Academic Writing for Postgraduate Study

Caroline MalthusTe Puna Ako Learning Centre

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Introductions• your name?

• What programme are you studying?

• Your comments on the text or image?

Slides will be available on Te Puna Ako Learning Centre Moodle

This session…

• The expectations of Unitec lecturers• Some key features of academic writing• The differences between descriptive

writing and critical analysis• The processes of paraphrasing, citation

and referencing

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What’s an assignment?

88--: Theories of L & T

Critique of Literature• Written critical analysis with

references• Evaluation of arguments

Online discussion• explain and evaluate a

concept• apply to teaching

88--: Business

Seminar presentation• on theory, issues and

innovations• spoken critical analysis with

references

Reflective report• Part 1: thematic literature

review• Part 2: practical application

and evaluation

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ISCG8021 Impact of Information Technology on Society

Assignment 1:

Presentation - 15%• Describe specific technology • Review literature, including

relevant research • Spoken critical analysis with

references

Report – 35%• A report on social issues

that could arise from the technology

Assignment 2:

Essay – 50%• …on theory, issues and

innovations• Critically analyse + evaluate• Identify issues in a

workplace setting• Formulate solutions• Evaluate solutions

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Discuss: What criteria do your lecturers have for assessing your assignments?

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Analyse the criteria:• Knowledge –• Critical analysis –• Argument – • Sources – • Structure – • Referencing –

Analyse the criteria:• Knowledge – topic, context, issues• Critical analysis – analysis, compare &

contrast; evaluation• Argument – writer’s ‘voice’ & thinking• Structure – follows question; logical order• Sources – range & use of evidence• Referencing – accurate APA (6th ed.)• Presentation and proofreading

Lecturers usually expect:

• responses to the questions they asked - RTQ• balance of theory and practice• a structure which follows the question• organised & logical paragraphs• some discussion of context – NZ or your own• evidence from expert texts, in your own words• accurate referencing - APA

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What are the features of academic writing?

Task: look at the text

Identify features that make the text academic

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Social psychologists, communication scholars, and those working in the business, information and organisational science areas were among the first to undertake research on email and other forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC). More recently linguists have begun to take an interest in this medium which may well be the dominant interpersonal communications medium in this millennium “approaching if not overshadowing voice” (Negroponte, 1995, p. 191). This paper outlines the growth of email over the last ten years, reviews research on the social and psychological effects of email and other forms of CMC, on the benefits of email in relation to other means of communication, and on the role of email in workplace politics. Research on different styles of email communication, including gender differences in email use is also summarised.

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Features of academic writing emphasised by lecturers

• A structure– Introduction– Body – Conclusion

• In-text references and a reference list• Ideas which are explained and linked in paragraphs• Reader knows where the writer is taking them

(tour guide - signposts)• Good presentation and proof reading

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What work does an academic writer do?

1. Conveys information / ideas about the topic / content

2. Conveys his/ her thinking and argument

Task: look at the 2 textsWhat is the writer’s purpose in each text?

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In the workplace, managers have generally been quick to see the possibilities

offered by this new communication medium. The closing years of the

twentieth century saw the introduction and widespread adoption of email as a

means of workplace communication. A sample of 900 people aged 13 and

above, conducted recently by NFO CM Research (NZ) (personal

communication, April 12, 2001) revealed that approximately 40% of people

employed full time have their own internet connection at work. These rates

are increasing at 2-3 percent per year. In some workplaces in the corporate

world email has become the pervasive communication medium to the extent

that at Microsoft for example, where probably 99% of communication takes

place via email, it is said that the phone never rings (Kinsley, 1996). © Unitec New Zealand 16

The role of email in promoting democracy in organisations and in

organisational politics has also been examined. It has been claimed

that email gives a voice to the voiceless and reduces status imbalance

(Sproull & Kiesler, 1992; Bishop & Levine, 1999). However,

experimental studies show that status differences persisted in both

face-to-face and electronic groups (Weisband, Schneider &

Connolly, 1995). ……Giving a voice to the voiceless does not

always produce positive effects from the point of view of an

organisation. Email can be and has been used to support disruptive

organisational politics. Romm and Pliskin (1997, p. 95) used the

term "virtual politicking" to describe this use. Their virtual

politicking model brings together data from a series of real-life

incidents in which email was used for political manipulation within

and between organisations. It makes two assumptions….© Unitec New Zealand 17

Both are important, but where should the balance lie?

Description

What…?Why is important?

Who says?How…?

Critical analysis

Why?How has it been

studied? How does x compare with y?

From what viewpoints?How useful?

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Descriptive and critical writing– both are important -where should the balance lie?

• What are the key concepts? • How have the key concepts

been defined?• What are the main points

given by writers on this topic?• If they did research, how did

they do it?• What conclusions did they

reach?

• What are the key issues?• In workplaces, how are these

concepts being applied?

