph s , th e needto p reven t m o tion un shanpne ss w a s pa in fu llya ppa ren t, an d w ha te ve r cou ld re duce e xpo -su re tim e s was w e lcom ed . The in te ns ify ings c ree n w as obv io us ly a t le as t a pa rtia l so lu tion .In th e ea rly d ays o f the use o f in ten s ify in gsc ree ns , the re w e re se rio us p rob lem s o f film -sc ree n con ta c t. in 1 916 , C V . P a tte rso n (o f th eP a tte rs on F lu o ro sco p ic S cree n ) jo ine d F . W .R eu te r to fo rm a pa rtn e rsh ip , the P a tte rso nSc re en Com pany . In tha t ye a r, the y a n -n ounced th e P a tte rs on S tan da rd In ten s ify in g

S cre en . T h is w a s som ew ha t s low e r th an ex is t-ing s c ree ns , bu t it w a s a fin e g ra in sc ree n o fe xce llen t un ifo rm ity . T h e nex t s te p w a s tosa ndw ich th e film be tw een tw o sc ree ns .T hough film w as the n a s ing le em u ls ion typ e ,sp eed w as inc re ased . In 1 918 K oda k an -n ounced a film w ith em u ls ion o n bo th s id es ,a nd , in the m ean tim e , Pa tte rson had deve l-o pe d a com b in a tio n : the fron t sc re en was aS pec ia l in ten s ify in g sc re en , an d the backs c ree n , th e Pa tte rson S tanda rd .

C oa tin g s c ree ns to m ake it po ss ib le toc le an them w as a fo rm id ab le p rob lem , bu tP a tte rso n announced th is s ig n ifica n t a ch ieve -m en t in 1 921 . Fu rth e r d eve lopm en ts o ccu rreda fte r 1 920 , w ith E as tm an K oda k en te rin g thefie ld ; w ith P a tte rs on o ffe r ing H i S peed and P anS peed sc ree ns ; an d w ith D upon t a cq u ir in g th eP a tte rs on S cre en Com pany in 1 943 . The reh ave been fu rthe r d eve lo pm en ts b y the se ando the r m anu fa c tu re rs , cu lm ina tin g in th e d eve l-opm en t o f ra re -ea rth sc re en s , w h ich a re thep rese nt s tan da rd .E a rly rad io g ra ph y w as done m a in ly w ithg las s p la te s . B e fo re 1 880 , It w as d iff icu lt to ob -tam d ry p la te s , w e t p la tes w e re th e p repon -de ran t re co rd in g m ed ium fo r p ho to g ra ph y .D ry g la ss p la tes cam e ju s t in tim e fo r the be -g inn in g o f rad io lo gy . In th e e a rly ye a rs , m o s tp la tes u sed fo r ra d iog raph y w e re the sam e a stho se used fo r p ic to r ia l a nd po rtra it p ho to gna -


10/16

T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y (1 8 9 6 -1 9 2 0 ) Fe ldman

I I 2 2 Rad ioGraph ics #{149 }Novem be r, 1 98 9 V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog ra ph

ph y . It w a s rea lize d tha t p la te s o f h ig he r sens i-t iv ity cou ld b e p ro du ced , an d w ith in ab ou tfiv e yea rs o f R oen tge n s d is co ve ry , p la te s w itha h igh e r con cen tra tio n o f s ilve r b rom ide pe run it a rea , an d thu s w ith a h ig he r se ns itiv ity ,w e re be in g m anu fac tu re d . T he ca lc ium tun g -s ta te in te ns ify ing sc re en s in tro du ced in th esecond de cade em itte d b lu e lig h t, w h ich w asidea l fo r th e b lu e -se ns itiv e em u ls io ns tha t w e rebe in g u sed . D eve lopm en t o f th e p la tes (o rfilm s ) w as usua lly d one in tra ys so th a t v isua lc on tro l w as po ss ib le . T h is con tro l w as used tocom pen sa te fo r the u nce rta in tie s o f rad ia tione xposu res from gas tub es . O ften , na d iog rap hsw e re u sed a s nega tiv es to m ake p rin ts on pho -to g rap h ic pa pe r. Th is a ffo rde d a fu rthe r o p -p o rtun ity fo r m an ipu la tion o f the im age .

