A Variationist Approach to Question Inversion in Bajan

John R. Rickfordrickford@stanford.edu

Robin J. Melnickrmelnick@stanford.edu

Society for Caribbean LinguisticsAugust 11, 2010

Question Inversion — In Theory …Stipulative Descriptions:• Std English: Subject-Aux Inversion (Huddleston & Pullum 2002:95)

Statement: (1a) JohnNP isAUX at home.

Yes/No-Qu: (1b) IsAUX JohnNP at home?

Wh-Qu: (1c) Where isAUX JohnNP?

Statement: (1d) RobinNP likes Barbados.

Yes/No-Qu: (1e) DoesAUX RobinNP like Barbados?

Wh-Qu: (1f) What doesAUX RobinNP like?

• English-Based Creoles: Rising Intonation (Holm 1988:212; Bickerton 1981:70)

Statement: (2a) Jaan de hoom.Yes/No-Qu: (2b) Jaan de hoom?Wh-Qu: (2c) A we Jaan de? (cf. Winford 2008:29)

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Question Inversion — In Practice …• US/UK English not always SAI (Bolinger 1957, Visser 1969, Williamson

1971)(3) Your aim that evening, then, was to go to the discotheque?

(Huddleston & Pullum 2002:868)

• Creoles can invertJamaican: (4) Iz it dat dem laik unu av waar wid di ada komyuuniti dem?

(JA22.315)“Is it that they like you all to have war with other communities?”

• Mesolect, semi-creole, AAVE vary even moreBajan: (5a) Ma, could I leff de corner now? (BA29.959, Dougie S.)

(5b) So you don’t like it stir up? (BA26.1059, Clement D.)AAVE: (6a) Is Patricia, Ladon sister? (EPA8.293, Foxy)

(6b) You don't believe me? (EPA7.2100, Foxy)

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Studying Question Inversion• Quantitative work on standard, vernacular and creole

Englishes rare/non-existent

• Present study: Bajan– Rate of inversion / non-inversion– Factors conditioning/constraining variation

• Briefly, also…– Guyanese– Jamaican– AAVE– Appalachian

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Inversion in Early Modern English (EModE)

• Ell gard 1953e̊�– Factors conditioning rise of auxiliary (periphrastic) do– 1400-1700

• “Inversion” in EModE: Main-verb inversion(7a) Likes Robin Barbados?(7b) By what adventure com ye hidir? (Malory 1480:75-10, c. Ellegard 205)

• Auxiliary do said to preserve SVO order(8a) Does Robin like Barbados?(7b) …doe you speake this seriously? (Johnson, ca 1599:436, c. Ellegard 205)

• Do only, did not study copular/modal Qs

• Data used in Stein (1989), Kroch (1989), Van Herk (2000)

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Inversion in New World Black English

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Yes/No Questions Wh-QuestionsInvertedIs he here?

Non-InvertedI can play?

Ambig-uous (0Cop/aux)0? he 0?going?

InvertedWhy ishe here?

Non-InvertedWhy I can’t play

Ambig-uous (0Cop/aux)Where 0? he 0? at?

AAVE (NYC)Labov et al1968:293-6

No data 42/5280.2%

10/5219.8%

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AEBE (Ex-Slave narrs.)Schneider1981:205-10

80/8890.9%

8/889.1%

7 38/5371.7%

15/5328.3%

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Samaná DeBose 1996

4/1428.6%

10/1471.4%

37 1/137.7%

12/1392.3%

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Samaná Van Herk 2000:177,181

19/6131%

42/6169%

70? 19/3161%

12/3139%

35?

ANSE Van Herk 2000:177,181

126/15681%

30/15619%

100? 333/34497%

11/3443%

220?

Table 1

Bajan Qs Study Methodology: Don’t Counts

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• Fragments:– (9) Five o’clock a morning? (TD, BA31.186)

• Fixed expressions:– (10) Ya know? (JB, BA31.348); You understand? (JB, BA31.770)

• Questions with tags:– (11) You said secondary, right? (BG, BA33.131)

• Clarification checks:– (12) If I know anybody that ever get rob? (TD, BA31.186)

• Scripted interviewer questions:– (13) What is your name? (RS, BA33.8)

• What if / What about:– (14) Wuh if I ain’t know? (RS, BA33.138)

• Wh subject, full verb:– (15) And wha happen? (TD, BA31:248)

More Exclusions and Non-Exclusions

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• Exclude as ambiguous…– Zero copula: (16a) (Ø?) It (Ø?) good? (DS, BA29:880)– Zero auxiliary: (16b) Where (Ø?) she (Ø?) livin now? (TD, BA27a.347)

Copula/auxiliary inverted before/after deletion?

• Keep (Do not exclude)…– Regular (finite) main verb, no do

(17a) You think dat I could go pon the man work today and talk like this? (EH, BA26.1155)

– Inverted: (17b) Do you think dat I could go…?– Non-inverted: (17c) *You do think dat I could go…?

Non-inverted do here only on emphatic reading

“Knockouts” – Categorically Non-Inverted

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• 1003 Bajan questions after DC

• 169 removed with “knockout” (invariant) auxiliaries/markers– got (18a) Why yuh gotta run home? (TD, BA27b.486)– ain’t (18b) You ain’t see them? (MT, BA11/12:1147)

– does (unstressed, habit.) (18c) You does use slang (RS, BA33.1034b)– did (unstressed, past) (18d) You did ever sick bad anytime?

(TD:BA26.919)

Characteristic Bajan forms categorically non-invert.

