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A SURVEY OF INDIGENEOUS STRATEGIES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF FOOD INSECURITY IN WAR AFFECTED

AREAS IN UGANDA: A STUDY CASE OF TESO REGION

By Kakuba Sultan Juma1 and John Mary Kanyamurwa2

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to investigate indigenous strategies in the management of food insecurity in war affected areas in Uganda: a study case of teso region. The objectives included: to find out the indigenous strategies used in production to respond to food insecurity resulting from civil war-inspired conflicts in the Teso region; analyse how these indigenous strategies used for promoting food security can be improved to address the food insecurity situations in Teso region; examine the relationship between indigenous food security strategies and management of post-harvest food losses in the post-conflict situations in Teso region and evaluate how local strategies for securing food contribute to the management of food extraction at the grassroots of society. An ethnographic research design was adopted where qualitative and quantitative data was collected from a sample of 200 respondents, who were selected using random, 22 informants purposeful and sampling techniques. The data sources included; questionnaire, Interviews, and Focus, Group discussions. Questionnaire was used to collect information from respondents who could not express themselves in English through the use of an interpreter in Ateso language indigenous knowledge practices continue to dominate farming activities that help in addressing food insecurity such as in managing soil fertility, pests and diseases management, harvesting and storage as well as animals husbandry. The study concludes that indigenous knowledge practices are still widely used among the in the study area. Indigenous knowledge practices needs to integrate into the modern strategies to use to cope with food insecurity. This requires to change the mindset and attitude of the local people through the extension services. behavioral, and methodological changes to give it a scientific touch, Small scale farmers should be involved in agricultural extension services rather than leaving the work to formally trained officers who may have little attachment to specific cultural practices in areas they operate. The study recommends that there is need to strengthen awareness especially by extension workers on indigenous knowledge practices integrating it with modern knowledge to allow local people appreciate their local knowledge as a pivotal force to enhance food security to cope with food scarcity.

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Introduction

Globally, the need for food storage lies in its seasonality, perishability, distribution and

marketing; particularly in the developing world. In Africa, this need is mainly due to seasonality

and perishability because most food crops are seasonal and depend on the rainy season. This is the

partial justification for the need to store crops from one rainy season to another. How people relate

with land to respond to food insecurity created by civil wars, drought, floods, other human and

natural disasters forms part of the largest extractive industry worldwide (Serote 2011). Unlike

developed countries, people in the developing world heavily rely on their indigenous strategies for

their food extraction and storage to secure food security, very often in war contexts. Food security

“refers to a situation that exists when all people at all times, have physical, socio-economic access

to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an

active and healthy life” (FAO, 2002).

Many people use indigenous strategies interchangeably with terms like traditional

knowledge, indigenous knowledge or local knowledge to mean the same. Nonetheless, Mpofu and

Miruka (2009) perceive indigenous knowledge as non-formal knowledge and skills developed

outside formal education system. According to Moahi (2012) indigenous knowledge strategies

refers to “knowledge that is possessed by communities and is used to understand their realities and

to resolve problems of survival of the community. For the purpose of this study, indigenous strategy

is used to refer to traditional practices or local ways used to increase and preserve food from being

wasted or stolen by the communal have-nots to prevent food insecurity. In striving to achieve this

goal, different communities rely on their indigenous survival and recovery strategies to preserve

food. According to Serote (2011), this encompasses technologies, know-how, beliefs, practices and

skills that help a community to achieve sustainable livelihood within their locality to avoid food

insecurity. Therefore, indigenous strategies are deeply embedded in traditional cultures. It is thus

limited to indigenous people living in a particular geographical area.

Food insecurity is seen as“consistent access to adequate food limited by a lack of money and

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other production resources at times during the year” (USDA, 2014). In that context, local strategies

are critical to local people in a community where they come from because they shape how that local

community uses its own knowledge experiences to make valuable sense out of their resources for

improved livelihood. It appears indigenous ways are a neglected approach to local problems such as

food insecurity. In that regard, building local people’s capacity to use the knowledge from their own

experience of food security would minimise food insecurity situations and build self-reliant

communities. However, since colonialism, modern technological strategies have overtaken African

strategies to prepare for food security emergencies and that are often a result of war-related conflicts

(Tudge, 2011). In Teso Region, located in Eastern Uganda, the 1980s civil war and the 2003 Joseph

Kony insurgency left many people displaced with little or no food production or preservation

options. This has left many people with weak food production, extraction and storage potential at

household and commercial levels. The extent to which indigenous knowledge and experiences have

been exploited to respond to food emergencies partly constitutes the objective for this study.

Statement of the Problem

This study examined the indigenous strategies used by households in the once war-affected

districts of Teso region in Uganda to analyze the relevant dynamics underlying food insecurity since

food security remains one of the government priorities in the country. Teso region is found in

Eastern Uganda, comprising of eight districts which are topographically located in the Eastern flat

plains of the country. This is one of the regions of the country where different rebel groups operated

with the intention of overthrowing the NRM government led President Yoweri Museni in the late

1980s. In the 1990s and 2000s, this region was similarly a centre of civil war and cattle raids

mainly led by Joseph Kony’s rebels and the Karimojong warriors respectively. As a consequence of

these conflicts, the region was hit by the worst food insecurity and largely remained dependent on

food aid from government and relief organizations for most of the 2000s (Buckley-Zistel (2008).

The conflict dynamics in the region did not only lead to human insecurity but also disrupted food

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production and relevant extraction processes in the region. These inauspicious developments left a

mark on the socio-economic wellbeing of the people in the region. Globally food security remains a

major pressing priority concern for both developed and developing countries. Literature reveals that

government and Non-Governmental Oganisations (NGOs) use western strategies to ensure food

security in war and other disaster-affected areas in developing countries to secure people's

livelihood amidst socio-economic hardships brought about by political unrest, with grossly

inadequate consideration of local strategies which leaves many with food and livelihood insecurities

(Nabudere, 2011; FAO, 2004). The food insecurities and related livelihood struggles by rural

households are likely to call for indigenous strategies which are not only to supplement the formal

strategies adopted by government and NGOs, but also to make the affected citizens more food

secure. Thus, indigenous strategies are likely to address the livelihood shortages since the local

livelihood milieu of which they are part is likely to provide alternative food production strategies

with relevant empowerment by government (Kapoor, 2008). Indeed, since food insecurity has been

a major challenge in the region as people are displaced and deprived of their involvement in

economic activities such as farming which has left them with inadequate basic needs and with high

levels of food insecurity. For example, majority of the people, in Uganda including those living in

Teso region are food insecure. The food insecurity trend in Uganda seems worrisome in light of

current evidence. Bahiigwa (1999) observed that 48% of the households in Uganda were food

secure while 52% were reportedly food insecure. In addressing the residents’ economic hardships,

the government of Uganda has taken a number of initiatives such as encouraging people to use

improved seeds, fertilizers and improved technology among others in a bid to increase productivity

to ensure food security. Unfortunately, indigenous knowledge and practices are rarely given due

consideration in the process. Achieving stable and adequate food supply to ensure households’

adequate socio-economic and physical access to food requires such incorporation because the

combination of government and indigenous approaches promotes local participation. Thus,

emphasis on scientific knowledge and practices should not be at the expense of the indigenous

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strategies but rather they should complement each other in order to achieve the best outcome. The

data obtained on indigenous strategies provides an enabling framework to stimulate and strengthen

the contribution of local people's knowledge to socio-economic development in the study area and

Uganda generally. Important to note is the fact that indigenous strategies are truly important in the

management of food insecurity not only among households in war affected area but also stable

areas. Thus, there is a need to study how indigenous strategies help households that were affected

by insurgencies to ensure food security. The current study explores the use of indigenous knowledge

among the initiatives to fight food insecurity resulting from war-related conflict in Teso region of

Uganda.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are to:

1. Find out the indigenous strategies used in production to respond to food insecurity resulting

from civil war-inspired conflicts in the Teso region.

2. Analyse how these indigenous strategies used for promoting food security can be improved

to address the food insecurity situations in Teso region.

3. Examine the relationship between indigenous food security strategies and management of

post-harvest food losses in the post-conflict situations in Teso region.

4. Evaluate how local strategies for securing food contribute to the management of food

extraction at the grassroots of society.

Study Questions

This study will focus on the following study questions:

1. How does war reduce food security – specifically: is it food theft, danger of going to the

fields, danger for shippers or retail stores to operate?

2. What are the indigenous strategies used by people in Teso region that was affected by war to

address food security issues?

3. Can these indigenous strategies used to promote food security be improved to address food

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insecurity situation in the Teso region?

4. How are indigenous food security strategies likely to affect the management of conflict

situations in Teso region?