T he m ove aw ay from g la ss p la tes w a s a l-m os t fo rced b y th e d iff icu lty o f ob ta in ing g las sfrom Eu rope , espec ia lly B e lg ium , du rin g W o rldW an I. A s w as m en tio ne d ea rlie r, d ou b le em u l-s ion film becam e ava ilab le in 1 918 , an d th is ,toge the r w ith the doub le -sc re en ca sse tte s ,m ade fo r a g re a t im p ro vem en t in rece p to rsp eed . T he ava ilab ility o f the C oo lidg e tub em ade a g re a t im pac t o n p rocess in g o f film sand p la tes , b eca use th e e xpo su res w e re nowcon tro lle d a nd re p rod uc ib le . Th is m ean t th a ts ta nda rd ize d de ve lo pm en t, in c lud in g s tan -d a rd ize d tim es , w as po ss ib le . A lso , m u ltip lefilm s suspended ve rtica lly in a deep tan k cou ldbe de ve lo ped s im u lta ne ous ly , be ca use obsen -va tio n d u rin g de ve lo pm en t w as no lon ge rnecessa ry .

W . D . C oo lidg e desc rib ed h is tub e in th e D e -cem be r, 19 13 , P hys ic a l R e v iew , an d an ab -s tra c t, w ith cons id e ra b le d e ta il, ap pea red inT he Am e rica n Jou rna l o f R oen tg eno log y fo rJ an ua ry , 19 14 (6) . F igu re 15 show s h is d ia g ramo f th e tu be , an d F igu re 1 6 show s the e lec tr ica lc on ne c tio ns . T he tube w as h igh ly eva cua ted(a bou t 0 .00 1 m ic ron ). Th e sou rce o f e lec tron sw a s th e hea ted filam en t w ith in the ca tho des tru c tu re . Th e tem pe ra tu re o f the filam en t w a sad jus te d b y va ry ing the cu rren t pa ss ingth rou gh it. Th e app lied k ilvo ltag e , from anodeto ca thode , ha d neg lig ib le in flu en ce on theam oun t o f c u rren t flow ing from ca th ode to a n -o de , p rov ide d th a t th e vo ltag e w as m o re th ana few k ilo vo lts (em iss io n -lim ite d cu rre n t).H ig h va cuum and m e tic u lou s ou t-g as s in g o f

a ll the in te r io r pa rts o f the d ev ice w e re ab so -lu te ly c ruc ia l fo r the su cce ss fu l o pe ra tio n o fth e C oo lidg e tu be . In the fo llow ing a rtic le inth e sam e jo u rn a l, C o le ga ve a p re lim in a ry re -p o rt on th e app lica tion s o f the C oo lid ge tub e(7,), bu t th e tu be w as no t rea d ily a va ilab le fo rth e firs t few yea rs b ecause o f W orld W a r I. W ithth e in trod uc tion o f th e C oo lidg e tub e in to ra -d io lo g ica l p rac tice , it a t la s t be cam e po ss ib leto con tro l ra d ia tion e xposu res a ccu ra te ly a ndcon s is te n tly . Fu rth e r d eve lo pm en ts w e re ye t tocom e , bu t th is rep rese n te d a m a jo r tech n ica lre vo lu tion in ra d io log y .

A good d iscus s io n o f an ti-sca tte r g r id s isfo un d in B re che r a nd B reche r (2 p p . 2 0 5 -2 1 0 ).They po in t ou t tha t the b lu rr in g o f the im agecau sed by rad ia tion sca tte red from th e irrad i-a ted sub je c t w as unde rs to od as ea rly asM a rch , 18 96 , a nd in th e e a rly p a rt o f 190 3 D r.O tto Pa sche in B e rne , Sw itz e rland , s ugges te dand had cons truc te d an in gen ious sys tem us-ing s ynch ron iz ed trave lin g -s lit a pe rtu res , o nebe tw een the tub e and the pa tie n t a nd onebe tw een the pa tie n t a nd the x -ra y p la te . T h isd id n o t b ecom e th e usua l ap pa ra tus in p ra c -tic e , b u t B ucky con ce iv ed h is g rid d es ig ns in1913 and app lied fo r p a te n ts fo r bo th a s ta -tion a ry g rid an d a m ov in g g rid . A fte r a se ries o fp rob lem s and deve lopm en ts , w ith the im pon -tan t in vo lv em en t o f D r. E ugene W . C a ldw e ilan d D r. H o llis E . P o tte r, G ene ra l E lec tr ic m a rke t-ed the Po tte r-B u cky g rid in 19 21 , a nd its useha s been w ide sp read eve r s ince .