• Who says? • How do one expert’s views

compare with another’s?• What are the links and

relationships between different ideas?

• What ideas / themes / theories / assumptions underlie the work?

• How similar or different are these?

• How do the ideas fit your context?

• How useful is the thinking of experts in relation to your practice?

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Some key words in critical writing:

analyse

evaluatesynthesise

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Critical writing in an assignment:• Analysis

– What is the topic, why important and what are the issues?

• Synthesis / Relationships– What views are expressed by different

experts / authors?

• Evaluation / Implications– Identify strengths and weaknesses– how do these ideas connect with practice?

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Making evaluative comments, e.g.

Some research on organisational culture does not fully apply to the New Zealand setting because …

These studies have emphasised ……, as opposed to….

It appears that further investigations are needed in order to…

This survey of the literature suggests that this approach might be less effective when….

Pointing out what’s not discussed:

To date the research has not addressed whether or not people who object to having scans are also likely to…

Begum and Mackintosh (2008) do not seem to have considered the more important question of whether…

The studies mentioned above appear to have some limitations mainly concerning …….

see Academic Phrasebank

Introduction

Aspect 1: include

evidence

Aspect 2: include

evidence

Aspect 3:(etc.)

Final summary and conclusion

Background, definitions of key terms and concepts – include evidence

Write in paragraphs• Paragraphs are the building blocks of academic writing

• A paragraph deals with one main idea

• This is usually stated at or near the beginning of the

paragraph

• The ideas is developed and discussed in the body of the

paragraph

• The idea is concluded in a way that leads to the next

paragraph

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It is often said that people need to drink 6-8 glasses of water per day to stay healthy and well-hydrated. However it is hard to find solid scientific evidence to support this claim (Valtin, 2002). Valtin points out that food contains some fluid, and also says it is not clear whether a range of different beverages can be consumed in place of water. A study by Le Bellego et al. (2010) compared a number of surveys aimed at investigating people’s actual fluid intake. They found it hard to compare conclusions because of differences in the ways the surveys were conducted. A later study (European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 2010) has concluded that guidelines on adequate intake of fluid need to consider factors such as type of fluid, environmental factors, energy output, age and health status. Clearly the topic is more complicated than the everyday advice suggests.

Building an argument

3 part structure to a critical argument:

1. Statement of the assertion or claim you are

making

2. Evidence to support that assertion – from

literature

3. The significance of the evidence is explained

Use topic sentences to organise and guide the reader

The inclusion of goals within discussion about leadership in the literature is almost standard. However the treatment of vision is more varied. While Weber (1987)refers to vision and philosophy, “a leader provides the guidance and central themes for … the general understanding of the school’s philosophy” (p. 6), he does not give guidance on how to convey this vision to staff or students or place it within his six function model. Starratt (2003), on the other hand, describes…

Tentative languagePhysical fitness is the most important factor in athletic performance (Lardner, 2003; Newcastle & Lind, 2005).

There is some evidence to suggest that physical fitness may be one of the most important factors in athletic performance (Newcastle & Lind, 2005).

Exercise: Tentative writing

1. Everyone needs to drink 6-8 glasses of water per day.

2. Business growth occurs as a direct result of targeted investment.

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Reflective writingPersonal writing, usually about learning and/or practice for you and/or organisation

Past Present Future

What happened in the past?

What’s happening now?

What would you do differently in future?

What learning was earlier practice based on?

What are you learning now? How is your thinking changing?

How can present learning influence your future actions?

Academic writing is…

• Supported / Backed up

• Based on careful reading of evidence

• Read and use appropriate sources / references

• Cite / Reference every source

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What is referencing?

…a standard method of acknowledging

the sources of information and ideas

that you have used in your

assignment.

APA referencing system

In-text references• in sentences in the body of the assignment• shows where you’ve used ideas and words of an

expert• includes name of author and year

Reference List• on a separate page at the end of the assignment• list of materials you have consulted

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APA (6th ed.)referencing

style

In-text

Direct quotations Paraphrases

Reference list

In- text referencing:

Paraphrasing:- ideas of experts in your own words

- show your own understanding of the writer’s ideas

- NEED REFERENCES

- (Cottrell, 2003).

- Use most

Quotation-exact copied chunks of text from experts

-NEED REFERENCES

(Cottrell, 2003, p. 134).

-Use least <20%

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Quoting:• copying exactly the words of the author(s). When quoting,

use quotation marks around the author's words, “academic success may be more a question of good strategy and of building upon experience rather than underlying intelligence"

• author's family name, year of publication, page number. For example (Cottrell, 2003, p. 134).

• Macfie (2002) points out that “sound policies, procedures and training are not necessarily enough to protect employers from prosecution” (p. 21).

Consider paraphrasing and quotation

Explaining other people’s ideas, in your own words

A process of rewriting ideas of expert writers

• Why is paraphrasing desirable?• When can quotes be useful?