5. To what extent do indigenous food security strategies contribute to the management of food

extraction processes at the grassroots of society?

Proposed Solutions

The Study hopes to come up with the following solutions:

1. Reduction in Food Insecurity in the study area using local strategies

2. Adequate Opportunities for government, civil society, decision-makers, humanitarian

organizations to prepare for a empowerment of local community using their own knowledge

in the study area to address the problem of food insecurity..

3. Effective local strategies to support modern strategies in addressing food insecurity in areas

affected by war.

4. Change of attitude towards local knowledge as inferior knowledge in solving socio-

economic problems

Intended/Expected Outcome

Studying indigenous strategies used in Teso region to produce and store food to deal with

food insecurity is relevant to respond to food deficiencies suffered from insurgencies which left the

population with weak ability to engage in agricultural production. The study is also timely as the

government launched the Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture (PMA) partly to give the

population capacity to re-engage more in agriculture to address food insecurity. Therefore, the study

on indigenous strategies used to preserve food effectively supports and contributes to the responses

to food insecurity. The study further provides mapping and identifies local strategies to fill gaps that

feed into food insecurity. Secondly, capacity of the local community in the study area would likely

develop through appreciating local knowledge into their own local strategies to ensure food

security. Thus the study easily convinces government, policy makers, the local community and

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other partners to practically utilise these strategies to promote food security. Besides, the study

presents useful information to government, development partners and civil society policy makers to

push for promotion and improvement of food security levels through utilization of indigenous

knowledge. The local people are likely to find results of this study relevant to improve their local

strategies blending them with modern technological strategies to manage food insecurity.

Additionally, the data that obtained on indigenous strategies provides a framework to stimulate and

strengthen the contribution of local people's knowledge to socio-economic development in the study

area and Uganda generally.

Theoretical Framework

Households response to food insecurity in the once war affected areas is complex. It requires

appropriate local knowledge strategies. This study largely focuses on indigenous knowledge

strategies used in coping with food insecurity drawing a lesson from entitlement approach. This

approach provides an explanation on how people can have access to food. It argues that an

individual(s) is entitled to own what they produce using their own knowledge and resources Sen

(1981) as cited in Liwenga (2003). Governments, policy makers in Africa and donor communities

pay little or no attention to indigenous knowledge strategies and skills in building ways to improve

rural community livelihood rather tends to fall on modern strategies. Important to note is that

indigenous knowledge strategies is a vital tool in the management of food insecurity. This study

hopes to sensitise and create awareness among African governments, policy makers, donor

communities and generally stakeholders in development of rural communities about the availability

indigenous strategies as a resourceful tool to ensure food security and peace building. The

theoretical framework presents and explains indigenous strategies as a tool to address food

insecurity. The study considers indigenous strategies as important instruments to offer hope to rural

communities to secure food to prevent food insecurity.

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Figure 1: Conceptual framework for indigenous knowledge strategies and management of

food insecurity

Source: Based on researcher’s conceptualization of the study

Figure 1 shows that the independent variable (indigenous knowledge strategies) is assumed

to have some level of influence on the dependent variable (management of food insecurity). The

figure also illustrates the indirect interface the intervening variables are likely to exert on both the

indigenous knowledge strategies and the management of food insecurity prospects. This indirect

relation is significant to the extent that it demonstrates the possible influences on the major issues

Food Processing - Food drying - Food technology Food Storage - The granary system - Food treatment & storage Food Marketing and services - Household barter systems - Food insecurity early warning

systems

Management of Food insecurity

Indigenous knowledge Strategies

- Mixed cropping systems - Perennial cropping system - Animal husbandry - Fruit tree farming - Grazing systems - Asset insurance - Communal safety nets - Self-insurance through labour

provision/distribution

INTERVENING VARIABLES

• Culture • Levels of poverty • Religion • Formal agricultural

organizational structure • Changing legal requirements • Other Government policies • Global climate change

- food security policy - management of food in

conflict situations - food extraction policy - Poverty reduction

strategy - Informal safety nets for

food security - Community-

empowerment mechanisms

Policy Outcomes

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the current study is focusing on. It indeed, shows that when intervening variables are totally

controlled in the ideal world, the linkages between indigenous knowledge strategies in Uganda and

the management of food insecurity opportunities is likely to feature the sub variables shown in

figure 1. These relationships are likely to yield information (outcomes) which will inform policy on

appropriate responses to food insecurity at the grassroots.

Methodology

Study Design

The present study collected both qualitative with quantitative data. Ethnography research

design was adopted. This is a design where emphasis is put on developing a description and

interpretative understanding of how different communities or peoples, perceive, experience,

interpret the nature of their lives (Burgess, 2016). In that regard, this approach was deemed fit to

provide a useful insight into how indigenous knowledge practices are constructed through shared

beliefs among communities because it is associated understanding social and cultural processes.

According to Creswell (2009) qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the

meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem. He further observes that the

advantage of qualitative research is that it gives the researcher opportunity to use different forms of

data collection rather than relying on a single method (Ibid). Qualitative method was used because it

provided room for adjustment allowing free interaction between the research team and the

respondents. The study utilized interview guide and structured questionnaire and Focus Group

Discussions.

Area of Study

Teso sub-region is part of eastern Uganda which covers the 8 districts of Soroti,

Kaberamaido, Katakwi, Amuria, Bukedea,Kumi, Ngora and Serere with a population estimated at

2,207,800 (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2016). The region is bordered in the north and east by

Karamoja region, to the west it is bordered by lango region and Pallisa in the south. It is mainly

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occupied by two tribes that comprise of the Iteso and Karamojong as well as small ethnic groups

such the Kumam. The Itesot are the major ethnic group with 80% of the total population living in

this region involved in pastoralism. As descendants of the Karamojong, the Itesot migrated south in

search of pasture for their animals. The Itesot found grassland savanah vegetation fertile and

became mixed settler farmers, engaging in crop growing and livestock keeping (IPC, 2014).

Nature and Sources of Data

Both secondary and primary data were collected to generate the required data for the

analysis. Secondary data from different sources such as local government offices in the study area

was collected to complement the data that was obtained from sampled respondents. The types of

secondary data gathered included local strategies used to cope with food insecurity in the study

area; opinion on how these local strategies can be improved to meet the growing food insecurity

was also collected. Primary data was related to respondents’ characteristics, indigenous strategies

which are used by households to cope with food insecurity. This was collected by interview and

structured questionnaire.

Mapping of Areas for Study

The research team visited the study site to map for easy and logical data collection. The

study was conducted following a door-to-door survey of the various households in the different

districts in the area.

Study Population

Teso region has a total of 1880175 households (GoU National Population and Housing

Census, 2014). This study conducted interviews with household members in the purposively

selected districts as listed in the table below. This enabled the research team to get experiences from

household members especially from the household heads. Also, religious leaders, cultural leaders

and local government officials provided relevant data for the study.

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District Households Kumi 256,660 Soroti 291,290 Total 547950

Source: GoU National Population and Housing Census, 2014.

The target population was the household members especially the family heads, Local Council

leaders, church and traditional leaders among others.

Sample size Determination

The sample size was determined from the total households in the purposively selected districts

using the formula below

n = N 1+N(e)2

at ±5%, precision levels where confidence level is 95% and p=.5. Note: n = sample size, N

= population size, e = Tolerance at desired level of confidence (taking 0.0987609876 at 95%

confidence interval). The sample was distributed equally among the 2 selected districts in the study

area.

District Population Sample Kumi 256,660 100 Soroti 291,290 100 Total 547950 200

A total of 200 respondents from 2 purposively selected districts were considered based on how

they were affected by insurgency. Besides, the two districts studied are the original local

administrative units from which all the other 6 districts were created.

Sampling Procedures

Different sampling techniques were used to select a sample of 200 to whom questionnaire was

administered. They included purposive, and random sampling techniques. Random sampling

technique was used to select farmers because it reduced the chances of sampling bias, and enriched

reliability and validity of the data collected. Purposeful and snowball sampling techniques were also

used especially to identify respondents who were more knowledgeable with indigenous knowledge

practices. The respondents targeted were mainly local farmers, local leaders, households, and elders.

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These respondents were considered to be well versed with local knowledge practices to address

food insecurity.

Simple random sampling technique was used to obtain sample households in the two districts

selected. In each district, population census data was used as sampling frame where by names of

households were drawn randomly in order to obtain a fair representation of the households under

study. Once at the starting point, the research team employed a random walk method, randomly

selecting the direction in which to travel from the starting point, then selecting each fourth

household. The direction in which to travel was determined by tossing a coin each side of the coin

was predetermined to which direction to follow. After a respondent expressing willingness to

participate in the study, they were interviewed. On the other hand, Purposive sampling was used

because it gave the research team opportunity select participants based on the assumption that they

had vital indigenous knowledge.