T he the rapeu tic use o f x ray s s ta rte d a t ave ry ea rly s ta ge a fte r R oen tg en s d isco ve ry .G ru bbe m ay ha ve been th e firs t to ha ve tre a t-e d a m a lign an t le s ion (2 c h 8 ). G rubbe s c la imw as th a t he tre a ted a pa tie n t fo r c a rc inom ao f th e b rea s t on Janua ry 2 9 , 1896 . H e sa id th a the gave th is pa tie n t 18 trea tm en ts . It is w o rthn o ting tha t G rub be rep o rted tha t h e usedshee t lea d to p ro te c t the he a lthy p a rts a d ja -c en t to the d isea sed a rea . In th e e a rly yea rsth e a pp lica b ility o f x ra ys fo r th e trea tm en t o fc an ce r w a s lim ited b y th e low k ilo vo ltag eava ilab le a nd , h en ce by the low pene tra nceo f the b eam s. B ra chy th e ra py u s ing rad ium andra don w as m ore im po rtan t tha n e x te rn a lb eam th e rap y un til h ig he r en e rgy e x te rn a lb eam s becam e ava ilab le a pp rox im a te ly in1 9 21 .


11/16

Ftc. 4

F ig ure 1 5A ske tch o f C oo lidg e s tub e (19 14 ).

M

Fe l dman T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y ( 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 2 0 )

V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h #{149 }N ovem be r, 1 98 9 #{149 }Rad ioGraph ics I I 23

F ig ure 1 6A d iag ram o f th e e lec tr ic co nne c tions to th e C oo -lid ge tu be T he w ires a t th e top o f th e d iag ram , o fcou rse , co nnec t to th e seconda ry o f the h ig h -vo lta get r ans fo rme r .

T he ha za rd s o f x ra ys w e re recogn ized a l-m o s t im m ed ia te ly a fte r R oen tge n s an noun ce -m en t. T he trag ic case o f D a ily h as b een m en -tion ed . G rubbe m ay have been the firs t p e rso nto rece ive a re co gn iza b le in ju ry . H e d ied o fm e tas ta tic can ce r in 19 60 .

F in a lly , b y w a y o f summ a ry , F igu re s 17 -27have been chosen to illu s tra te som e o f the de -ve lo pm en ts a nd to p rov ide som e fe e lin g fo rfirs t 2 5 ye a rs o f rad io lo gy . O ne m us t b e tre -

m endou s ly im p re sse d w ith th e ing enu ity o f thep io nee rs and the va rie ty and qua lity o f thew o rk the y w e re ab le to p rod uce unde r w ha tw e w ou ld co ns id e r ve ry d iff icu lt c on d ition s .

I w is h to exp res s m y deep app re c ia tio n toD r. N ancy Kn ig h t, c u ra to r o f h is to ry a t T heAm erican C o lle ge o f R ad io logy , fo r he n a ss is -tan ce and gu ida nce .


12/16

in C hica go (Fe b ru a ry 8 , 1 896 )

T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y ( 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 2 0 ) F# {149 } ldman

I I 24 Rad ioGraph ics #{149 }N ovem be r, 1 989 #{149 }V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h

Figure 18Edw ard Je nm an is tu rn ing th e s ta t-ic m ac hine w hile a n u nide ntifiedfrien d has h is hand in the beam(F eb rua ry 8 , 18 96 )


13/16

V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h #{149 }N ovem be r, 1 98 9 #{149 }Rad loGraph lcs I I 25

Fe l dman T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y ( 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 2 0 )

T 5te S IO Np HOURS :ccv i e .t i . : I-I P .M .

81 7 , 81 8 , 81 CHAM PLA IN BU ILD ING , S TATE AND MAD ISON 5Th., C AGO

T h e ! a , ges t Laboratory o f i t shind in th e. . 0 .5 O #{149} y si,-%y- W

T LADORA FORV i equ ipp ed w ith th e b est and ern st com p le te X .R .,: ,,4 1 ap# {2 31} *ratiw m ad e. R ad iograp h. m ad e of all cond ie .ons dem onstrab le bc the X-R$y . W e also so lig lt70 Sf C i#{1 49}5* w hich ay n eed e ith er Static G alva nic or F a dk Electr icity . Exp ert em e im om y re.de rsdill M .4IC O.IAgaI caus .

5aI a tte ts the n to the tru tmsn tdCsne i r , Lupu s, E cza,Tuberculosia,etc bytheX.RyIw s M e meikal p , o feu jpe

luspectiou o f ou r w o rk in v ited . C orr ejp o nd en c e solicited. Fe e ta b le on app i lea t ins .EM IL IL GRUBB B . S ., M . D ., M sn sg sr.

