The Skeletal SystemThe Four Functions of The Skeletal System   It supports the organs and tissues of the body. Without this support, they would collapse under

their own weight.  It provides protection for internal organs (e.g. lungs are protected by ribs, brain is protected by

the cranium)  It provides a base for the attachment of muscles and allows movement with the bones.  The bones are a source of supply of blood cells and store minerals required for the body to

function.  Types of Joints   Immovable/fibrous joints: these joints occur where the bones are fused together, so no

movement is possible (e.g. the joints on the cranium and pelvis)   Slightly movable/cartilaginous joints: these joints allow slight movement only, and have a

tough layer of cartilage between the bones (e.g. joints between the vertebrae)   Freely moveable/synovial joints: these allow for free movement in one or s number of

directions. The majority of joints in our body are synovial (e.g. hip, shoulder, knee, elbow)  Types of Synovial Joints    Gliding Joint: side to side or back and forth movements e.g. Between carpals and the tarsals    Hinge joint: flexion/extension e.g. Knee joints    Pivot joint: rotation e.g. Radius rotates over ions to move palm from up to down     Condyloid joint:  back and forth, side to side in two planes e.g. Joints between palm fingers    Saddle joint: abduction/adduction, flexion/extension but rotation is limited e.g. Ankle joint      Ball and Socket joint: maximum movement (rotation, flexion/extension, abduction/adduction) e.g.

Shoulder and hip joints    

Bones to Remember 

  Ribs/thorax  

 

  Cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum (5), coccyx (4) 

  Long bones: are longer than they are wide, function as levers   Short bones: have a short axis and are found in small spaces such as the wrist, they serve to

transfer forces   Flat bones: have a broad surface and serve as places of attachment for muscles and to protect

vital organs   Sesamoid bones: these are bones found in the body where tendons pass over a joint. They aim

to protect the tendon and increase movement.   Irregular bones: these are bones that do not fall into one of the above categories  Anatomical Reference Terms  Superior—towards the head 

o  for example, the chest is superior to the hips   Inferior — towards the feet 

o for example, the foot is inferior to the leg   Anterior — towards the front 

o for example, the breast is on the anterior chest wall    Posterior — towards the back 

o  for example, the backbone is posterior to the heart    Medial — towards the midline of the body 

o  for example, the big toe is on the medial side of the foot   Lateral — towards the side of the body 

o  for example, the little toe is on the lateral side of the foot   Proximal — towards the body’s mass 

o for example, the shoulder is proximal to the elbow   Distal — away from the body’s mass 

o for example, the elbow is distal to the shoulder  Ligaments:  

o fibrous bands that connect the articulating bones o restraining excessive movement, but can also control the degree and direction of movement

that occurs o Bone to bone 

  Tendons: 

o tough, inelastic cords of tissue that attach muscle to bone o Muscle to bone 

  Synovial fluid: 

o acts as a lubricant, keeping the joint well oiled o provides nutrition for the cartilage and carries away waste products 

  Hyaline cartilage: 

o layer of smooth, shiny cartilage that allows the bones to move freely over each other  Joint Movements  Flexion decreases the angle between the bones at the joint

Extension increases the angle between the bones at the joint

Abduction away from the midline of the body

Adduction body part towards the midline of the body

Inversion make the sole of the foot face inwards

Eversion make the sole of the foot face outwards

Rotation moving a body part such as the head or trunk around on its long axis

Circumduction circular movement of a body part

Pronation rotation of the hand and forearm that causes the hand to face palm downwards

Supination rotation of the hand and forearm that causes the hand to face palm upwards

Dorsiflexion movement that pulls the top of the foot towards the tibia

Plantar flexion pointing the toes   

The Muscular SystemFunction of Muscles   Produce movement to walk, run, jump, breathe, digest   Provide stabilisation of posture and internal organs   Generate heat to maintain body temperature   To locate muscle, we need the origin and insertion of the muscle 

o Origin of muscle is usually attached to bone (tendons)  

 Major Muscles   Smooth and cardiac muscles are voluntary muscles that the human body has no control over (e.g.

The heart)    Skeletal muscle is responsible for producing human movement; groups of muscles work together

to control movement patterns.   Muscle Relationship   Agonist: prime mover is the muscle causing the major action  

o Biceps during flexion (contracting)   Antagonist:  

o antagonist cause an opposite action to that caused by the agonist 

o Triceps during extension   Stabiliser: fixated muscles that act at a joint to stabilise it   Types of Muscle Contraction    Isotonic: length of the muscle will change, becoming longer or shorter   Concentric: muscles shorten to cause movement at the joint   Eccentric: muscle lengthens while under tension, often happens with assistance of gravity   Isometric: muscle fibres activate and develop force but muscle length does not change   Diagram of Muscular System  

 