Method and Instruments for Data Collection

A triangulation method was used in order to have an in-depth understanding of the study

problem. The intention of using a combination of methods and instruments for data collection was

to obtain people’s different perspectives of indigenous knowledge and experiences. The data were

collected using structured questionnaire, Focus Group Discussion and interview. Both primary and

secondary data were collected and analysed. (i) Key Informants: a total of 12 key informants from

each district were engaged in face-to-face separate interviews at different times. The key informants

were selected according to their expertise. Interview was used because interviewing is considered

an effective way to learn from people what they believe, how they think, and particularly useful to

get the story behind the respondents’ experiences how that affects their life (Kothari, 2009).

A structured questionnaire with checklists and open-ended questions was administered to the

selected respondents. The open ended question allowed new ideas about the topic to be pursued. (ii)

Focus Group Discussion: Focus group discussions involved interaction with a selected group of

local people in the study area to gain information about their views and experiences of about topic

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of study. This was done to obtain several insights and shared understandings about the indigenous

practices in addressing food insecurity. The discussion was moderated by the research team at the

meeting venue organized by local leader.

Validity and Reliability

To ensure validity of interviews, relevant interview guide questions about topic were formulated,

considering logical flow of the required data. This was also supplemented by asking questions if there

was any need for clarification. Similarly, ensuring reliability during interview the same questions were

asked to different respondents to ensure the data given is the same. Also asking the same question is

different format helped to check on the validity and reliability of the respondents’ responses.

Data Processing and Analysis

The collected data were checked to detect errors and omissions and thereafter coded prior to

analysis. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software was used to enter

data collected from households using questionnaire. A substantial part of the analysis in this study

was based on descriptive statistics analysis. These include frequencies and means. The analysis of

descriptive was used to assess respondents’ characteristics and examine indigenous strategies used

by households to secure food security Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer

software was used to analyze descriptive statistics. Qualitative data was analysed using of cognitive

mind with focus on thematic areas and content of data recorded during interview and Focus Group

Discussion taking cognizance of conceptual analysis and relational analysis. Thus, the analysis of

qualitative data involved systematic arrangement of the data gathered during interviews in the field

work with respondents. The process of data analysis started with putting in place a plan to manage

the data that were collected and reduce it to a meaningful way. In this way, the primary focus was to

document the opinion of respondents about the local strategies they use for food security to ensure

they guard against food insecurity, how these strategies could be improved. The Analysis of

qualitative data will involve what Moten defines as examining, sorting, categorizing, evaluating,

comparing etc. In short, qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis.

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Ethical Considerations

In order to get our respondents’ trust, before interviews and observation, the research team

introduced themselves to the target respondents for them to know them and develop rapport. The

research team sought consent of respondents by letting them know that they have a right to

participate in the study voluntarily and guarantee them anonymity and let them know the purpose of

the study. Therefore, only those respondents who consent were included in the study. Also, as

Kumekorpor (2002) puts it that researchers usually guarantee respondents that information given is

kept confidential, in the same way researchers of this study also assured the participants in this

study that their information were to be kept confidential and strictly research purpose only.

Field Data Presentation and Analysis

This section presents analysis of the survey results.

Sample characteristics

As Briggs (2005) puts it that understanding sample characteristics is important to any study

exploring indigenous knowledge practices and its application, this study saw it fit to get an insight

into the same. Thus, the sample characteristics that were considered relevant for the study were:

gender, age, marital status, highest education level, occupation, religion and average monthly

income. It is important to note that where the characteristics were similar for all respondents, results

obtained were presented together in order to avoid repetition. These features were found significant

because they helped to assess the level of food insecurity among groups by relating the diverse

conditions of the study with these characteristics. These attributes further served to help analyze the

distinctive food security conditions as well as to categorize the various socio-economic groups

according to the main variables of the study. To begin with, results obtained about all the

background characteristics of respondents are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Sample characteristics

Gender Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

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Male 151 75.5 75.5 75.5 Female 49 24.5 24.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0 Age 18-25 51 25.5 25.5 25.5 25-35 75 37.5 37.5 63.0 36-45 39 19.5 19.5 82.5 46-59 26 13.0 13.0 95.5 60+ 9 4.5 4.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0 Marital Status Married 114 57.0 57.0 57.0 Divorced 12 6.0 6.0 63.0 Widowed 7 3.5 3.5 66.5 Single 67 33.5 33.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0 Education Level Never Been To School 17 8.5 8.5 8.5 Primary 44 22.0 22.0 30.5 Post Primary Vocational 15 7.5 7.5 38.0 Secondary 80 40.0 40.0 78.0 College 23 11.5 11.5 89.5 University 13 6.5 6.5 96.0 Other (Lower Primary) 8 4.0 4.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0 Occupation Valid Peasant Farmer 155 77.5 77.5 77.5

Civil Servant 14 7.0 7.0 84.5 Employed by Civil society 31 15.5 15.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Religion Catholic 86 43.0 43.0 43.0 Islam 18 9.0 9.0 52.0 Anglican 96 48.0 48.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0 Average Monthly income Shs 0 -50000 112 56.0 56.0 56.0 60-150000 52 26.0 26.0 82.0 250-500000 31 15.5 15.5 97.5 Shs 60000 And Beyond 5 2.5 2.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

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Key observations from the Sample characteristics

As portrayed in Table 1, the study found out that in relation to gender there were 151(75.5%)

male and 49(24.5%) who participated in the study. The importance of this aspect of the study was

associated with the need to analyze whether the study was gender sensitive. In terms of age, over

75(37%) of the subjects were in the 25-35 age group while the minority 9(5%) were in the 60+ age

group, suggesting that few old people were involved in agricultural production. As regards

indigenous knowledge on agriculture, the diversity in the demographic groups is likely to indicate

the even spread of this knowledge since such understanding is passed on from generation to

generation. Further, the results in Table 1 illustrate results which imply that most respondents

114(57%) were married, with a few (7%) having been divorced. Findings on the respondents’

background characteristics also demonstrate that majority 80(40%) of the selected respondents had

completed secondary school while the minority 8(4%) reportedly dropped out of the formal

education system at the lower primary school level. On the other hand, the bulk of subjects

155(77.5%) indicated that they were peasant farmers with a paltry figure of 14(7%) specifying that

they were civil servants. Results obtained concerning religious affiliation show that slightly less

than half of the participants 96(48%) were Anglican whereas only 18(9%) pointed out that they

practiced Islam. On the question of average monthly incomes for respondents which are potentially

part of the food production resources, the findings from the study show that slightly over half of the

respondents earned between UGX 0-50,000 (USD14). The top tier 5(2.5%) of the participants made

an average of UGX 600,000+ (USD167), implying that only few of the respondents were likely to

benefit from agricultural production.

Generally, background issues’ analysis indicates that the sample had all the relevant

characteristics deemed important to the study. The sample was therefore appropriate for exploring

the link between coordination of education activities and service delivery at school level.

Examination of this relationship was successfully carried out and findings are presented in the next

sections.

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Land ownership

Land ownership is the cornerstone to food security in any agricultural based economy.

Accordingly, the amount of land held by citizens is likely to determine the level of food security in

an area. Based on Table 2, an assessment of the likely relationships is discussed.

Table 2: Land Ownership

Parameter Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Land ownership Valid Yes 200 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0 100.0

Data from the study as Table 2 portrays, showed that all respondents 200(100%) owned

were land owners, despite the variations in the land holding modes that may exist in the community.

For example, the information generated from focus group interviews partly indicates that there

were, in some areas of Teso region, communally owned land. Equally important in the fight against

food insecurity however, as Table 3 shows, is how much of the available land is put to use.

Size of Field Farm Land With respect to size of field farm land depicted in Table 3, a picture emerges where

cultivated land as a key resource in food production is greatly limited compared to the population

size in the region.

Table 3: Size of Field Farm Land

Parameter Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent 0.5-1ha 104 52.0 52.0 52.0 1ha 88 44.0 44.0 96.0 1.5ha 8 4.0 4.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 3 shows that slightly over half of the respondents 104(52%) had land possessions

under cultivation that fell between 0.5-1ha while only 8(4%) tilled field farm land of an average of

1.5ha. with another sizeable portion of respondents 88(44%) ploughing land which is on average is

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equivalent to 1ha. Thus, the extent to which to which indigenous knowledge is used is likely to

influence food insecurity as Table 5 partly presents.