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Original text

“The education system has performed, on an even wider scale, a major task of social control, training the growing workforce in the discipline and work style necessary in a capitalist economy, and systematically conveying ‘acceptable’ — i.e. safe — social attitudes to the rising generations”.

From: Jagtenberg, T. & D’Alton, P. (1988). Four Dimensional Social Space. Sydney: Harper & Row.

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Example of a paraphrase

As a form of socialisation, the education system has worked in two ways: teaching people appropriate ways of working in a capitalist society, and maintaining socially accepted attitudes and values (Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1988).Words in common in the 2 versions:Education system / economy / acceptable

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Use of in-text referencesOther researchers have also addressed the social effects of email. "Managers focussing only on the productivity benefits of email may fail to anticipate the larger social consequences" (Weisband & Reinig, 1995, p. 43). The headlines at the beginning of this paper illustrate at least two of these, namely, unwanted or inappropriate forms of communication, as well as worker stress from too much information, and being expected to reply quickly. This latter effect was identified in research into one Wellington workplace (Waldvogel, 1999).…..

…Related to social consequences is the whole issue of privacy, with its attendant human rights complications. In Britain, regulations have been drafted which give management the right to "snoop on" employee's emails and telephone calls without their consent to find out whether they are business-related or just gossip (Taranaki Daily News, 2000). A TVNZ Paul Holmes programme (October 12, 2000) suggests that this is becoming a major issue in New Zealand workplaces too.

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Where should an academic writer put citations?

This is a minor illustration of an issue that can no longer be dismissed as trivial. In August 2007 the World Health Organisation released the preliminary results of its research into the links between noise and stress. Its work so far suggests that long-term exposure to noise from traffic alone could be responsible, around the world, for hundreds and thousands of deaths through ischaemic heart disease every year, as well as contributing to strokes, high blood pressure, tinnitus, broken sleep and other stress-related illnesses. Noise, researchers found, raises your levels of stress hormones even while you sleep. As a study of children living close to airports in Germany suggests, it also damages long-term memory, reading and speech perception. All over the world, complaints about noise are rising: yet to an alien observer it would appear that the primary purpose of economic growth is to find ever more intrusive means of burning fossil fuels. Monbiot, G. (2007, October 12). Comment and debate: We should welcome a recession now. The Guardian Weekly, p. 18.

“Academic language is no-one’s mother tongue”

(Bourdieu & Passeron, 1994, p. 8).

We develop this language gradually… notice how other academic writers express ideas

Reading: process

• Determine your purpose– I’m reading this because I need to know…… ? – What are the questions or problems at the centre of your

assignment topic?• Decide what to read and how to read it• Engage critically with the readings

– Ask questions as you read• Organise your ideas

– List the important topics or themes to be covered• Write throughout the process – if you spend 30 min reading, take

5-10 mins to write about what was most useful or interesting or relevant

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Planning your writing• What are the main themes or topics to be

covered?• Start by pulling in everything that seems

important– Brainstorm all the important topics and headings to

cover, in a mindmap– Look for ways of clustering them into meaningful

groups• Then organise the material from the mind map into a

plan for writing– Look at examples: mindmap format; outline format

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An assignment/dissertation is a project with steps / phases:

Question analysisIdentifying themesLiterature searchReading and notemakingAnalysis and interpretationWriting up – as you goReferences – as you goA handy planning tool

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Start writing early

“Since you are never ready to write, you start writing before you are ready.”

George Watson

Get into the writing habit

• Don’t wait until you’ve worked out all your ideas; use writing to work out your ideas

• Accept that your first drafts will be imperfect

• Reading and research to exploratory drafts to polished writing

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Proofread 2-3x to check for:clear introduction and conclusionthe key or strongest points in response to the

question: are they at the beginnings of paragraphs?

is referencing accurate – in-text and in list?

Grammar, spelling, punctuation

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• Write with a planHave a set of headings or theme areas

• Write regularly and seek feedbackFrom your lecturerFrom a learning advisor (Learning Centre)

• Keep the reader(s) in mindAn educated, non-specialist readerIs your argument clearly stated? Have you answered the “so what” question?

References

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Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Godfrey, J. (2009). How to use your reading in your essays. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Swales, J., & Feak, C. (2004). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: A course for nonnative speakers of English (2nd Ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Waldevogel, J. (2001). Email and workplace communication: A literature review. Language in the Workplace Occasional Papers, 3, 1-12. Retrieved March 1, 2008 from http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/lwp/resources/occasional-papers.aspx

Wallace, M., & Wray, A. (2006). Critical reading and writing for postgraduates. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Useful links for academic writing:Unitec Moodle: Te Puna Ako Learning CentreSections

Postgraduate ResourcesAcademic WritingReferencing

Study ToolboxUniversity of Manchester. (2014). Academic

Phrasebank. Retrieved from http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk