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Importance of Cultural Relativism VersusCultural Imperialism in Ethical Decision

making

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2006 Prentice Hall, Inc. 22-2

Cultural Relativism

holds that appropriate behavior in a

country or culture is determined by its laws

and customs. That is, what is moral isdefined by the customs within individual

countries.

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Relevance of Cultural Relativism

Helps avoid cultural stereotypes and sweepinggeneralizations

Facilitates adaptation by taking a dynamic rather

than a static view of cultures Helps to identify universal values like human dignity,

respect for basic rights, and good citizenship , which

determine the absolute moral threshold for all

business activities in all cultures .

Enables understanding the context when deciding

what is right and wrong.

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Philosophical Systems

Western Perspective

Islamic ViewConfucian Thought

Indian Systems

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WESTERN PERSPECTIVE

TELEOLOGICAL THEORIES

DEONTOLOGICAL- NORMATIVE THEORIES CONTEMPORARY VIEWPOINTS

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Teleological Theories

UtilitarianismJeremy Bentham & J.S.Mill

Distributive JusticeJohn Rawls

FOCUS ON ENDS

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Deontological Theories

Kantian PhilosophyImmanuel Kant

Ten CommandmentsBiblical Philosophy

Aristotles virtue ethics

FOCUS ON MEANS

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CONTEMPORARY VIEWPOINTS

Objectivism- Ayn Rand

Intuitionism-Henry More, GE Moore, Samuel

Clark Humanism-Kubasek, Brenan , Huang

Meta ethics- epistemology and ontology ofactions

Applied Ethics

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Teleological and Deontological Ethics Systems

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Utilitarianism : Basic Tenets

Utilitarianism is committed to the maximization of

good and minimization of harm and evil. Means to

achieve this is :

Cost and benefit analysis Risk assessment

Efficiency is key

Intensity of effect is important Focus on consequences rather than intentions

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What is Good?

Involves the fulfillment of at least one of these:

Pleasure : hedonistic view

Happiness : realization of goals: personal vs individual ?

Ideals : maximize ideal valuesmajority vs minority

Preferences : satisfaction of hybrid of values & goals

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Problems with Utilitarianism

Not always possible to calculate utility

Quantification of happiness, love, pleasure No common definition of what is good

Focus on greater good over smaller good

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Utilitarianism is most appropriate for policydecisions, as long as a strong notion of fundamentalhuman rights guarantees that it will not violaterights of small minorities

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CASE

You have a small business with thirty

employees. Five of them are of strong

adherents of a religion that a minority

practices in India. They have put a petition

that to be given holidays on days prescribed

by their religion , and this because , others

have holidays on theirs . Should you concede?

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A utilitarian response will be denying therequest simply because it does not serve the

interest of the larger group

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John Rawls : Distributive Justice

Starting point: The Original Position

self-interested men and women

maximizing personal welfare

seeking agreement and cooperation

People are free and rational

Correct inequality if they exist

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Veil of Ignorance

Ethical justice is measured by the capacity to act to

enhance cooperation among members of a society-

that which is determined behind the Veil of Ignorance.

Formulate rules as if we know nothing about

personal circumstances like social class, natural

abilities and wealth of people BUT we know enoughabout human welfare and human behavior

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Case

Your business is industrial chemicals . Some of

the countries you are exporting to have littleconcern for safe disposal of industrial waste and

this has put the health of citizens at serious risk.

Claims of rival companies and environmentalactivist has further complicated the situation.

One group says that disposal of waste is a

legislative matter ; while the other holds

everyone responsible . The media is also active inreporting such matters and you fear this will

tarnish your image . What should you do ?

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According to Distributive Justice the

company should continue its business in the

country ( under the veil of ignorance ) , and

assume that this country knows and wants to

solve its problems in its own way.

There is no need to impose sanctions or trade

barriers

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Moral theories tell us that lying & homicide are wrong &

helping those in need is a good thingvirtues and vices

The theories explain WHY these things are right or wrong.And give REASONSfor believing in them.

They illuminate grey areas, clarify difficult problems, andresolve conflicts.

Kant draws from what is applicable universally and ,fromreligious authority .

Deontology : Kants Metaphysics of Morals

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Supreme Principle of Morality

An action has moral worth if it conforms to therequirements of duty and is donefor the sake of duty.

Apersonis morally good if he/she can be counted on todo duty, motivated by a respectfor moral law

Eg Shopkeeper keeping honest prices as a duty and asense of morality and not for attracting customers.

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KANTS CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

Maxim Could it

becomeuniversal

Law?

Does it

treat

People

as an endsAnd not

simply

As a

means?

could the

maxim be

willed by

you and

agreed to by

everyone to

be the moral

laws for the

community

CI (1) CI (2) CI (3)

Fails the Categorical Imperative

IT IS NOT MORALLY RIGHT!

No No No

PASSES

(Three Formulations of the Categorical Imperative)

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CASE You are the CEO of a small manufacturing company

in Pondicherry( 15 employees). It has come to your

notice that that a rival company has gained illegal

access to one of your engineering secrets and

intends to use it for commercial gain. The use will

have an adverse effect on your commercial viability.Your legal advisors tells you that recourse to litigation

will be laborious , expensive and not stop the rival

from going ahead with use. senior management

advises you to hire a private investigator engaged tofind out information that can be used as a leverage (

blackmail)to restore the equity in power .