Indigenous strategies for food insecurity in civil war-affected Teso region

This section addresses indigenous strategies for improving food security in war-affected

areas, specifically focusing on Teso region. It thus presents analysis on indigenous knowledge

application in food security management, issues influencing local knowledge on food production as

well as factors in food insecurity in the study area. Data on indigenous knowledge application is

presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Indigenous knowledge applied in Food Security Management

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Local technology 22 11.0 11.0 11.0 Improve local Skills 152 76.0 76.0 87.0 Local food production 26 13.0 13.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

The statistics in Table 5 show the level of indigenous knowledge application in food security

management. While more than two thirds of the respondents 127(76%) intimated that there was

wide application and usage of indigenous knowledge in managing food security, there was a portion

of subjects 60(30%) who reported usage of other knowledge. Qualitative information from the field

indicated that it was formal scientific knowledge from the public sector that citizens used

interchangeably with indigenous knowledge. One public official at Kumi District headquarters

summed the situation as thus:

“Indigenous knowledge is in some cases applied alongside formal scientific knowledge disseminated by government extension workers. I should add that whereas extension workers are supposed to take their services to all farmers, sometimes this is not the case because of limitations in logistics including transport, leaving farmers to use their indigenous knowledge and skills in farming.

On the other hand the level of application, according to Table 6, was influenced by a number

of factors that included climate change, technological development and nature of food policies. Of

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importance is the fact that the diversity of the factors identified is the fact that they have equally

diverse levels of influence on food security management.

Table 6: Factors influence Indigenous Knowledge Application in Food Security Management

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Climate Change 127 63.5 63.5 63.5 Technological development 2 1.0 1.0 64.5 Food policies 11 5.5 5.5 70.0 Competition with other knowledge

60 30.0 30.0 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 6 indicates that in varying degrees, diverse factors influence the extent to which

indigenous knowledge is used. The results show that among the critical factors that determined the

use of indigenous knowledge in food security management was climate change 127(64%) while

changes in technological development 2(1%) was the least influencing dynamic in determining use

of indigenous knowledge. This analysis is largely backed up by the findings presented in Table 7

which examines the factors associated with food insecurity in the study area.

Table 7: Factors Associated with Food insecurity in Teso Region

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Drought 37 18.5 18.5 18.5 Long dry spell 67 33.5 33.5 52.0 War insurgency 20 10.0 10.0 62.0 Cattle rustling 4 2.0 2.0 64.0 Climate change 32 16.0 16.0 80.0 Abandoning growing cash crops

40 20.0 20.0 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

In analysing the factors associated with food insecurity in Teso region, we asked respondents

to identify the factors associated with food insecurity as presented in Table 7. One of the leading

factors was the long dry spell 67(34%) abandonment of cash crop growing 40(20%), drought

37(19%) while the least factor in food insecurity in the region was cattle rustling 4(2%). In effect,

the food insecurity in the region was mainly a function of climate change which had led to food

20

crop losses in the gardens over nothing much indigenous knowledge of food security management

could do much. This is a view reinforced by qualitative information where in one FGD in Soroti

district participants pointed out that:

“There has been a lot of changes in soil fertility, land subdivisions, long droughts and outbreak of crop diseases where indigenous knowledge in food security management might not necessarily help much. While, for example, a concoction of local herbs and materials can be used to respond to some crop diseases, there is very little, indigenous knowledge can accomplish when confronting climate change-related factors in food security management. ” In other words, whereas indigenous knowledge was applicable in some food security

management situations, it was rather difficult in as far as climate change induced changes that

affected related production resources on the ground.

Besides, during Focus Group Discussion respondents heaped blame on the increasing

promotion of modern hybrid fertilizers rather improving indigenous seeds as one of the major

contributing factor to food insecurity in Teso region. They claimed that local people cannot afford

to buy modern farm inputs. Indigenous farming knowledge practices must therefore be promoted

and not defamed by agricultural extension workers whom they accused of doing nothing to help

local people improve their productivity to cope with food insecurity. They stressed that only few

people afford to but fertilizers and that hybrid seeds given to them under Operation Wealth

Creation, a government some do not germinate while those germinate do make good harvest.

Furthermore, study findings indicates that the indigenous knowledge practices are mindful of

providing food security provided other factors such as rainfall and climate remain undisrupted. But

increasing climate change is a reality and was this was mentioned by respondents during interviews

that long dry spell as a result of the changing climate has threatened food security. One extension

worker contacted revealed that, local people need to be introduced and taught irrigation rather than

relying on rain season.

21

Improving indigenous strategies to address food insecurity situations in Teso

The study was also interested in examining the relationship between indigenous knowledge

and food insecurity situations in Teso. Whereas the utility of indigenous knowledge for fostering

food security systems in most rural locations is rather common, what often remains unclear are what

aspects of this knowledge are relevant to current production systems and what components can be

improved to address food insecurity on a sustainable basis. The study explored indigenous strategies

for responding to food insecurity situations, particularly in conflict-stricken areas.

In as far as the strategies for food production adopted by producers in the study, it was found

out that there was a close relationship between indigenous strategies used in production and the

context of food insecurity in Teso region as presented in Table 8.

Table 8: Indigenous Strategies used in Production to Respond to Food Insecurity

in Teso Region

Strategies Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Growing drought tolerant crops

75 37.5 37.5 37.5

Animal Husbandry 10 5.0 5.0 42.5 community self-help sharing 21 10.5 10.5 53.0 crop rotation 16 8.0 8.0 61.0 Growing tuber crops 50 25.0 25.0 86.0 barter trade involving food stuff

6 3.0 3.0 89.0

Hiring labour for food 4 2.0 2.0 91.0 Grow a variety of quick yielding crops

18 9.0 9.0 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

As portrayed in the Table 8, respondents reported that there were several indigenous

strategies which were used in the study area to tackle food insecurity. Among the key strategies

include the growing drought tolerant crops, animal husbandry, community self-help sharing, crop

rotation, growing tuber crops, barter trade involving food stuffs, hiring labour for food and growing

a variety of quick yielding crops. However, majority of the participants 75(36%) had opted to

22

growing drought tolerant crops and tuber crops 50(25%), with the least strategy used being hiring

labour for food 4(2%). In terms of improving these indigenous strategies, qualitative data findings

indicate that based on indigenous knowledge, basically all the identified strategies could be

improved but this would necessarily require massive investment. In the context of poverty, small

and massively subdivided pieces of land, the improvements on indigenous knowledge would likely

be championed from outside the Teso region. Nonetheless, the region has some key productive

resources as discussed in Table 9, to which we turn.

Table 9: Indigenous Crops Grown to Cope with Food Insecurity

Crops Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Millet 58 29.0 29.0 29.0 Sorghum 39 19.5 19.5 48.5 Sim-sim 22 11.0 11.0 59.5 Cassava 33 16.5 16.5 76.0 Sweet Potato 24 12.0 12.0 88.0 Ground Nuts & Peas 24 12.0 12.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 9 shows that while the majority of the respondents 58(29%) reported they were

engaged in growing millet, another fairly big portion of the respondents 39(20%) identified

sorghum as a widely grown crop in the area, climate conditions and past war-related conflict

notwithstanding. The least cop engaged in at the communal level was sim-sim 22(11%), suggesting

that there was a wide diversity of indigenous crops in the study area. As Table 10 demonstrates,

hybrid crops are likewise produced in the area for food security purposes. Below are some of the

indigenous crops grown (i.e. maize and Sorghum) to cope with food insecurity as revealed by the

respondents

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Table 10: Do you also grow hybrid Crops

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent YES 121 60.5 60.5 60.5 NO 79 39.5 39.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

The data in Table 10 indicates that slightly less than two thirds of the sampled respondents

121(60%) were engaged in the production of hybrid crops while only 79(40%) were not. Table 11

summarizes the respondents’ feedback on the hybrid crops grown.

Table 11: Hybrid Crops Grown

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Millet 54 27.0 27.0 27.0 Cassava 44 22.0 22.0 49.0 Sorghum 56 28.0 28.0 77.0 Maize 14 7.0 7.0 84.0 Groundnuts 32 16.0 16.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

According to Table 11, the majority of respondents 56(28%) identified sorghum as the most

popular hybrid crops grown while 14 (7%) respondents reported maize as the least hybrid crop in

the study area.

Indigenous food security strategies and management of conflict situations in Teso Region

This section addressed the dynamics in indigenous food security strategies and management

of conflict situations in Teso region. The focus is essentially on indigenous ways used by local

communities in responding to food insecurity situations in Teso region. The section particularly

interrogates issues related to application of likely quick growing local food varieties, local food

preservation practices and trade involving food in local products. The analysis in Table 12 depicts

the indigenous methods to maintain soil fertility.