• 834 questions left for variable analysis

Modeling VariationBaseline: Factors in Van Herk 2000• Negation

Negative: (19a) You don’t help you self? (BA31.975, non-inverted)

Affirmative: (19b) So, do you remember at school you friends and ting you had? (BA26.361, inverted)

• Question typeYes/no: (20a) Were you good at them games? (BA27b.163, inverted)

Wh-object: (20b) What do you feel the fellas doing? (BA29.214, inverted)

Causative: (20c) What you did frighten for? (BA26.353, non-inverted)

Wh-adverbial: (20d) Where that did? (BA26.94, non-inverted)

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Modeling Variation (continued…)

• Subject typePronoun: (21a) So what did they use to do then? (BA29.772, inverted)

NP: (21b) So how old de children is? (BA31.265, non-inverted)

Extended NP: (22a) Any of them did any bad fight? (BA26.583, non-inverted)

Sentential: (22b) The one who love you will make you happy? (BA31.834, non-inverted)

• TransitivityIntransitive: (23a) You ain’ travel Ø though? (BA27a.256, non-inverted)

Transitive with a pronoun object:(23b) So where it would left you? (BA29.214, inverted)

Transitive with a Noun Phrase object:(23c) How would she get the money? (BA29.238,

inverted)

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Auxiliary Types

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• Modals– (24a) Could I left the corner now? (BA29.959, inverted)

• Copular be– (24b) That is you favorite? (BA27b.1480, non-inverted)

• Verbal auxiliary be– (24c) So he is going school still? (BA31.275, non-inverted)

• Auxiliary have– (24d) (Ø?) You (Ø?) ever had a real scary dream then? (BA27b.1151,

ambiguous Ø aux.)

• Auxiliary do– (24e) Do you think that they should teach it to children in schools?

(BA29.292, inverted)

Speaker Demographics• Gender

– male– female

• Role– interviewer– participant

• SES– middle class– working class

• Age– 33-85

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Results

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• Bajan non-inversion• 96%

• Cf. colloquial American (Switchboard corpus)• 14%

• Without counting Ø-aux as non-inverted?• Bajan 92%• American 12%

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2

Subject Type/Length Correlation

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Subject Type/Length Correlation

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2

(27) That is you favorite? (BA27b.1480)

(28) The part of the enjoyment of the cricket is you friends? (BA29.123)

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2

(Van Herk 2000)

Conclusions• Bajan highly non-inverts, but …

• Nonetheless systematic constraint-based variation

• Shared constraints

– Some common across all varieties

– Some vary creole vs. non-creole

– Some specific to Bajan

• Evidence of systemic Creole-AAVE relationship

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Thanks!• National Science Foundation (#9545424)

• Professors Jeannette Allsopp, Hazel Simmons-McDonald (UWI Cave Hill), Paulette and Junior Gooding facilitated Bajan research over 5 years

• Clement (“Tony”) DePeiza and Romel Springer for help with vernacular interviews and transcripts

• Ann Fergusson, Jennifer Crichlow, Undine Shorey et al.—help with transcripts and codings

• Zoë Lidstrom—coding, varbrul preparation

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References• Bickerton, D. 1981. Roots of language. Ann Arbor: Karoma.• DeBose, C.E. 1996. Question formation in Samaná English. Paper presented at NWAV 25, Las Vegas, Nevada.• Ell gard, A. 1953. e̊� The auxiliary do: The establishment and regulation of its use in English. Stockholm: Almqvist

& Wikwell.• Holm, J.A. 1988. Pidgins and Creoles-Volume 1: Theory and Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.• Johnson, D.E. 2008. Getting off the GoldVarb standard: Introducing Rbrul for mixed-effects variable rule analysis.

Language and linguistics compass 3.1:359-383.• Kroch, A. 1989. Reflexes of grammar in patterns of language change. Language Variation & Change 1.3:199-244.• Labov, W., P. Cohen, C. Robins, and J. Lewis. 1968. A study of the non-standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican

speakers in New York City. Final Report, Cooperative Research Project No. 3288, United States Office of Education.• Rickford, J.R. 2006. Down for the count? The creole origins hypothesis of AAVE at the hands of the Ottawa

circle, and their supporters. A review article on The English History of AAVE, ed. by S. Poplack ... 2000. Journal of Pidgin & Creole Languages 21.1:97-154.

• Rickford, J.R., Wasow, T.A., Mendoza-Denton, N., Espinoza, J. 1995. Syntactic variation and change in progress: Loss of the verbal coda in topic-restricting as far as constructions. Language 71.1:102-131.

• Schneider, E.W. 1982. On the history of Black English in the USA: Some new evidence. English World-Wide 3.1:18-46.

• Van Herk, G. 2000. The question question: Auxiliary inversion in Early African American English. In S. Poplack, ed. The English History of African American English, 175-197. Malden: Blackwell.

• Winford, D. 2008. Processes of creole formation and related contact-induced language change. Journal of Language Contact, Thema 2:124-148.

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Questions?

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Appalachian AAVE Bajan Jamaican Guyanese Samaná ANSE

Non-inversion 16.7% 40.3% 95.7% 96.8% 98.7% 62.3% 2.9%Total N 538 465 1189 404 438 92 500

Negationnegative 0.71 0.79 0.92affirmative 0.29 0.29 0.43 Range 0.41 0.50 0.49

Question Typeyes/no 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.72 0.81wh-adverbial 0.47 0.46 0.64wh-object 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.26 0.36causative 0.29 0.46 0.23 Range 0.52 0.21 0.55 0.46 0.45

Subject lengthincreasing 0.12

Auxiliarydo 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.84modal 0.37 0.22 0.49 0.54copula be 0.41 0.58 0.25 0.14verbal aux be 0.81 0.44 kohave 0.47 0.52 ko koain't 0.19 ko ko ko Range 0.63 0.54 0.51 0.70

Table 2