 Muscular System Guide Trapezius Upper back muscle

Deltoid Shoulder muscle

Pectoralis major Breast muscle

Latissimus dorsi Side of torso muscle/upper level

Biceps brachii Upperside/top part of upper arm/humerus

Triceps brachii Downside of top part of upper arm/humerus

Obliques Side of torso muscle/lower level

Rectus abdominis Abs

Gluteus maximus Butt

Erector spinae Spine

Quadriceps femoris Top part of thigh

Hamstrings Under part of thigh

Gastrocnemius Calf muscle

Tibialis anterior Shin muscle

Soleus Muscle under calf

Sartorius On the medial side of the thigh

Achilles' tendon Ankle muscle

The Respiratory System

Respiration: the process by which the body takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide  Inspiration: inhaling, diaphragm contracts, chest cavity increases  Expiration: exhaling, diaphragm relaxes    Process of Breathing  1. Air enters body through nose or mouth. When entering through nose, passes through nasal

cavities and is warmed, moistened and filtered of any foreign material  2. The pharynx/throat is a common passage for air to the trachea/windpipe or food to oesophagus. It

leads from nasal cavity to larynx/voice box located at beginning of trachea 3. After entering the chest cavity or thorax, the trachea divides into right and left bronchus/bronchial

tube, which lead to the right and left lungs respectively  4. The inner lining of the air passages produces mucus that catches and holds dirt and germs. It is

also covered with microscopic hairs/cilia that remove dirt, irritants and mucus through steady, rhythmic movements 

 5. They are enclosed in the thoracic cavity by the ribs at the sides and the diaphragm (a dome-

shaped muscle) at the base. The light, soft, lung tissue is compressed and folded and, like a sponge, is composed of tiny air pockets  

 

Diagrams  

   

   Effects of Physical Activity     1. The rate and depth of breathing increases moderately, even before exercise begins, as the body’s nervous activity is increased in anticipation of the exercise  2. Once exercise starts, the rate and depth of breathing increase rapidly. This is thought to be

related to stimulation of the sensory receptors in the body’s joints as a result of the movement. Further increases during the exercise result mainly from increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the blood, 

 3. The increases in the rate/frequency and depth/tidal volume of breathing provide greater

ventilation and occur, generally, in proportion to increases in the exercise effort (workload on the body) 

  Parts of Respiratory System   Oral and Nasal Cavity: air containing oxygen from the atmosphere enters the body either through

nose or throat, when passed through the nose, the nasal cavities warm and moisten the air and filter of any foreign material 

  Pharynx: the nose or throat is a passageway for both air and food   Larynx: the larynx or voice box is a short passageway that connects the pharynx to the trachea. It

closes off the larynx ensuring food and liquids go to the oesophagus  

Trachea: or the windpipe is a passageway for air   Bronchi: the trachea divides into the right and left bronchus. These bronchi eventually branch into

bronchioles   Lungs: paired organs within the thoracic cavity. Each lung is divided into lobes, which receives

the bronchi. These eventually divide into alveoli, which are tiny air sacs. The gas exchange takes place within the alveoli 

The Circulatory System Circulatory/cardiovascular system is a network that distributes blood containing oxygen and

nutrients and collects wastes. It comprises the heart, arteries, blood and veins.  Consists of blood, heart and blood vessels (arteries, capillaries and veins)  Functions of Blood   transportation of oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removal of carbon dioxide and wastes   protection of body via immune system (white blood cells) and by clotting to prevent blood loss   regulation of body’s temperature and fluid content of body’s tissues.   Components of Blood   Plasma 

o a straw-coloured liquid mainly consisting of water  o substances such as plasma proteins, nutrients, hormones, mineral salts and wastes are

dissolved in plasma    Red Blood Cells 

o red blood cells are formed in bone marrow o their main role is to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body  o they contain iron and a protein called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin readily combines with

oxygen and carries it from the lungs to the cells o on average, men have 16 grams of haemoglobin per 100 millilitres of blood (as a percentage

of blood volume), while women average 14 grams per 100 millilitres of blood   White Blood Cells 

o white blood cells are formed in the bone marrow and lymph nodes o they provide the body with a mobile protection system against disease  o these cells can change shape and move against the blood flow to areas of infection or disease o most common types of white blood cells are phagocytes, which engulf foreign material and

harmful bacteria, and lymphocytes, which produce antibodies to fight disease   Platelets 

o platelets are fragments of cells found in blood and are responsible for clotting o prevents blood loss by clotting o bone marrow cells that have no nucleus o important in preventing blood loss when a blood vessel is damaged 

 

 

  Parts of The Heart 

  

  

   

  Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation   Pulmonary circulation is the flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart   Systemic circulation is the flow of blood from the heart to body tissue and back to the heart   Blood Pressure   Blood pressure refers to the force exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessel   Systolic pressure is the highest pressure recorded when blood is forced into the arteries during

contraction of the left ventricle (systole).   Diastolic pressure is the  lowest pressure recorded when the heart is relaxing and filling

(diastole).