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Table 12: Indigenous Methods used maintain Soil Fertility

Methods Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Planting legume crops 44 22.0 22.0 22.0 Intercropping 62 31.0 31.0 53.0 Use of local manure (animal manure)

75 37.5 37.5 90.5

Mulching 13 6.5 6.5 97.0 Mixed Cropping 6 3.0 3.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

According to table 12 the leading indigenous method used to maintain soil fertility was the

application of local manure, mainly constituted from animal manure 75(38%) while intercropping

was relatively popular local method of maintaining soil fertility 62(31%). On the other hand, the

least used indigenous method for managing soil productivity was mixed cropping 6(3%). In one

focus group discussion in Kumi district, respondents emphasized the diversity and easy application

of the indigenous methods, but equally acknowledged the use artificial fertilizers bought from the

local stores. In one key response, it was noted that:

“A number of indigenous methods for improving soil fertility in the region were well known, widely applied and had no side effect, with the vast majority such as intercropping, mulching ,planting legume crops and use of animal manure having been used for generations.” Asked whether the local people use any indigenous pest management practices to ensure

increased food production and food security, the respondents’ feedback was overwhelmingly in the

affirmative as indicated in Table 13.

Table 13: Do you use any indigenous pest management practices to ensure production

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent YES 200 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 13 shows that all the participants in the study agreed that they used indigenous pest

management practices to ensure sustained food production in the region. This perspective was

confirmed by qualitative data that tended to suggest that for various reasons; indigenous pest

management practices were applied irrespective of whether there was food insecurity, expected

25

food shortages or recovering from war-related conflict. Table 14 presents information on the nature

and types of pest management practices.

Table 14: Indigenous Pest Management Practices

Pest Management Practices Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Use plant as repellent i.e. Neem & red pepper

33 16.5 16.5 16.5

Slash & burn of infected crop 70 35.0 35.0 51.5 Intercropping 40 20.0 20.0 71.5 Growing resistant Crops 20 10.0 10.0 81.5 Use of ash dust on crops 16 8.0 8.0 89.5 Synthetic pesticides from industries

21 10.5 10.5 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

The data in Table 14 illustrate the nature of indigenous pest management practices in the

study area. Whereas 70(35%) of the respondents opined that the most prevalent method used was

slash and burn of infected crop and intercropping 40(20%), the least applied method was the

treatment of crops with ash dust 16(8%). It should be noted that qualitative data also contributed

valuable feedback particularly on the widespread use of indigenous practices, to this aspect of study

inquiry. Asked about the indigenous knowledge on pest control practices in the region, one key

respondent at Kumi district headquarters noted that:

“There are several indigenous practices in pest manage, in some cases their knowledge and application stretching back several hundreds of decades because crop diseases are not new. Among the most popular methods used in the region in pest control include intercropping, red pepper concoction, slash and burn infected, and sometimes entire bushes as well as growing pest resistant varieties of crops.”one respondent specifically said “when our animals like goats and cows suffer from diseases like stomach, constipation and stomach, we use a mixture of urine, ash, animal waste, and sometimes poisonous plant leaves to treat them. This finding clearly shows that people in teso region use indigenous knowledge practices.

This corroborates with Aluma (2010) who found that farmers use indigenous knowledge in their

farming and post-harvest activities to preserve food and animal husbandry and Mihale et al., (2009)

who revealed in their study that small scale farmers prefer to utilize indigenous knowledge to

26

pesticides which are costly in pest management to increase their productivity.

Table 15 depicts information on the effectiveness of indigenous bug and disease management

practices in the study area.

Table 15: Are these indigenous practices effective?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent YES 138 69.0 69.0 69.0 NO 62 31.0 31.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

While confirming the effectiveness of indigenous pest management practices, slightly over two

thirds of the respondents 138(69%) reported that the practices were effective while a total of

62(31%) were of the view that these were inapplicable. The study sought an explanation as to why a

relatively respectable portion of the selected respondents thought the control practices were

ineffective. Qualitative responses were extremely helpful in this respect, noting that most responses

which doubted the efficacy of indigenous pest control practices were either from those farmers that

had not bothered to apply especially due to their small holdings or those who did not follow the

application guidelines. In their own submission, a focus group discussion from Mukongoro Sub

County pointed out that:

“The claims about indigenous pest management practices not being valuable and helpful are not new as these have arisen from time to time in different parts of Teso region. However it is always logical that when any method fails one seeks guidance on the procedures and timing and repeat the applications or change the method altogether since indigenous knowledge is freely acquired. ”

Functionality aside, respondents were asked about the importance of indigenous practices. The

results from this analysis are presented in Table 16

Table 16: How are these indigenous practices important?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent They are affordable 25 12.5 12.5 12.5

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they are effective 102 51.0 51.0 63.5 Improves the quality of crop 24 12.0 12.0 75.5 Increases yield 49 24.5 24.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 16 presents findings that illustrate the importance, usefulness and relevance of

indigenous practices for food security. Whereas slightly above half of the respondents selected

102(51%) indicate that the importance of the indigenous methods for food security was associated

with their effectiveness, there were other participants who prioritized yield increases 49(25%) , with

the smallest portion of respondents 24(12%) indicating the local methods’ importance lay

improvement of the quality of crop.

A discussion on the major agricultural specializations and alternative agricultural

engagements in the context of food security using indigenous methods identified livestock as one of

those specializations. The results on livestock farming are summarized in Table 17.

Table 17: Livestock Keeping

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Cattle 117 58.5 58.5 58.5 Goat 57 28.5 28.5 87.0 Sheep 8 4.0 4.0 91.0 Pigs 14 7.0 7.0 98.0 Poultry 4 2.0 2.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

With respect to livestock keeping, Table 17 demonstrates that most respondents opined that

on average, majority of the community members 117(59%) were engaged in cattle keeping,

57(29%) in goat rearing while a minority of respondents submitted that poultry farming was a key

pre-occupation. On indigenous knowledge used in food production, participants as portrayed in

Table 18 identified a diversity of available indigenous alternatives. Interaction with respondents

through interviews confirmed information collected through questionnaire that cattle and goats were

the most important animal to them respectively. They mentioned that they oxen for ploughing when

preparing their gardens.

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Table18: Indigenous Knowledge used in Food Production

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Mulching using elephant grass & other grass

69 34.5 34.5 34.5

use of organic manure (animal waste & crop residues)

60 30.0 30.0 64.5

local pesticide (Neem tree animal Urine & redpepper)

71 35.5 35.5 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

According to Table 18, indigenous knowledge was available in regard to using local

pesticide (a mixture of Neem tree, animal urine and red pepper 71(36%), mulching using elephant

and other grass 69(35%) and use of use of organic manure (animal waste and crop residues) for a

variety of ways which contribute to maintenance of food security in the study area. Thus,

concerning the existence of indigenous strategies to address food security in the region as presented

in Table 19, the feedback was obvious for the participants. These findings support Betegeka (2013)

who revealed in his study that organic matter content reduces pests by confusion and diseases through

bio-fumigation hence boosting production. He adds that weevils cannot destroy crop plants when

practicing intercropping as a result olfactory confusion it creates.

Table 19: Existence of indigenous strategies to address food security in Teso

Region

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Yes 200 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 19 shows that all the respondents acknowledged the existence of indigenous strategies

to address food security in Teso region, suggesting the likely effectiveness of indigenous knowledge

in responding to situations of food insecurity irrespective of the underlying causes of such a

situation.

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Contribution of local strategies for securing food and management of food extraction in the region

The contribution of indigenous strategies for food management and food extraction in the

region was another key objective of the study. The section thus examines awareness about food

extraction opportunities for addressing food insecurity in the region and the nature of such

prospects. In the context of the study, such opportunities include fertile land, accessible low cost

inputs and, labour force availability at the grassroots of community. The specific focus was

therefore the respects in which indigenous approaches can be used to improve food extraction

industries in the study area.

Indeed, in relation to the investigation on the specific indigenous strategies and the extent to

which these have contributed to food security in the study area as discussed is summarized in Table

20. Participants in their feedback seemed to affirm the relevance of indigenous knowledge in the

promotion of food security in the region.