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Can hiring a detective be made a universal

law? ( C1)

When we engage in espionage we use people

as means against the other . ( C2)

Will every one agree to this kind of law ( using

detectives) to gain power equity ? ( C3)

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THE TEN COMMANDMENTS

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Law of Christ depends on 2 preceptsloving GOD and loving the

neighbor. God, in delivering the law to Moses, gave him TenCommandments written upon two tablets of stone

Forbid people from worshipping demons, heavenly bodies,

ancestors, lower elements like, fire and wind, etc.

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Prevents the misuse of any idols prepared primarily for worship-

SACRILEGE

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It is an insult to God because, when you swear by God, it is nothing

other than to call Him to witness; and when you swear falsely, youeither believe God to be ignorant of the truth and thus place

ignorance in God

Gods name can be taken for an oath, sanctification, expulsion of

adversary, confession, defense, make the work complete

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God created all things in six days, and rested on the

seventh.Encourage kindness to people for some are so

cruel to themselves and to others that they labor

ceaselessly all on account of money

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We receive nourishment from our parents in childhood,

we must support them in their old age

Rewards for this is Grace and Glory,- A long life withgrateful and pleasing children

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Execution of Criminals, suicide ,slander is prohibited

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Related to day to day routine activities as well as being

infidel. Any person who commits such a sin is liable for

punishment in future

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Treachery or stealing is considered to be a sin

Types of theft could be: by taking something stealthily,

not paying wages, fraud in buying and selling,

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Lying is prohibited because it likens one to the devil .

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Covetousness destroys peace of heart

Covetousness renders his riches useless both to himself and to

others, because he desires only to hold on to them

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CONTEMPORARY THEORIES

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Ayn Rands Objectivism

We should be free to pursue our self interest as long

as it does not infringe on another's.

The government is an agency to protect theindividuals rights

Business is free enterprise that brings wealth to thenation and should not be controlled

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Is unbridled freedom and liberty to act good

for business ? Will this benefit the society?

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Intuitionism

Good is an indefinable notion. The basic moral

truths are objective irrespective of how

anyone feels . We should pick our own moral

principles based on innate sense of right and

wrong. Existential philosophy is very close to

this .

Individualistic approach to ethics

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Humanism

Humanists theorize that ethics is an inherent

part of human condition ; that critical thinking

,reason and intelligence helps in setting values

and decisions about is right and wrong. A

offshoot of positive psychology .

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Applied Ethics

Create a code of ethics that can be applied (

normative)

Create an office to monitor its adherence

Conduct training programs to teach ethics

Create structural arrangements to help people

stay out of ethical dilemmas

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Deontological approach in designing ethical codes

Rights perspective - Fundamental rights are accorded to human beings of

all circumstances and backgrounds, such as the right to life, liberty,security of person, and freedom from enslavement.

Justice perspective -Demands respect for the dignity of every individual

through the application of objective and impartial decisions, or actions;

benefits, and punishments are allocated by society based on equality ofrights among all human beings. Includes distributive, retributive, and

compensatory types of justice.

Virtue ethics- Actions flowing from the disposition and internal qualities

of individuals who consistently strive to lead a moral life (e.g., ethicalbehavior via honesty, courage, modesty, compassion, integrity, and

charity). Core of Buddhist, Confucian, and many Native American ethical

traditions.

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CERES Principles:

Ten voluntary principles that commit signatories to

protection of the biosphere, sustainable use of

natural resources, conservation, reduction of wastes,

production of safe products, timely informing of thepublic regarding any health or safety dangers, and

other environmental goals.

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The Caux Principles

Formed by an organization of business leaders

from Europe, Japan, & the United States in

1986, these principles promote the sacredness

of each person (human dignity) and the valueof working together for the common good.

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The Caux Round Tables Principles for Business have

at their core two basic ethical ideals: kyosei and

human dignity.

he Japanese concept of kyosei refers to living and

working together for the common good, while

concept of human dignity refers to the sacredness of

each person as an end, not as a means to the

fulfillment of others purposes.

The Caux Principles combine elements of the ethic of

care (between participant countries) and those of

both human rights and virtue ethics.

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The Global Sullivan PrinciplesOriginally developed in the 1970s, eight principles for corporate

social responsibility related to justice, human rights,

tolerance,& equal opportunity in global operations to support

economic, social, and political justice by companies where

they do business; to support human rights and to encourage

equal opportunity at all levels of employment, including racialand gender diversity on decision making committees and

boards; to train and advance disadvantaged workers for

technical, supervisory and management opportunities; and to

assist with greater tolerance and understanding among

peoples; thereby, helping to improve the quality of life for

communities, workers and children with dignity and equality.

(Sullivan, 1997, para. 1)

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International Labour Organizations (ILO) Core

Labor Conventions

Adopted in 1982, seven core conventions have

been ratified by varying numbers of ILO

member-nations. These include freedom of

association & protection of the right toorganize, equal pay for equal work, abolition

of forced labor, elimination of discrimination

in access to employment, and the abolitionof child labor.

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Corporate Code of Ethics

Standards for vendors, contractors, manufacturers,

and employees, usually in the form of ethical

standards or codes of ethical conduct. These

standards cover issues including a safe and healthyworkplace, absence of forced or compulsory labor,

nondiscrimination, absence of coercion and

harassment, working conditions, fair wages, banning

of child labor, protection of the environment, andethical conduct

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Ethical Decision Making

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CaseTarget Marketing of Cigarettes

What is the nature ethical dilemma involved in the

case?

By applying principles of (1) Utilitarianism, (2)Distributive Justice , (3) Kants Deontology and (4)

Humanism principles what are the four business

decisions you will take

What are the gaps ( if any ) in the Western ethical

philosophies

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