Figure 19A dv ertis em en tfo r G rub be s lab ora to ry (1 899 )

F ig ur e 2 0The o ffice o f W . 0 . H om er, w ho is de sc ribe d by G n ig g as R oen tge nQ uack I (1 89 9 )


14/16

*( _ . , . I

- -! * - . ,oo1 i IF

I I 26 Rad ioGraph ics #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h


Frac tu re -e

Mau senbu l le t

F ig ur e 2 1R ad io g rap h take n du ring Span is h -A merican W ar( 1898 ) T he qua lity is po o r b y tod ay s s ta nd a rd s ,bu t th e rad io g ra ph p ro bab ly se rve d its in tend ed pun -p o se .

Figure 22Rad ia t i on in ju ry to th e sk in o f a S pan ish -Am en -can W an so ld ien a s a nesu lt o f a n x -n ay exam i-nation ( 1898 )

F ig ur e 2 3A s tu dy o f a ng io gra ph y ( 1 899 ) o n a fem a le cadave r The loca le is theA merica n S choo l o f O ste opa thy in K irksv ille , M is sou ri. W illiam S mithis th e fig u re o n the rig h t w ith the c iga r. H e is d esc rib ed b y G rig g a san o steo pa th ic roe ntge n p io ne er.


15/16

-.1 . 51 the

,

I!

V o lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }Rad loGraph ics I I 27


F ig ur e 2 4The x-ray lab o ra to ry o f W olfram C .F uc hs in C hica go ( 1 900 ) It w a srepor ted (2 , p . 64 ) th a t F uchs hadpe rfo rm ed m ore tha n 1400 x-ra yexam in a tion s by the end o f 1896 .

-

Figure25F ra nk B o rze li s tan ds on a cha ir to lo ok in to a c ry p tos cope a s th isty pe o f ha nd -h e ld flu o ros co pe was ca lled . Th e x -ray o u tfit w a s a W aitea nd Ba rtle tt A rm y B ed s id e U nit. T he se ffing is the Ba se H osp ita l inG r an d B lo ff er ea u x ( 191 5 ). T h is w as the firs t s toc k x -ra y e qu ipm en tu s ing a C oo lid ge ho t ca th ode tub e .


16/16

I U

r ;

F ig ure 2 6A m ode rn x -ray room c irc a191 9 T he loca tio n is n o ts ta te d . N ote tha t th e re a re noshockp ro o f cab les . T he x -ra ytu be appea rs to be m oun tedw ith in a lea d g las s bow l, an da co llim atin g a rran gem en t isappa ren t .

F ig ur e 2 7F lu onoscop y (p osed , o bv io us ly ) in19 1 9 N o te tha t th e e qu ipm en t isn o t sh ock p ro o f.

I I 28 Rad ioGraph ics #{149 }N ovem be r, 19 89 #{149 }Vo lum e 9 , N um be r 6 , M onog rap h

T e c h n ic a l h is to ry o f ra d io lo g y ( 1 8 9 6 - 1 9 2 0 )

References

Fe l dman

I , G rlgg ERN . T he tra il o f th e in v is ib le lig h t. S p rIn g fie ld , Il l.:C ha rle s C . T ho ma s, 1 9 6 5 .2 . B re che r P . B recher E . The rays . B a ltim o re : W illiam s & W il-

k ins , 1 9 6 9 .3 . The Am e rican Co lleg e o f R ad io logy . The sc ien ce o f ra -d io log y . 1933 .

4. C o rn JJ . ed . Im ag ing tom o rrow : H is to ry , te chno log y andthe Am e rican fu tu re . C am b rid ge , M ass . : M IT P re s s .

5 . G lasser 0 . D r. W . C . R oen tg en . 2nd ed . S p rin g fie ld . Ill:C ha rle s C . T hom as. 1958 .

6. Coo lId ge W D . A powe rfu l ro en tgen ra y tube w ith a pu ree le c tro n d ischa rge . A JP 1914 ; 1 : I 1 5 -124 .

. 7. C o le LG . A p re lim ina ry repo rt o n the d iagnos tic andthe rapeu tic app lic a tio n o f th e C oo lid ge tube . A J I?1 9 14 ; 1 : 12 5 -1 3 1.

a sketch of the technical history of radiology from 1896 to 1920

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