Table 20: Indigenous Strategies to Address Food Security

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Community training initiatives

29 14.5 14.5 14.5

Traditional seed distribution & sharing

84 42.0 42.0 56.5

broaden public awareness campaign on food production

26 13.0 13.0 69.5

Local climate resilience practices

43 21.5 21.5 91.0

improve Post harvest storage 6 3.0 3.0 94.0 integrating modern and traditional food production practices

12 6.0 6.0 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 20 illustrates the strategies used in the study area to foster food security. The leading

strategy most commonly applied to promote food security was traditional seed distribution and

sharing 84(42%), local resilience practices 43(22%), with improvement of post harvest storage

30

classified as the least credible indigenous strategy to address food security. The study was interested

in changes that had taken place in the region regarding the post harvest storage of food stuffs since

it was logically critical that communities store food to avoid food insecurity. Several focus group

discussions held in Atutur, Mukongoro and Ongino sub counties in Kumi district as well as Arapai,

Kamuda and Tubur in Soroti district were engaged on the structural and institutional changes that

had occurred in post harvest storage system in the region among other research issues. Findings

show that the granary system which is the traditional method mainly used by the indigenous Atesot

to store food first came into use from the early 1920s in response to post harvest food stuff

shortages. Constructed using soil, grass, wood and four stones to support the edges, the granaries

were the ideal stores for food stuffs such as millet, sorghum, ground nuts, and sliced sweet potatoes

locally known as “amukeke” and cow peas.

However, results from the study highlight recent changes partly occasioned war-related

conflicts, a liberalized economy and need for modernity in handling post harvest losses. Four

distinct factors and phases associated with changes that took place regarding the granary system

were acknowledged. First, due to the civil war and the ensuing political instability that occurred in

Teso in the 1980s and early 1990s, this method was disrupted when people lost their lives and

property. A related trend is associated with the invasion of the Teso region by the northern Uganda-

based rebels commanded by Joseph Kony. The rebels too raided most granaries in the region for

stored food as a result of which the residents gradually continued to abandon the granary system of

preservation. Second, the persistent cattle wrestling incursions from neighbouring Karamoja were

also identified as a dynamic whose effect on the granary system was equally adverse since apart

from cattle, murder and human abductions, the rustlers in addition, looted foodstuffs from the

granaries. Third, the respondents raised the issue of thieves within the local communities who stole

the food from the granaries to sell in the local markets, contextualized as part of the neo-liberal era.

Fourth, later on, the government introduced modern methods by advising people to use storage

buildings to store food, in effect officially phasing out the traditional granaries as part of the

31

infrastructure for post harvest handling of food stuffs in the region. Indeed, in one focus group, it

was noted that:

“Despite the benefits associated with the granaries at the household level mainly for storing food for daily consumption, locally known as “lonyamat”, storing food for future consumption especially if famine was expected to come, locally known as “emono” and storing food for exchange to assist in diet change or sold later awaiting better market conditions; the granary system was eventually abandoned due to the losses incurred by community.

Therefore, by the middle and late 1990s the people had come to realize they were in grips

with a fast changing situation where, in spite of the strengths associated with the granary system,

they had to let go. Consequently, the early 2000s can be identified as part of the transition period

when most communities deserted the granary system in favor of storage buildings. However, while

most households embraced the new storage system, a few households in the region still have

granaries. Indeed, as Table 21 illustrates most households in the region still use a diversity of post-

harvest indigenous practice to ensure food security.

Table 21: Do you have any post-harvest indigenous practice to ensure food security

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Yes 189 94.5 94.5 94.5 No 11 5.5 5.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 21 presents findings in relation to whether households still have any indigenous post-

harvest practices. The table indicates that an overwhelming portion of the respondents 189(95%)

agreed that indigenous post-harvest practices still existed in the region. Asked to identify

indigenous storage practices used to ensure food security, as the findings in Table 22 demonstrate,

there were many varied practices.

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Table 22: Indigenous Storage and Preservation Practices used to ensure Food Security

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Granary 11 5.5 5.5 5.5

Burying in Soil & sand dust 17 8.5 8.5 14.0 Use of sacks, Baskets & Kitchen shelves

57 28.5 28.5 42.5

Keeping food together with dried neem tree leaves

2 1.0 1.0 43.5

Dusting cereals with Ash & redpepper

6 3.0 3.0 46.5

Keep in Plastic container 26 13.0 13.0 59.5 Keep in the House 81 40.5 40.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Despite the changes that had occurred in the indigenous granary system, Table 22 shows that

there were 11(6%) respondents in whose estimation granaries still exist as part of the indigenous

storage system. Nonetheless, majority of the sampled respondents 81(41%) simply keep their

produce in the houses as part of the indigenous system for post-harvest handling of food stuffs. On

the other hand, slightly less than 60 respondents, 57(29%) used sacks, baskets and kitchen shelves

as a way of preserving local produce. Overall, with the change from the granary system setting,

numerous indigenous ways of preserving food produce were devised as qualitative data further

collaborates. Respondents in Ongino Sub County maintained that:

“With the end of the granary system locally known as“Edula” many inefficient traditional methods of food storage were either revived. The major ones among these include keeping the food in the house, keeping food together with dried neem tree leaves, dusting cereals with ash and redpepper, keeping food stuffs in plastic container and burying produce in soil and sand dust. But whichever method of storage is used it cannot have the same benefits those provided by granaries in terms efficiency, effectiveness and quality.” Respondents also reported that keeping harvested food in the house where they sleep was the surest storage because when they keep in once majorly used granaries, it can easily be stolen. They insisted that after harvesting their food crops like sweet-potatoes, they peel and slice them, sun dry and store it in their house, a few respondents said they keep it granary. It was mentioned that this popularly known localy as Amukeke (sliced dry sweet potatoes). One respondents said that amukeke can be stored for about 3-4 years without being affected once it periodically put under sunshine. Another respondent made an interesting revelation and said that after harvesting food crops like maize, they dry it and remove it from the corns, put it in sacks together with

33

charismas tree leaves keep in cool dry place allowing charismas tree to dry in the stored maize and the scent it produces keeps off or repels any potential pest that may destroy it. Food stored in this manner helps us in times of scarcity especially during long dry spell.

It can argued that the storage and preservation methods appear generally simple but they still

seem primitive by extension workers who contacted during the study. However, it could be observed

these local ways of storing and preserving food is instrumental in promoting food security. It was

observed during the study that the most food crops grown in the study area were cassava (emuogo),

sweet potato maize, simsim, groundnuts (emaido), millets and sorghum. It mentioned by the

respondents that food storage is in two dimensions i.e. the stated that some food seeds are selected and

kept specifically for threshing for the next farming season. Such food crop seed like maize and sorghum,

one farmer reported that they select the best quality seeds and cobs and keep them around the fire-place.

A respondents noted that his indigenous way of preserving food and seeds has been very

effective for me. It keeps the food free from any insects that can attack it. The hot environment and the

unbearable smoke kills the insects that try to invade food”

With regard to interventions to improve indigenous strategies for food insecurity, a number

of proposals were made, mainly suggesting a combination of efforts between the local communities

and government as Table 23 depicts.

Table 23: Interventions to improve Indigenous Strategies for Food Insecurity

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Community initiatives 22 11.0 11.0 11.0

Government driven strategies 79 39.5 39.5 50.5 public broadcasting awareness campaigns

47 23.5 23.5 74.0

Local seed distribution drive 52 26.0 26.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

According to Table 23 the majority of the sampled respondents 79(40%) called for

government driven strategies while some sampled respondents reduced the interventions to improve

strategies for food security to seed management, suggesting locally driven seed distribution drives

34

52(26%). However, there were other data findings from qualitative findings which appeared to

advocated for community initiatives that involving village level mobilization teams on indigenous

methods of farming, mobilization of communal labour for individual farm management as well as

value addition methods focusing on locally produced food stuffs. As Table 24 shows, respondents

opined that the targeting for indigenous strategies to improve food security in the study area should

mainly focus indigenous knowledge.

Table 24: Targeting Indigenous Strategies to improve Food Security in Teso Region

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Local knowledge on food

security 37 18.5 18.5 18.5

Knowledge on local farming practices

80 40.0 40.0 58.5

improved local technology6533

65 32.5 32.5 91.0

Post-harvest handling & protection

18 9.0 9.0 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 24 shows that the majority of respondents 80(40%) were of the view that Knowledge

on local farming practices and improved local technology 65(33%) should be the aspects of

indigenous knowledge that should be targeted to ensure overall improved ford security. The least

number of respondents opined that indigenous knowledge on post-harvesting handling and

protection were the key areas for targeting to better the prospects for food security. A clear view

that emerges therefore calls for holistic targeting of all key aspects of the food security network of

processes and methods right from land ownership and management to stop fragmentation of land

holdings.

On the importance on local knowledge to improve food security in the study area, findings

show that since predominantly foreign knowledge informed most food production processes

without helping the region to get out of food insecurity, indigenous knowledge still had a lot to

35

contribute to the food security discourse. This argument is further carried forward based on data

presented in Table 25.

Table 25: Importance of Local Knowledge in Improving Food Insecurity situation

in Teso Region

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent More appropriate interventions for food security

36 18.0 18.0 18.0

Encouraged community participation

104 52.0 52.0 70.0

Creates positive attitude towards local strategies for addressing food insecurity

54 27.0 27.0 97.0

Advances skills levels for food productivity improvement

6 3.0 3.0 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

With regard to the significance of local knowledge in improving food insecurity situation in

Teso region as based on Table 25, majority of the sampled respondents opined the essential value of

local knowledge was that it was likely to encouraged community participation 104(52%) while a

minority of respondents 6(3%) saw value of local knowledge in advancing skill levels for food

productivity improvement in the region. It should be note that there were also participants who

suggested that the significance of local knowledge was in relation to more appropriate interventions

for food security being developed and implemented 36(18%). In relation to associations between

indigenous strategies and food insecurity management, respondents had mixed opinions.

Table 26: Results Associated with Indigenous Strategies in Managing Food Insecurity

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Not Sure 26 13.0 13.0 13.0 Encouraging

60 30.0 30.0 43.0

Weak 113 56.5 56.5 99.5 Nil 1 .5 .5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

36

Table 26 shows that the majority of feedback 113(57%) shows that this relationship was

weak while 26(13%) were not sure. These are statistics that likely suggest that the prevalence and

usage of indigenous knowledge on food production was likely to be less than earlier suggested by

the study, further suggesting urgent interventions to improve this knowledge. Table 27 presents

results in on the question as to whether respondents thought indigenous knowledge would help

achieve adequate access to food on sustainable basis.

Table 26: Indigenous knowledge and achievement of adequate sustainable food

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Yes 159 79.5 79.5 79.5

No 41 20.5 20.5 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 26 shows that the majority of feedback 159(80%) on whether indigenous knowledge

would facilitate the achievement of adequate, accessible food on sustainable basis affirmed the

relationship between the two major variables. However a minority of opinions dissented from the

popular view, again suggesting a need for robust interventions to improve food security through

indigenous methods. Asked about the indigenous knowledge used in food production to address

food insecurity in post-conflict situations, the responses were varied but firmly pointed to the most

realistic policy and community based actions as seen in Table 27.

Table 27: Indigenous knowledge Used in Food Production to address Food insecurity Post-

conflict Situation

Frequency Percent Valid

Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Special mobilisation

programmes 23 11.5 11.5 11.5

Implementing local solutions to food shortages

56 28.0 28.0 39.5

Use traditional/native leaders/advisors in food insecurity management

121 60.5 60.5 100.0

Total 200 100.0 100.0

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With respect to Table 27, while 121(61%) of the respondents opined that better results on

indigenous knowledge improvement were associated with the use of traditional or native

leaders/advisors on food insecurity, another portion of respondents 56(28%) indicated that

implementing local solutions to food shortages was best option for fostering local knowledge. In

view of these opinions, the proposals for improving local knowledge to increase food production in

Teso region are as illustrated in Table 28.

Table 28: Proposals to improve local knowledge to increase Food Production in Teso region

Frequency Percent Valid

Percent Cumulative

Percent carry out community needs assessment on food management

55 27.5 27.5 27.5

Mount continuous mobilisation programs to encourage food production

31 15.5 15.5 43.0

analyse necessary changes in Government policy

5 2.5 2.5 45.5

Community dialogue meetings 5 2.5 2.5 48.0 Revive cash crop growing 100 50.0 50.0 98.0 Don't know 4 2.0 2.0 100.0 Total 200 100.0 100.0

Table 28 shows that half of the sampled respondents 100(50%) suggested the revive cash

crop growing in the area while 4(2%) of the respondents did not have any suggestions. However

there were also other respondents who suggested carrying out community needs assessment on food

security 55(28%) and mobilisation programs to encourage food production 31(16%), all of which

further point to the need for concrete community and policy actions to improve food security.

It should be noted however that in regard to general food extraction, respondents suggested a

number of options that would be improved based on indigenous knowledge. They argued that to

improve indigenous knowledge on food extraction, management, storage and consumption would

only be achieved if local food production initiatives based on indigenous knowledge became

successful in the opinion of the ordinary citizen. In their own words, participants in the FGDs both

Kumi and Soroti districts argued that there was need for massive investments in agriculture. In

38

particular, an FGD in Atutur Sub County suggested that:

“The best way to improve the food extraction industry, holding political conflict and adverse climatic factors constant, there was need to introduce massive fish farming in the regional wetlands and water bodies, opening up of large areas of arable land, improving local cultivation technology through increase in oxen ploughs as well as the number of oxen in the region. A winning strategy based on indigenous knowledge would also include a sustained communication strategy using all available community and national media to ensure the finer details of improved food extraction methods based on indigenous knowledge.”

It would therefore appear that the indigenous knowledge based approach to food insecurity

management in the region has a fair chance of success once all stakeholders in the local economy

including government, its agencies in the region, community leaders, farmers groups, civil society

and media have been brought on board.

Conclusion

The study investigated the indigenous knowledge strategies used in post-conflict Teso region in

fighting against food insecurity. Indigenous knowledge strategies identified in the study area include

farming, pest management storage and preservation practices. These practices are more mindful of food

production for both subsistence and commercial. The findings show that the use of indigenous

knowledge practices in addressing food insecurity in the post-conflict Teso region remains critical.

People in this region use indigenous knowledge practices such as in managing soil fertility, pests and

diseases management, harvesting and storage as well as animals husbandry. Indigenous knowledge

strategies have an important role in improving household food security. This is derived from the fact that

indigenous knowledge remains popularly used in the food production than modern practices. It is

important to note that indigenous strategies such inter-cropping, mulching, post-harvest storage and

processing among others enhance household food security to cope with food insecurity. However, the

nature of post-harvest processing and storage result in losses (see Appendices photo). This study also

revealed that indigenous strategies are key in contributing to household food security. They permit

accessibility to inputs that enables production of traditional foods crops such as millet, sorghum,

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sim-sim, sweet potato, cassava, maize etc. local varieties dominate food production thereby

strengthening household food security. However, it is critical mention that introduction of some

modern strategies that can compete with Indigenous strategies are necessary for government to

effectively campaign against food insecurity. This indigenous knowledge strategies is what people

of Teso region have and can be improved through integrating it with modern strategies and be used

as a tool to change food production to enhance access to food in times of scarcity.

Recommendations

The study recommends that there is need to strengthen awareness especially by extension

workers on indigenous knowledge practices integrating it with modern knowledge to allow local

people appreciate their local knowledge as a pivotal force to enhance food security to cope with

food scarcity.

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References

Aluma, J. R. (2010). Integration of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) Agriculture and Health Development Processes in Uganda. 1-14. Bategeka, J. K. (2013). Institutional Constraints to Agriculture Development in Uganda. Economic Policy Research Centre (EPRC), 1-44. Briggs, J. (2005). The Use of Indigenous Knowledge in Development: Problems and Challenges.

Progress in Development Studies, 5, 99-114. Buckley-Zistel, S. (2008). “Effective History and the Beginning of the Teso Insurgency”. In Conflict Transformation and Social Change in Uganda. Palgrave, UK. Burgess, R.G. (2016). An Introduction to Field Research. London. Routledge Cresswel, J.W (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. Los Angeles Sage. Kothari, C.R. (2009). Research methodology. New Delhi: New Age International. Moahi, K.H. (2012). Promoting African Indigenous Knowledge in the Knowledge Economy Exploring the Role of Higher Education and Libraries. Aslib Proceedings, Vol. 64 Iss 5 pp. 540-554 Moten, A.R (2009). Writing Research Proposals & Theses; Substance, Structure and Style. Kuala

Lumpur. Pearson Malaysia Sdn.Bhd. Bahiigwa, G.B.A. (1999). Household food Security in Uganda: An Empirical Analysis.

http://www.eldis.org/fulltext/EPRC_Bahiigwa.pdf accessed on 20th June, 2016. FAO. (2002). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2001. Rome. FAO, (2004): The state of food insecurity in the World 2004: Monitoring progress towards the

World Food Summit and Millennium Development Goals.

GoU. National Population and Housing Census, 2014. Kapoor, R. (2008). The role of indigenous strategies alternative responses to food security

Challenges in the developing countries, New Delhi: The Modern Press.

Kumekorpor, T.K.B. (2002). Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research. Accra. Sonlife Press.

Liwenga, E. (2003). Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies in Semiarid Areas: The Case of Mvumi in Central Tanzania. Stockholm. Stockholm University Mpofu, D and Miruka, C (2009).Indigenous Knowledge Management Transfer Systems across

Generations in Zimbabwe. Indiliga: African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems.

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Nabudere, D.W. (2011). Epistemology, philosophy and wholeness: An epistemology. Pretoria: Africa Institute of South Africa

Uganda Bureau of Statistics. (2016). Uganda Population Census, 2014, Kampala. Tudge, C. (2011) Good food for everyone forever. In F.D peat (Ed), The Pari Dialogues, Vol 1 Grosseto: Pari.

Granary (local Storage facility)

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Post-harvest processing Maize and Sorghum

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Plough famers use to prepare land before planting

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Focus Group Discussion in Kumi district

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Focus Group Discussion session

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Data Collection Tool Dear Sir/Madam We are Kyambogo University staff from the department of political Science carrying out a survey on A SURVEY OF INDIGENEOUS STRATEGIES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF FOOD INSECURITY IN WAR AFFECTED AREAS IN UGANDA: A STUDY CASE OF TESO REGION. The intent of this survey is to produce knowledge on how to improve management of food insecurity using indigeneous knowledge practices. In that respect, the research report will go towards in supporting Authorities at different levels of government/community in the area to manage food insecurity Teso region has experienced in the post conflict period. We would appreciate if you could spare a few minutes and answer the following questions. The information provided and respondents’ identity will be kept with reserved confidentiality. Label Demographic Profiles Variables IP_1 District

1. Soroti 2. Kumi

DI_1 Gender 1. Male 2. Female

DI_2 Age 1. 18-25 2. 25-35 3. 36-45 4. 46-59 5. 60+

DI_3 Marital Status 1. Married 2. Divorced 3. Widowed 4. Single

DI_4 Education Level 1. Never Been To School 2. Primary 3. Post Primary Vocational 4. Secondary 5. College 6. University 7. Other

DI_5 Occupation A. Peasant Farmer B. Civil Servant C. Employed by Civil society

DI_6 Religion 1. Anglican 2. Islam 3. Catholic 4. Others

DI_7 Average Monthly income 1. SHS 0 -50000

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2. 60-150000 3. 250-500000 4. SHS 60000 AND BEYOND

DI_8 Do you own Land 1. Yes 2. No

DI_9 What is the size of field farm land 1. 0.5ha 2. 1ha 3. 1.5ha

Tick appropriate answer. Note multiple choices are allowed EWV1 What is the most important aspect of Indigenous

knowledge would you think is applicable to food security management in your area

a. Local technology b. Improve local Skills c. Local food production d. Other

EWV4.1.10p What factors do you think influence indigenous knowledge application in food security management

1. Climate Change Climate Change 2. Technological development 3. Food policies 4. Competition with other knowledge 5. others

EWV7.7 What factors are associated with food insecurity in Teso region

1. Drought 2. Long dry spell 3. War insurgency 4. Cattle rustling 5. Climate change 6. Abandoning growing cash crops 7. Erratic rainfall

EWV6 Have you ever used indigenous knowledge to respond to food production in your area

1. Yes 2. No

EWV4.1.4p What are these indigenous strategies used in production to respond to food insecurity in civil war affected Teso Region

A. Growing Drought Tolerant Crops B. Animal Husbandry C. Community Self-Help Sharing D. Crop Rotation E. Growing Tuber Crops F. Barter Trade Involving Food Stuff G. Hiring Labour For Money For Food H. Grow a variety of quick yielding crops

EWV4.1.5p What are the indigenous crops you grow to cope with food insecurity

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A. Millet B. Sorghum C. Sisim D. Cassava E. Sweet Potato F. Ground Nuts & Peas

EOV5.1 Do you also grow hybrid crops 1. Yes 2. No

EWV4.1.8p What are these hybrid crops you grow A. Millet B. Cassava C. Sorghum D. Maize E. Groundnuts

IPI.7.2.4 What indigenous methods do use to maintain soil fertility A. Planting legume crops B. Intercropping C. Use of local manure (animal manure) D. Mulching E. Mixed Cropping

EOV1 Do you use any indigenous pest management practices to ensure production

1. Yes 2. No

EOV1.2 What are these indigenous pest management practices 1. Use plant as repellent i.e. Neem & red pepper 2. Slash & burn of infected crop 3. Intercropping 4. Growing resistant Crops 5. Use of ash dust on crops 6. Synthetic pesticides from industries

EOV1.3 Are these indigenous practices effective 1. Yes 2. No

EOV1.4 How are these indigenous practices important 1. They are affordable 2. they are effective 3. Improves the quality of crop quality 4. Increases yield

EOV1.5 Which Livestock do you keep 1. Cattle 2. Goat 3. Sheep 4. Pigs 5. Poultry

EWV4.1.3p what are the indigenous knowledge you use in food production in your area

A. Mulching using elephant grass & other grass B. use of organic manure (animal waste & crop

residues)

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C. local pesticide (Neem tree animal Urine & redpepper)

EWV1.2 Is there indigenous strategies to address food security in Teso Region

1. Yes 2. No

EWV2.1 What are these indigenous strategies 1. Community training initiatives 2. Traditional seed distribution & sharing 3. broaden public awareness campaign on food

production 4. Local climate resilience practices 5. improve Post harvest storage 6. integrating modern and traditional food production

practices

EWV3 Do you have any post-harvest indigenous practice to ensure food security

1. Yes 2. No

EWV4.1.1p What are the indigenous storage practices you use to ensure food security

A. Granary B. Burying in Soil & sanddust C. Use of sacks, Baskets & Kitchen shelves D. Keeping food together with dried neem tree leaves E. Dusting cereals with Ash & redpepper F. Keep in Plastic container G. Keep in the House H. Keep in the House

POR1.14 Have there been any effort undertaken to improve local skills exclusively associated with Iteso local practices for managing food insecurity

1. Yes 2. No

POR1.24 Identify any interventions to improve indigenous strategies for food insecurity you are aware of in the recent years

1. Community initiatives 2. Government driven strategies 3. public broadcasting awareness campaigns 4. Local seed distribution drive 5. Other

POR1.34 what in your view should indigenous strategies target to improve food security in Teso region

1. Local knowledge on food security 2. Knowledge on local farming practices 3. improved local technology 4. Post-harvest handling & protection 5. Native Climate change resilience practices 6. Other

POR1.44 How does local Knowledge help in improving food

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insecurity situation in Teso region 1. More appropriate interventions for food security 2. Encouraged community participation 3. Creates positive attitude towards local strategies

for addressing food insecurity 4. Advances skills levels for food productivity

improvement POR1.54 What is the nature of results associated with indigenous

strategies in managing food insecurity 1. Not Sure 2. Encouraging 3. Weak

POR1.64 Do you think indigenous knowledge would help achieve adequate access to food on sustainable basis

1. Yes 2. No

POR1.74 How would indigenous knowledge of food production be used to address food insecurity post conflict situation

1. Special mobilisation programmes 2. Implementing local solutions to food shortages 3. Use traditional/native leaders/advisors in food

insecurity management

POR1.84 What proposals do you have for situations where local knowledge might not improve food sufficiency in Teso region

1. carry out community needs assessment on food management

2. Mount continuous mobilisation programs to encourage food production

3. analyse necessary changes in Government policy 4. Community dialogue meetings 5. Revive cash crop growing 6. Don't know

Time Lines

Research team will discuss and agree on the study design, sample size, timeline, and collaboration. February, 2017

Designing questionnaire/Interview Guide March. 2017 Submission of draft research protocol March, 2017 Desk top review March-April, 2017 Training of enumerators April, 2017 Pilot the instruments and visit the areas for orientation. April, 2017 Cleaning of research tools April, 2017 Data collection May - June, 2017 Data entry May-June April, 2017

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Draft report (data analysis) July-August, 2017 Submission of 1st draft October, 2017

Final report submission November, 2017

Contact information of Research Team Name Designation Institution e-mail address & Phone

Contacts Dr Sultan Juma Kakuba

Lecturer Kyambogo University Sultan_juma@yahoo.co.uk Phone No. 0701968753

Mr. John Mary Kanyamurwa

Lecturer Kyambogo University jmkanyamurwa@kyu.ac.ug kanyamurwa@yahoo.com Phone No. 0702922640

Budget Activity/Item Specificati

on Unit UGX Sub-Total USD Comment

1 Consultant expenses

Research Team

3 5,000,0000 15,000,000 4504.50 This amount is to facilitate research team

2 Consultative meeting

Meals and transport

15 50,000 750,000 225.23 Meals wasat 20,000 & transport refund at 30,000for 15 participants

3 Facilitation for research Assistants

Transport & per diem

5 300,000 1,500,000 450.45 Research assisted by research Assistants to collect data

4 Production of Research Report

Publication & printing services

5 300,000 1,500,000 450.45 Results to be disseminated to stakeholders

Total 18,750,000 5,631

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